c h a p t e r 16 why do economies grow?. c h a p t e r 16: why do economies grow? c h a p t e r 16:...
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C H A P T E RC H A P T E R
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Why Do Economies Grow?
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Why Do Economies Grow?
• Economists believe that there are two basic mechanisms that increase GDP per capita over the long term:
1. Capital deepening: an increase in the economy’s stock of capital—plant and equipment—relative to its workforce.
2. Technological progress: the ability to produce more output without using any more inputs—capital or labor.
• The role of education and investment in human beings in fostering economic development is called human capital.
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Economic Growth Rates
• A meaningful measure of the standard of living in a given country is real GDP per capita, or real GDP per person.
• Real GDP per capita typically grows over time. The growth rate of a variable is the percentage change in that variable from one period to another:
% G D PG D P in yea r 2 G D P in year 1
G D P in yea r 1
x1 0 0 %
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Measuring Economic Growth
• If the economy started at 100 and grew at a rate g for n years, then real GDP after n years equals:
G D P (1 0 0 ) Y E A R S L A T E Rn g n ( )1
• At 4% for the next ten years, GDP will be:
G D P (1 0 0 ) = 1 4 8 1 0 Y E A R S L A T E R ( . )1 0 0 4 1 0
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Measuring Economic Growth (Continued)
• To find out how many years it would take for GDP to double, we use the rule of 72: If an economy grows at x percent per year, output will double in 72/x years.
Rule of 72: Divide 72 by the annual Rule of 72: Divide 72 by the annual growth rate to determine the number of growth rate to determine the number of
years it will take to double in size.years it will take to double in size.
• For example, If a country has a 4 percent If a country has a 4 percent annual growth rate, then real GDP will take annual growth rate, then real GDP will take 18 years to double (72/4) = 18.18 years to double (72/4) = 18.
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Comparing the Growth Ratesof Various Countries
GNP Per Capita and Economic Growth
Country GNP Per Capita in 2001 dollars
Per Capita Growth Rate,1960-2001
United States $34,280 2.18%
Japan 25,550 4.16
Italy 24,530 3.07
United Kingdom 24,340 2.17
France 24,080 2.70
Costa Rica 9,260 2.50
Mexico 8,240 2.27
India 2,820 2.43
Zimbabwe 2,220 .82
Pakistan 1,860 .98
Zambia 750 -1.15.
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Are Poor Countries Catching Up?
• Economists question whether poorer countries can close the gap between their level of GDP per capita and that of richer countries.
• The process by which poorer countries catch up with richer countries in terms of real GDP per capita is called convergence.
• To converge, poor countries have to grow at more rapid rates than richer countries are growing.
• In the last twenty years, there has been little convergence.
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Capital Deepening
• One of the most important mechanisms of economic growth economists have identified is increases in the amount of capital per worker due to capital deepening.
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Capital Deepening (Continued)
• An increase in capital means more output can be produced.
• Firms will increase their demand for labor and, as they compete for a fixed labor supply, real wages will rise.
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Capital Deepening (Continued)
• How does an economy increase its stock of capital?
• The economy must increase its net investment.
• To increase net investment, gross investment must also rise.
• The amount of income available for investment comes from saving.
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Saving and Investment
• Total income minus consumption is saving. By definition, consumption plus saving equals income:
• At the same time, income—which is equivalent to output—also equals consumption plus investment:
• Thus, saving must equal investment:
CC + + SS = = YY
CC + + II = = YY
SS = = II
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Saving and Investment (Continued)
• This means, whatever consumers decide to save goes directly into investment.
• It follows that in order for the stock of capital to increase, gross investment must exceed depreciation.
• The stock of capital increases with any gross investment spending but decreases with any depreciation.
• However, as capital grows, depreciation also grows, eventually catching up to the level of gross investment, and putting a stop to the growth of capital deepening.
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How Does Population GrowthAffect Capital Deepening?
• Population growth, which increases the size of the labor force, will cause the capital per worker ratio to decrease.
• With less capital per worker, output per worker will also tend to be less because each worker has fewer machines to use. This is an illustration of the principle of diminishing returns.
PRINCIPLE of Diminishing ReturnsSuppose output is produced with two or more inputs and we increase one input while holding the other input or inputs fixed. Beyond some point—called the point of diminishing returns—output will increase at a decreasing rate.
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How Does the Government Affect Capital Deepening?
• The government can affect the process of capital deepening in several ways:
• Higher taxes will reduce total income. Assuming that households save a fixed fraction of their income, an increase in taxes will cause savings to fall.
• As the government drains savings from the private sector, the amount of total investment decreases, and there is less capital deepening.
• This occurs when the government uses the taxes collected from the private sector to engage in consumption spending, not investment. However, if the government taxes the private sector in order to increase investment, then it will be promoting capital deepening.
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How Does Trade Affect Capital Deepening?
• The foreign sector can also affect capital deepening.
• An economy can run a trade deficit and import investment goods to aid capital deepening. It can finance the purchase of those goods by borrowing and, as investment raises, GDP and economic wealth rises and the country can afford to pay back the borrowed funds.
• Trade deficits that fund current consumption do not aid in the process of capital deepening.
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The Key Role of Technological Progress
• Technological progress is the ability of an economy to produce more output without using any more inputs.
• With higher output per person, we enjoy a higher standard of living.
• Technological progress, or the birth of new ideas, is what makes us more productive. Per capita output will rise when we discover new and more effective uses of capital and labor.
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How Do We Measure Technological Progress?
• Robert Solow, a Nobel laureate in economics from MIT, developed a method for determining the contributions to economic growth from increased capital, labor, and technological progress, called growth accounting.
• Increases in A represent technological progress, or more output produced from the same level of inputs, K and L.
Y Y == F F((K,L,AK,L,A))
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How Do We Measure Technological Progress? (Continued)
Sources of Real GDP Growth, 1929-1982(average annual percentage rates)
Growth due to capital growth 0.56%
Growth due to labor growth 1.34
+ technological progress 1.02
Total output growth 2.92
Percentage Contributions to Real GDP Growth
Labor Growth46%
Capital Growth19%
Technological Progress
35%
• Total output grew at a rate of nearly 3%. Because capital and labor growth are measured at 0.56% and 1.34%, respectively, the remaining portion of output growth, 1.02%, must be due to technological progress. That means that approximately 35% of output growth came directly from technological progress.
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Examples of Growth Accounting
• From 1980 to 1985, the economies of Hong Kong and Singapore both grew at impressive rates of about 6%, yet the causes and results of growth in each country were very different.
• Singapore’s growth was attributed to increases Singapore’s growth was attributed to increases in labor and capital, while in Hong Kong in labor and capital, while in Hong Kong technological progress was the key to growth.technological progress was the key to growth.
• Residents of Hong Kong could enjoy the same Residents of Hong Kong could enjoy the same level of GDP but consume, not save, a higher level of GDP but consume, not save, a higher fraction of their GDP.fraction of their GDP.
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What Caused Lower U.S. Labor Productivity?
• Labor productivity is defined as output per hour of work for the economy as a whole.
• Labor productivity measures how much a Labor productivity measures how much a typical worker can produce with the current typical worker can produce with the current amount of capital and given the state of amount of capital and given the state of technological progress.technological progress.
• A significant slow-down in productivity in the A significant slow-down in productivity in the United States since 1973 meant slow growth United States since 1973 meant slow growth in real wages and in GDP.in real wages and in GDP.
• In recent years, there has been a resurgence In recent years, there has been a resurgence in productivity growth, which reached 2.5% in productivity growth, which reached 2.5% from 1994-2000.from 1994-2000.
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What Caused Lower U.S. Labor Productivity? (Continued)
• The period of slower labor productivity growth cannot be explained by reduced rates of capital deepening, nor by changes in the quality of the labor force.
• A slowdown in technological progress and higher energy prices have been linked by some economists to the slowdown in productivity.
U.S. Annual Productivity Growth, 1959-2002
Years Annual Growth Rate1959-1968 3.5%1968-1973 2.51973-1980 1.21980-1986 2.11986-1994 1.41994-2000 2.6
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Real Hourly Earnings and Total Compensation in the United States
• The slowdown in productivity growth also meant slower growth in real wages and in GDP since 1973.
• Total compensation did continue to rise through the 1980s and 1990s.
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How Have the Internet and Information Technology Affected GDP?
• “New economy” proponents believe the computer and Internet revolution are responsible for the increase in productivity growth in the last half of the 1990s.
• Productivity growth continued to be rapid, even during the recessionary period at the beginning of this century, when most economists believed it would slow down.
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What Causes Technological Progress?
• Research and development in science.Research and development in science.
• Government or large firms who employ workers Government or large firms who employ workers and scientists to advance physics, chemistry, and and scientists to advance physics, chemistry, and biology are engaged in technological progress in biology are engaged in technological progress in the long run.the long run.
• The United States has the highest percentage of The United States has the highest percentage of scientists and engineers in the labor force in the scientists and engineers in the labor force in the world.world.
• Not all technological progress is “high tech.”Not all technological progress is “high tech.”
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Research and DevelopmentFunding as a Percent of GDP, 1999
Research and Development Funding as a Percent of GDP, 1999
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Perc
en
t o
f G
DP
Total
Non-Defense
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What Causes Technological Progress? (Continued)
• Monopolies that spur innovation (Joseph Schumpeter).• The process by which competition for
monopoly profits leads to technological progress is called creative destruction by Schumpeter.
• By allowing firms to compete to be monopolies, society benefits from increased innovation.
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What Causes Technological Progress?
• The scale of the market.• Adam Smith stressed the importance of Adam Smith stressed the importance of
the size of a market for economic the size of a market for economic development.development.
• There are more incentives for firms to There are more incentives for firms to come up with new products and come up with new products and methods of production in larger methods of production in larger markets.markets.
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What Causes Technological Progress?
• Induced innovations.• Some economists emphasize that Some economists emphasize that
innovations come about through innovations come about through inventive activity designed specifically inventive activity designed specifically to reduce costs.to reduce costs.
• Education and the accumulation of Education and the accumulation of knowledge.knowledge.
• Modern theories of growth that try to Modern theories of growth that try to explain the origins of technological explain the origins of technological progress are know as progress are know as new growth new growth theorytheory..
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A Key Governmental Role: Getting the Incentives Right
• Governments must design institutions in a society in which individuals and firms work, save, and invest.
• One of the basic laws of economics is that individuals and firms respond to incentives.
• Policies that tax exports, lead to rampant inflation, or inhibit the growth of the banking and financial sectors can cripple the economy’s growth prospects.
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Human Capital
• Human capital is an investment in human beings—in their knowledge, skills, and health.
• In terms of understanding economic growth, human capital investment has two implications:
• Not all labor is equal. Individuals with more education will, on average, be more productive.
• Health and fitness affect productivity. If workers are frail and ill, they can’t contribute much to national output.
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New Growth Theory
• The work of economists that developed models of growth that contained technological progress as essential features came to be known as new growth theory, which accounts for technological progress within a model of growth-- technology is endogenous; it is a central part of the economic system.
• Economists in this field study how incentives for research and development, new product development, or international trade interact with the accumulation of physical capital.
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Coming Up (Ch. 17): International Trade