c-change working paper: new approaches to...

C-Change Secretariat (Canada) www.coastalchange.ca C-Change Secretariat (Caribbean) Telfer School of Management, c/o Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of University of Ottawa Social & Economic Studies (SALISES) 55 Laurier Avenue East University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Ottawa ON K1N 6N5 Canada Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies Tel: (613) 562-5800 Post 2933 Telephone: (868) 662-6965 Email: [email protected] E-mail : [email protected]

C-Change Working Paper:

New Approaches to Sustainable Development of Coastal Rural Communities

and Economies: Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in Grande Riviere, Trinidad

by

Michelle Mycoo Department Geomatics Engineering and Land Management The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad

email: [email protected]

and

Michael Sutherland Department Geomatics Engineering and Land Management The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad

email: [email protected]

C-Change Working Paper MARCH 2011

Published by the C-Change Secretariat (Canada)

Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa C-Change ICURA Working Paper Series No. 37

This document is prepared as a public discussion document among C-Change communities as part of the C-Change ICURA Project 2009-2015 (www.coastalchange.ca) and with the permission of the C-Change Secretariat (Canada). This paper has not been subjected to peer review or other review processes and does not necessarily represent the

position of individual C-Change Community Partners or researchers. This work is presented to encourage debate and enhance awareness of environmental change among coastal communities in Canada and the Caribbean.

© C-Change

Correspondence on this paper should be directed to the C-Change Secretariat, c/o C-Change Administrator, Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa,

55 Laurier Avenue East, Ottawa, Ontario CANADA K1N 6N5 email: [email protected] Telephone: +1 (613) 562-5800 x2933

mailto:[email protected]


http://www.coastalchange.ca/


C-Change Working Paper #37

Abstract

Sustainable development in the small island developing states (SIDS) of the Caribbean must simultaneously address natural resources degradation and the promotion of rural communities and green economies. The rich biodiversity found in coastal rural communities is often mismanaged for income-generation purposes without consideration for the survival of endangered species. Sea turtles are important specie in the rich biodiversity of some SIDS. They provide environmental services, attract tourists and help generate revenue in rural communities. However, among sea turtles, leatherback turtles are endangered species in some SIDS, and the threat of climate change and associated sea level rise (SLR), place further stress on their nesting sites. The loss of this endangered species would be significant in the context of community-based biodiversity protection and tourism-based sustainable livelihoods. This paper, using Grand Riviere, Trinidad as a case study, first seeks to examine scenarios of rising sea levels within the beach area applying a geographic information system model, and their implications for the loss of the beach and sensitive turtle nesting sites. Secondly, it will examine whether this community is addressing beach degradation and adaptation to climate change. Thirdly, the paper will explore adaptation measures to protect the nesting sites that are vulnerable to SLR. Finally, the paper will present key conclusions and recommendations. Keywords

Sustainable development; community-based ecotourism; sea turtles; climate change adaptation

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C-Change Working Paper: New Approaches to Sustainable Development of Coastal Rural Communities

and Economies: Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in Grande Riviere, Trinidad

1. Introduction In Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS), the rich biodiversity found in coastal rural communities is often unsustainably used for income-generation purposes without consideration for the future conservation of the natural resources that comprise this biodiversity. The symptoms of unsustainable development in rural communities are manifested in deforestation, slash and burn cultivation on steep slopes that trigger landslides, soil erosion, consequent downstream flooding and mangrove destruction. The loss of natural resources such as fragile rainforests, soil and water through malpractice is a major concern among SIDS. Climate change poses further threats to the natural resources of rural communities. Among the deleterious effects of climate change, with the potential to undermine the socio-economic base of coastal communities are sea level rise and storm surges. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected that global sea level may rise to 0.6m or more by 2100 (IPCC, 2007). All coastal communities are at risk, but those in developing nations and SIDS are especially vulnerable because of their limited adaptative capacity. A common practice among some rural communities in Caribbean SIDS is engagement in activity such as illegal poaching and beach sand removal that endanger sensitive species. A more recent trend in climate change and sea level rise also puts endangered species such as sea turtles at risk of extinction. Sea turtles in particular are vulnerable to aspects of climate change as their physiological attributes and behavior are sensitive to environmental changes (Hamann et al., 2007; Hawkes et al., 2009; Poloczanska et al., 2009; Witt 2009). The specific effects of climate change on sea turtles can be a loss of nesting and feeding habitats due to sea level rise, increased sand temperatures, increased ocean temperatures, changes in ocean currents and extreme rainfall events, which can increase the potentially lethal transfer of sediment to coral reefs and raise water tables, thereby flooding nests (World Wildlife Fund, 2007). They serve important roles in protecting coastal and marine habitats in that they contribute to the health and maintenance of coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuaries and sandy beaches. Sea turtles in particular are excellent indicator species for considering climate change conservation planning because of their interdependence on terrestrial and marine resources (Spotila and Standora, 1985; Janzen, 1994; Hawkes et al., 2007, 2009; Mitchell, et al., 2009; Telemeco et al., 2009). With climate change, beaches may become ‘natal’ and force turtles to shift nesting sites to more environmentally friendly conditions (Sea Turtle Conservancy, 2010). Limpus (2006) has argued that sand temperatures may become unfavourable for suitable incubation of turtle eggs, which would result in lower nest-site fidelity for leatherback turtles (Witt et al., 2008). In addition, the dispersal and availability of food for particular turtle species may be limited. As noted earlier, sea turtles play an important role in the marine ecosystem and therefore diminishing populations could have major ramifications. For example in Grande Riviere, Trinidad, villagers were convinced that leatherbacks frequented the beach because of the abundance of jellyfish (Harrison, 2005). In the food chain, the sea turtles main source of food is jellyfish and jellyfish in turn feed on fish larvae. Fewer sea turtles may lead to a bloom in jellyfish and an extinction in

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fish larvae (Fish et al., 2005; Fuentes, 2010). Additionally, changes in ocean currents may result in declines of turtles visiting the shores. Ocean currents are also vital to both juvenile and adult leatherbacks which use them for navigation and long-distance migration (Limpus, 2006). Over the last century, turtle nesting beaches have been greatly modified by coastal development (Burke, 2005). Built development along the coast can also be to the detriment of sea turtles. Artificial beachfront lighting associated with hotels, guest houses, restaurants, bars and jetties can adversely affect egg-bearing females and hatchlings because they lead to misorientation, that is move in the wrong direction, and disorientation which is an inability to orient in a constant direction (Witherington and Martin, 2003). This can cause death and severe harm to hatchlings by attacks from predators, exhaustion, and fatal encounters with vehicles. Empirical findings show that between 1998 and 2000, approximately 65% of the hatchlings on the south coast and 33% on the west coast of Barbados suffered from some form of hatchling disorientation. New approaches are needed that simultaneously address the degradation of natural resources, as well as threats from environmental phenomenon such as sea level rise, while promoting the sustainable development of rural communities and the rural economy. These approaches include the enabling of a community-based tourism economy and the insertion of the rural economy into the framework of a green economy using policy and market-based incentives. A major objective of this research is how to promote new approaches in community-based biodiversity protection and tourism-based sustainable livelihoods in rural communities Specifically, the paper seeks to determine how beachfront development and tourism related facilities can be accommodated without endangering sea turtle nesting sites and what adaptation measures can be used in response to sea level rise and possible beach erosion. Using Grand Riviere, Trinidad as a case study, the paper first seeks to examine scenarios of rising sea levels within the beach area and their implications for beach loss that will affect sensitive turtle nesting sites. A geographic information system model is used to map rising sea level scenarios and to determine which locations of the nesting area are vulnerable to change. Secondly, the paper will examine survey data on community resource use and innovative approaches to sustainable use of these resources, including beaches that form critical sea turtle nesting sites. Thirdly, it will explore other greening adaptation measures to protect the nesting sites that are vulnerable to sea level rise. Finally, the paper draws important conclusions and makes recommendations on the new approaches to natural resource utilisation that does not degrade these resources, adapt to the challenges of climate change, and at the same time promote sustainable livelihoods in the rural economy. 2. Background Since the production of the watershed Bruntland Report in 1987, several definitions of sustainable development have emerged. Still the formulation of the concept by the Bruntland Commission retains its currency and validity. The Commission defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. The sustainable development of rural economies involves seeking to maintain a delicate balance between natural resource usage and the promotion of socio-economic opportunities for rural communities at the present time, without limiting the prospects of the future generations to have access to these same resources and an improved quality of life. Recent years have seen the emergence of the concepts “green economy” and “green growth” in

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international policy circles. Green Economy is one of the themes to be discussed at the upcoming United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, to be held in 2012, 20 years after the Rio Earth Summit. The emergence of this concept as a driver for national and international policies poses numerous questions in relation to “older” concepts, not least of which is sustainable development. One of the emerging questions is whether the concept of a green economy is a useful way of framing policy discussions and policymaking to promote sustainable development. Another question is how does a green economy agenda empirically relate to the agenda of poverty eradication and social development. The concept of the green economy is meaningful in contextualising policy debates and policymaking to promote sustainable development. The high dependency of rural economies of Caribbean islands on natural resources utilisation and the long historical practice of unsustainable land use activities such slash and burn cultivation, harvesting of tropical rainforests for lumber and fuel wood, mass tourism that degrades beaches and coral reefs, and poorly regulated fishing techniques, all compromise the achievement of sustainable development. Direct valuation of the islands’ diverse natural capital and ecosystems services and an estimation of the externality costs of degrading them are necessary. With knowledge of these estimates, policy reforms can be taken towards promoting a green economy in all the key sectors, which will improve human well-being and inter-generational and intra-generation social equity, while lessening environmental risks and ecological scarcities associated with unsustainable resource exploitation to promote rapid economic growth. Community-based ecotourism is an important component of the green economy of rural regions. The prospects for rural agriculture and fishing as sustainable livelihoods for the poor are limited so that other income-generating alternatives must be given prime attention. Tourism is an alternative, non-consumptive, natural resource-based livelihood that offers alternative feasible options, though constraints must be overcome if the poor are to benefit from any stimulus in this sector. Tourism has not been a successful income-generating activity for poor rural communities in the Caribbean for several reasons. One is the limited access of the poor to a tourism market dominated by well-established and connected elites. Generally, the poor face a virtual monopoly by the economic elite that understands the advantages of economies of scale, is able to work with the existing regulations, and capitalises on incentives that in any event favour large operations, as the incentive legislation is biased. The other constraint is the lack of marketing. An additional limitation is that product quality is not to international standards that would attract tourists in search of luxury and pampering. The amenities and ancillary facilities at the village level are too unsatisfactory to make the product attractive. Other problems include existing policy framework rigidities, including land tenure, the regulatory context, and the planning process, though there is government commitment to an enabling policy framework, to unlock opportunities for the poor. Community-based tourism interventions are required to increase the net benefits for the poor from tourism, and ensure that tourism growth contributes to poverty reduction. It should involve a combination of eco-tourism with its emphasis on conservation with that of community-based tourism and its concentration on local people’s involvement. In the case study of Grande Riviere, community-based tourism is centred on the leatherback turtle. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (2009) the leatherback turtle (the ‘gentle giant’) is the largest of all the living turtles and listed as a critically endangered species. An estimated 10,000 visitors (excluding the number of one-day visitors to

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the community) travelled to Grande Riviere in 2006 to see the turtles (Harrison, 2005). As will be discussed later, the community sees the leatherback turtles as providing benefits in terms of income generation. Since the 1980s, the government has taken steps to preserve leatherback turtles (James and Fournillier, 1993). On an international scale, Trinidad and Tobago became party to several international and regional conventions relevant to marine life conservation. These include the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 (CBD) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 1973 (CITES) (Waylen, 2005). On the national level, the Environmental Management Authority was set up in 1995 (Leach and Fairhead, 2001) which allowed for the designation of animals needing special protection as ‘Environmentally Sensitive Species’ (ESSs), and sites needing development control as ‘Environmentally Sensitive Areas’ (ESAs) (Waylen, 2005). Grande Riviere was assigned Prohibited Area status in 1997 (Lee Lum, 2005). Sea level rise poses threats to sea turtle nesting at Grande Riviere. Studies conducted by the Institute of Marine Affairs in 2005 concluded that the Grande Riviere beach was eroded over the past years, The question raised was whether climate change and sea level rise were the main causes of beach erosion in this location (Lee Lum, 2005). The following section of the paper describes the methodology used by this study to determine sea level rise scenarios and highlights the implications for turtle nesting at Grande Riviere. 3. Methodology for Creating the Sea Level Rise Scenarios The sea level rise scenarios were created using topographic and hydrographic field survey data that were collected and imported into, and modelled using a GIS. The methodological approaches were chosen to maximise the use of the best available secondary spatial data, and to supplement that with primary field data where appropriate. Absolute local sea level rise was modelled: neither subsidence nor uplift of the proximate coastal landmass was taken into account. Coastal dynamics relevant to the study site were also not taken into account. In effect, the model represents an overlap of projected sea level rise upon a temporal snapshot of the state of the coastal environment. Mean Sea Level (MSL) at Grande Riviere was estimated via a tidal datum transfer from Toco fishing village where a tide gauge is located. Simultaneous tidal observations (done at both Toco fishing village and Grande Riviere), tide reductions and precise leveling were used to establish MSL at Grande Riviere. Topographic surveying techniques were used to obtain 2010 data and to update previously collected secondary data on buildings, building heights, roads, and property boundaries. This field survey technique was also used to obtain beach profiles and as well to obtain spot heights along the beach. The primary topographic survey data collected at Grande Riviere were then processed and imported into ArcGIS (ArcMap). The primary and secondary datasets were then used in ArcMap (3D Analyst) to create a 3D model of Grande Riviere and environs. The model has a horizontal accuracy of ±0.02m and a vertical accuracy of ±0.20m. The model was then classified to the appropriate sea level rise projection intervals needed for the model simulations. Selected IPCC projections were used to digitize various flood polygons, simulating sea level rise (i.e., 0.4m,

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0.5m, 0.6m, 0.8m, 1m etc. above MSL). 2D and 3D visualizations of sea level rise scenarios at Grande Riviere (using ArcMap and ArcScene respectively) were then created. The results are outlined and displayed in the following section. Spatial Results and Analyses Some of the sea level rise impact visualisations that result from the application of the foregoing methodology are illustrated in Figures 1 to 8 below. Figures 1 and 2 show 2D and 3D views, respectively, of mean sea level at Grande Riviere beach. Crudely measured, using the area measuring tool in ArcMap, the beach area where the leatherback turtles nest is approximately 4700 m2.

Figure 1: MSL at Grande Riviere Beach

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Figure 2: MSL at Grande Riviere Beach (3D)

At a simulated 0.4m sea level rise above MSL (Figures 3 and 4), approximately 2060 m2 of the beach may be lost, either to inundation or beach retreat. This represents approximately 44% loss of turtle nesting habitat. Private property boundaries also are impacted.

Figure 3: Simulated 0.4m above MSL at Grande Riviere Beach

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Figure 4: Simulated 0.4m above MSL at Grande Riviere Beach (3D)

Figures 5 and 6 show simulated 0.6m sea level rise above MSL. At this level, approximately 2900 m2 (or approximately 60%) of turtle nesting habitat may be lost to inundation or beach retreat. Private property boundaries continue to be impacted.


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Figure .6: Simulated 0.6m above MSL at Grande Riviere Beach (3D)

Figures 7 and 8 show simulated 0.8m sea level rise above MSL. At this level, approximately 3200 m2 (or approximately 68%) of turtle nesting habitat may be lost to inundation or beach retreat. Private property boundaries continue to be impacted. Additionally, physical infrastructure in the form of a beachfront hotel building begins to be physically impacted.


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Figure 8: Simulated 0.8m above MSL at Grande Riviere Beach (3D)

Although the spatial sea level rise model created represents an overlap of projected sea level rise upon a temporal snapshot of the state of the coastal environment, it is useful as an indicator of potential sea level rise impacts upon the natural environment and community infrastructure. With these projected scenarios it is possible to determine the extent of beach loss and its impact on sea turtle nesting. The model therefore can assist in determining appropriate hard or soft adaptation strategies for climate change and sea level rise. The following section of the paper examines the village of Grande Riviere in relation to its use of the beach and turtle nesting sites. It utilises survey data collected on households in Grande Riviere in 2010. 4. Grande Riviere Profile and Community Adaptation to Climate Change Grande Riviere is a small village of a total area of 5117 hectares located on the north east coast of Trinidad. Data was collected from a community survey of Grande Riviere conducted for the BIOLAC/ICURA research project. This questionnaire was administered to 101 households. The survey consisted of sections which asked questions pertaining to demography, ecosystem services, the link between eco-tourism and leatherback turtles, and climate change. The results are discussed below. The questionnaire revealed that the economy of Grande Riviere was narrowly based on natural resources used by the agricultural, fisheries and forestry sectors. Furthermore, according to the national census conducted in 2000, approximately 55% of the community was unemployed. Of those who were employed, most persons were employed in the agricultural, fisheries and forestry (36%) and elementary sectors (29%). Additionally, 3% of the individuals were involved in craft. About 15% of the respondents or their family members worked as tour guides at Grande Riviere Bay, and of this 15% approximately 67% earned income from tour guiding.. Given the high unemployment in this rural community, the state has played a major role in employment provision. Over 60 jobs were created by the government via the Regional Corporation, the Community-based Environmental Protection and Enhancement Programme, the Unemployment



Relief Programme, and the National Reforestation and the Watershed Programme (Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI), 2010). Ecotourism activities in Grande Riviere revolve around its biodiversity resources (CREP, 2002). Leatherback turtle watching is one of the main attractions and is characterised by a significant

seasonal inflow of both local and foreign tourists during the months of March to August annually. An estimated 84% of the respondents in the survey agreed and strongly agreed that the visitors to Grande Riviere came mainly to see the turtles. Figures 9, 10 and 11 show leatherback turtles returning to the sea after nesting on the sandy beach at Grand Rivere. In 2006, there were an estimated 10,000 visitors in Grande Riviere (Harrison, 2005). Hiking along the nature trails to the Matura National Park, sea and river bathing, and bird watching also contribute to Grande

Riviere’s high ranking as a tourist attraction.

Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11

Turtle returning to sea Turtle returning to sea Turtle assisted by tour guides Several community-based organisations have been established to protect the leatherback turtle and its nesting habitat. These include the Grande Riviere Nature Tour Guide Association (GRNTA), the Grande Riviere Environmental Action Trust (GREAT), the Grande Riviere Tourism Development Organisation (GRTDO), the Toco Foundation, Stakeholders Against Destruction for Toco (SAD for Toco) and the Matura to Matelot Network. The Toco Foundation via Radio Toco broadcasts information about the leatherback turtle laying season and other features regarding wildlife and conservation (De-Light and Thomas, 2005). Also, at the governmental level, the Forestry Division in collaboration with the Grande Riviere Nature Tour Guide Association (GRNTA), regulate public activity on the beach during nesting season. Between 6pm and 6am access to the beach is prohibited without the purchase of a permit which costs TT$5 (CREP, 2002; Onwuka, 2004). All of the respondents in the survey were in favour of turtle conservation and protection, which is partly explained by the turtles being the main attraction for visitors to Grande Riviere. An estimated 88% of those persons interviewed indicated that the employment created by the tourism industry that developed around turtle nesting at Grande Riviere was either very important or moderately important. The same percentage of respondents believed that significant business opportunities may be generated in the future by ecotourism activity in the community. Nearly all the survey respondents (94%) either strongly agreed or agreed that the turtles were important to the existing and future development of the community. The majority of them indicated that attracting more visitors would have a positive impact on Grande Riviere’s community and economy. At least half the respondents would like to participate in a training course on small and medium sized eco-tourism business management.



Although approximately 97% of the survey respondents indicated that turtle nesting had increased, a significant finding of this paper is that the community-based tourism activity of tour guiding in relation to turtle nesting and the small guest house facilities may be both vulnerable to climate change. The GIS studies conducted to model sea level rise in the case study location revealed that in the various sea level rise scenarios, not only may over 50% of the turtle nesting habitat be lost to inundation or beach retreat, but legal private property boundaries may disappear and beachfront hotels and other structures will begin to be physically impacted. A community-based tourism approach that is sensitive to the threats of sea level rise and erosion is needed. It can continue to promote eco-tourism to support the rural economy and communities, but the approach must actively engage the community in the use of adaptation measures to protect the key natural resources of the beach and leatherback turtles. The following section of this paper discusses the adaptation measures needed to protect community-based ecotourism that revolves around leatherback turtle nesting, tour guiding and visitor accommodation. 5. Adaptation to Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Site visits and satellite imagery revealed that there are small guest houses and car parks along the beachfront at Grande Riviere. Figure 12 shows the guest house directly on beachfront in proximity to the leatherback turtles nesting site. These existing buildings cannot be setback, but all future new built development in the beach area should be informed by setback distances. Additionally, the community has not taken any measures to arrest beach erosion such as re-vegetation of the coast or beach nourishment. Furthermore, structural measures such as seawalls, groynes, revetments and breakwaters have not been built to address beach dynamics, including erosion (See Figure 13). Several of these options exist as adaptation measures, but must be carefully selected in accordance with the characteristics of Grande Riviere Bay.

Figure 12 Showing guest house directly on beach



Figure 13 Showing narrow beach and some property with no hard engineering structures used

for coastal protection Adaptation measures can be categorised as ‘hard’ or ‘soft.’ Hard measures involve beach armouring (coastal engineering), whereas soft measures are conservation and management programmes and legislative provisions that have been formulated in response to climate change. Hard Measures The construction of seawalls, rock revetments, riprap, sandbag installations, groynes and jetties are used in an attempt to adapt to climate change (Burke et al., 2004). However, beach armoring can result in accelerated erosion, which can hamper female turtles from accessing suitable nesting sites. Various examples throughout the Caribbean confirm this. In Barbados, seawalls (Lewis, 2002) have contributed to a decline in turtle nests (Choi et al., 2009). Therefore, it is recommended that hard engineering options be regarded only as a last resort. They are also expensive to construct and maintain as was found in Barbados. In light of these findings elsewhere, hard measures should only be used if the beach erosion at Grande Riviere is severe and needs immediate remedial action. Soft Measures Setbacks have several advantages over traditional beach protection structures (Fish et al., 2008). They provide a buffer area that can simultaneously accommodate the naturally dynamic nature of beaches (French, 2006). Setbacks ensure the preservation of sufficient beach habitat for turtle nesting and beach area for tourism-related recreation. They also provide protection for coastal property (Hayes, 1985) and lessen the likelihood that local residents are excluded from the beach. Additionally, setbacks enhance the probability that artificial lighting will not shine directly on the beach (Belle and Bramwell, 2005) and affect turtle nesting. Setback regulations are a pre-emptive retreat strategy (Fish et al., 2008) and are less expensive than hard engineering measures. Coastal development setback guidelines differ depending on shoreline characteristics and typically range from 15m to 100m from the line of permanent vegetation and provide buffer zones between the ocean and coastal infrastructure. However, setbacks cannot be implemented



overnight. The specific setback distance for Grande Riviere should be informed by rigourous scientific research on the highest contour normally reached by the high seas, long-term trends in erosion, short-term storm effects, wave uprush, wind forces and existing development. Beach restoration (or renourishment) is an adaptation technique used on Caribbean islands, but it is not popular. However, if restoration is unavoidable, replacement sand should be similar (grain size, organic content) to that which was eroded, thereby maintaining the suitability of the beach for the incubation of sea turtle eggs. It should be noted that restoration should never occur during nesting and hatching seasons when heavy equipment and activity can deter nesting, crush eggs, and/or prevent hatchlings from successfully digging out of the nest. Steinitz et al. (1998) and Rumbold et al. (2001) have published data demonstrating that the number of nests decreases and the number of false crawls (unsuccessful nesting attempts) increases immediately following the renourishment of a beach. Crain et al. (1995) concluded that while beach restoration projects may enhance some nesting areas, in general the effects for sea turtles are negative. Ecosystem-based adaptation measures to climate change have become popular in recent times. One such example is re-vegetating beaches. It is a relatively cheap measure and has benefits ranging from cooling beaches through shading, reducing beach erosion by stabilising sediment to mitigation of greenhouse gases by acting as a carbon sink. In addition, tree planting is an ideal activity to adapt in coastal areas as it can easily be made into a community activity, involving all ages, the results of which are obvious and tangible. The shade of trees along the beach has been shown to reduce the incubation temperature in exposed beach areas by 2 to 3 degrees centigrade. Witherington et al. (2003) argue that light pollution has been affecting sea turtles during nesting periods. They recommend a variety of effective management solutions to alleviate this problem. For example, artificial lighting onshore can discourage egg-bearing females from coming ashore to nest. Light inspections to determine the lights which caused the highest amount of light pollution are required. Other remedial measures include reducing light wattage, shielding light sources using appropriate designs, recessing luminaries into roof soffits, the use of lower pole-mounted luminaries, installing timers and motion detectors and alternative long-wavelength light sources. Greening measures include ecological alternatives such as the use of native vegetation as light screens and the enhancement of dune profiles. Another measure that can reduce the effects of artificial light-pollution on sea turtles is the use of sea-turtle friendly site programming and planning. This involves the choosing of a site and building design that has a minimal site coverage which minimises the disruption of the existing ecosystem upon which turtles and their hatchlings depend. Parking lots should also be carefully sited away from the beach site to ensure that light pollution from cars does not disturb the sea turtle nesting zone. Light fixtures for car park lighting should be placed as low as possible and the use of long wavelength lamps and black opaque baffles is recommended so that it does not directly, indirectly or cumulatively illuminate the beach (Choi and Eckert,2009). Manual nest relocation is another option for adapting to climate change and it can be a community-based employment activity. In Grenada, in the case of Levera Beach the current management strategy includes manual relocation of individual nests laid in unsuitable areas. In 2005, 20 out of 42 nests laid in the affected area were relocated to more suitable sites, due to projected impacts from the runoff. Without these relocations, up to 10% of the total nests laid during the study period may have been lost due to impacts of runoff from the development site. Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a continuous and dynamic process that addresses



the use, development and protection of coastal areas. It aims to manage human activities within the coastal zone and consequently address conflicts among the different resource users. The process unites government and the community, science and management, sectoral and public interests. ICZM also considers the options for expanding employment opportunities using local natural resources and skills. ICZM recognises the importance of community-based tourism as a means of offering a possible way to encourage small-scale, locally-owned tourism enterprises that can generate employment and revenue at the community level, contribute to reducing fiscal leakages, and reduce the impact of large numbers of visitors on the environmental landscape. ICZM also promotes the community-based coastal resources management approach. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) have also been integrated on a national and local level and aim to ensure development can take place without destroying the environment. The Environmental Management Agency of Trinidad and Tobago should evaluate all new coastal development projects and therefore have an opportunity to recommend that measures be adopted, which ensure the protection of turtle nesting and foraging sites. The benefits of this integrated management are clear as conservation and planning efforts are more likely to succeed if they incorporate all potential influences on the system. Moreover, countries around the world have signed on to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) (Sea Turtle Conservancy 2010) which controls international trade of endangered and threatened species. Some of the most significant nesting beaches in the world are legally protected by WCR governments. These include the Prohibited Areas of Fishing Pond, Matura, and Grande Riviere in Trinidad (Bräutigam & Eckert 2006). In addition to that, the topic of the status of marine turtles in the Caribbean region has been discussed in intergovernmental meetings devoted to defining and addressing issues of shared management concern have been convening in the WCR for more than two decades (e.g., Bacon et al. 1984; Eckert and Abreu Grobois 2001; IUCN 2002). Two treaties – the Convention on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region and the more recent Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles are specific to the region and provide a strong basis for collaboration and co-ordination in addressing threats to marine turtles and the ecosystems upon which they depend (WIDECAST, 1992). In summary, both hard and soft adaptation measures exist to protect the biodiversity of coastal environments from sea level rise. The hard measures are a last resort because they can destroy the turtle nesting sites. On the other hand, the soft measures are less expensive, can permit community participation in implementation and monitoring, and create jobs. 6. Conclusions and Recommendations Grande Riviere is a rural coastal community that suffers from high poverty levels with less than half of the working population unemployed. According to the survey findings, the economy is mainly dependent on agriculture, fisheries, forestry and elementary activity. However, the outlook for ecotourism is positive especially because of sea turtle nesting, which attracts many stay-over visitors and helps generate income for tour guides, guest house operators and restaurants and bars. A community-based ecotourism approach as is practised in Grande Riviere can be further developed to help income generation in this rural community. This involves tour guide training and hospitality training for bed and breakfast operators from within the village.


http://www.conserveturtles.org/cites.php

http://www.conserveturtles.org/cites.php


Although the spatial sea level rise model created, represents an overlap of projected sea level rise upon a temporal snapshot of the state of the coastal environment, it is useful as an indicator of potential sea level rise impacts upon the natural environment and community infrastructure. A key finding of this paper, based on the GIS modeling is that ecotourism in Grande Riviere is threatened because more than 50% of the beach area would be lost when different sea level rise scenarios are applied. Leatherback turtle nesting sites, upon which ecotourism is dependent, would be destroyed. It can be concluded that new approaches are needed to address natural resources degradation while promoting community-based sustainable ecotourism. Integrated coastal zone management is part of the approach that can be promoted to achieve these sustainable development objectives. As a first step, an economic valuation of the beach and turtle nesting sites should be conducted to determine the importance of these natural resources that are an integral part of the green economy. Furthermore, it is only in establishing the extent of beach loss based on the sea level rise scenarios used in the model and the value of these natural assets can the appropriate measures be used to adapt to climate change impacts. The adaptation options that are available include hard engineering measures and soft measures. Hard measures may involve limited community input in construction and maintenance, but the implementation of soft measures such as beach nourishment will require greater community involvement and will generate employment and income for the population of this rural community. Overtime, the only other adaptation measure that can be taken would be the relocation of guest facilities further inland. This paper has provided discussion on the options available, but these must now be taken further by examining the most feasible measures, using social-cost benefit analysis, so as to determine which are appropriate for the local communities to build their adaptive capacity for climate change and sea level rise. Finally, while a community-based ecotourism approach and a community-based coastal resources management approach can help to alleviate rural poverty and at the same time protect the rich biodiversity of the rural village, the political will is needed to place emphasis on achieving a green economy and building capacity and resiliency among coastal communities to adapt to the challenges of climate change and sea level rise. The research community can only do its part in documenting lessons learnt and international best practices. It is left to the policymakers to up-take these findings and translate them into action by working in partnership with researchers and communities.



7. References Bacon, P.R. and G. K. Maliphant. (1971) Further Studies on Sea Turtles in Trinidad and Tobago

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