byzantine chapter ap

8/6/2019 Byzantine Chapter AP

1/16

:. CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTIUM 325::lr '.:.

Political grievances also strained relations between Byzantium and western Euro-lands. During the fifth and sixth centuries) imperial authorities could do littlehr. t'h*q-.tch as Germanic peoples established successor states t v{he westernfrnan empQisigoths, Vandals, Franks, and others imposed ft tule ot'r landsgtByzantine emleqgrs regarded as their rightful inheritancSffrorse yet) some of

[d.,upr,rrt powers claidb(imperial authority for themselveyXn 800, for example, theiinkish ruler Charlemagn\eceived an imperial croytd from the pope in Rome,treby direcrly challenging Byz\tine claims to rmpy)d authoriry over western lands.lemagne's empire soon disso but in 9 9T Otto of Saxony lodged his ownto rule as emperor over the west-fu landg6f the former Roman empire. Addingry to insult, Otto then attacked lartd$ i uthern Italy that had been in Byzantineession since the days of Justinian. Ltudprandof Cremona

iiliudprand despised Byy'ntine food, drink, dress, and shelter, and\denounced his

BnznruTrNE EcoNoMY AND SoctETYf;-fuzantium dominated the political and military affairs of the eastern MediterraneanLloe"ty because of its strong economy. Ever since classical times, the territories embracedF..-o-_/ -'-o -------'J -F.,Uy rtr. Byzantine empire had produced abundant agricultural surpluses, supported largefi:rnumbers of crafts workers, and partrcipated in trade with lands throughout the Mediter-i.i.,-.-.^^"-. " _-- r-. _--r _-- .^- _ _-- _ _il,ranean. The economic and social assets of the eastern Mediterranean did not disappear["*lrtt the ciassical Roman empire. Instead, they continued to provide a solid material*... " ^*^ -^^'r^^ -'v; foundation for Byzantium, and rhey helped to make the Byzantine empire an economic

il'po*.rhouse of the postclassical era.Rural Economy and. SocietyUntil its conquest by Arab forces, Egypt was the major source of grain for Byzantium.Afterward, Anatolia and the lower Danube region served as the imperial breadbasket.All these lands produced abundant harvests of wheat, which supported large popula-tions in Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Antioch, Trebizond, and other major cities.Throughout most of Byzantium's existence, Constantinople was the largest ciry inEurope: between the fifth and the eally thirteenth century, its population approachedor exceeded one million people. Only on the basis of a reliable and productive agri'cultural economy was it possible for a city of this size to survive and flourish.Byzantine economy and society were stlongest when the empire supported a largeclass of free peasants who owned small plots of land. Besides serving as the backbone ofthe Byzantine military system, free peasants cultivated their land intensively in hopes ofimproving their families' fortunes. As in other societies, however, wealthy individuals

The Peasantry


2/16

326 PARTIIIITHEPoSTCLASSICALERA,5O0ToI000C.E.

ManufacturingEnterPrises

andfamiiiessoughttoaccumulateland,thegrinclq|source of weakh in Byzantrum as elsewhere . Especiallyin the early cenntries of the Byza*ine empire' wealthycultivators ran large estates and supervtttd the peas-antryaSadepend.entclass,Peasanmdidnotbecomeslaves, bur ,r.ia"r did they remain entirely free' some-times they **r. bound to the land, forbidden to de-part without permission of their lords' other timesth.y worked, r-rnder sharecropping arrangements' wh ere bylandl0rds contracted randless peasanrs to curtivate theirlands in exchange for a large pordon of the yield'Rarely did sharecroppers accllmulate enough wealthto gain their irrd.epe,,d.,,.., often they worked theSameholdingsforyears-orforlife-ontermssetbythelandlords' , , -r^TheinvasionsofthesixthandSeventhcenturlesbroke up many large estates and afforded peasants an'opportu,'irvio"ulnasmalln:l*f JT"'!{^*,'rli;

ened the peasantry' L)ver tne lorrB LUr'r) the peasants intoi{larger estates. From the eleventh century onward'' they transformedan increasingtv a'p';;;;il;; ot tl:^*ife'enth centurv free Peasants ac'':{Decrineof il"u*3;nTilT3:::f:i,.:.fiiTH$-*H1,,**o,*gs hadi-po,t*t,$theFreepeasantrytr,,f T:'#',*H#t5#Si#t'Jfr il-*i-t1i,jnl1;; *ny'*fial tax coffers at the rate ot smar Pcardr'" '-;;;;. i;;eover, the decline of the free,1;;t**,:;*'6;"*1r.T1ffii*il$f:H:ft r*:ffi *${$,ffilFlri:i{iliiK.'I1#J"ii#*f;" ""*;"*sH"::fl itr=#ial government' Uon( - ^-, ,.--.,...,4 nnlidcal. mi-litary, and econornrc'j:11 il:Tf:?h::il*t sovernmenq "'51.'i'"""d political' *1tuI:fl1::'**'""4difficulties for the Syr"";Z snte during tfi" l"tt tluee centuries of its exrstence' '!4illffii:i"l.fi :;:;T::ffi'"T"r::#ili;,Tfl :iJJ:;J,"#*l[:ii"JJffi::-.il::%'iJ"1"""*ople as "':1T: of Lade' classical ti*.,, "nffConstandnopft *"' "1t""ay a m"lor site of crafts and industry in 'itbecameevenmore#;;il;;1q:l*.ljrilf,Tr:T#:,il#:iJffio **y artisans and.crafts worLters, I]ot t_?: ,ifv for rheir glassibureaucrats. Byzantine crafts workers enjoyed a reputation especriware, linen "rrd -ooi"'i tLitil" gt*1' ;"-"1ty' *a fittt *"111 flo and silver' -*By the late sixth;;;;ti;q]; ":tllJ of silkworms in monks'walkrng staiSand no doubt by other .oo.., as well, *"nrl""tr.*r had.addedfr,r-eh-qualiry srlk terytiles to the list of proir.*-**.rrfu.i,r."d in the Byzantine empiie' SilL *ut ^ -t

?easants-probabrl, sharecroppers-receive seects and tend to :::"r:.":##".d ;i;;; n:tt:njl,:i:::r1il1;'H:;r'ffi '-"""'n**d*#,ff#ffi**ryl'ilffi


3/16

CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTTTUM 727

A manuscript illustration depicts one Byzantine r.r.'oman weaving cloth (left), while another spins thread(right). Both women veil their hair for modesty. Women rvorkers were prominent in Byzantine textileproductiou.

I ,important addition to the economy, and Byzantium became the principal supplier ofi:,this fashionable fabric to lands in the Mediterranean basin. The silk industry was so' important to the Byzantine economy that the government closely supervised every' step in its production and sale. Regulations allowed individuals to participate in only, one activity-such as weaving, dyeing, or sales-to preverlt the creation of a monop-, oly in the industry by a few wealthy or powerftil enrrepreneurs.' Trade also helped to sustain the Byzantine economy. Situated astride routes going. east and west as well as north and south, Constantinople served as the main clearing-. house for trade in the western part of Eurasia. The merchants of Consrantinopie main-tained direct commercial links with manufacturers and merchants in ceniral Asia,. Russia, Scandinavia, northern Europe, and the lands of the Biack Sea and the Mediter-ranean basin. Even after the early Islamic conquests, Byzantine merchants dealt regu-larly with their Muslim counterparts in Persia, Syria, Palestine, and. Egypt except dur-ing periods of ouuight war between Byzantium and Islamic srates. Byzantiumdominated uade to such an extent that trading peoples recognized the Byzantine goidcoin, the bezant, as the standard currency of the Mediterranean basin for more thanhalf a millennium, from the sixth through the twelfth centuries.Byzantium drew enormous wealth simply from the control of trade and the levy-ing of customs duties on merchandise that passed through its lands. More important.' Byzantium served as the western anchor o? a Eurasian Lading network that'rerrirreithe silk roads of classical times. Silk and porceiain came to Constantinople from China,spices from India and southeast Asia. Carpets arrived from Persia, woolen textiiesfrom western Europe, and timber, furs, honey, amber, and slaves came from Russiaand Scandinavia. Byzantine subjects consumed some commodities from distant lands,but they redistributed most merchandise, often after adding to its value by furtherprocessing-by fashioning jewelry out of gems imported from India, for example, orby dyeing raw woolen cloth imported from western Europe.

Banlcs and business partnerships helped to fuel Byzantine trade. Banks advancedloans to individuals seeking to launch business ventures and thus made trade possible

Trade

The Organlzattonof Trade


4/16


5/16

CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZAI{TIUM 129

The Wealth and Commerce of ConstantinopleThe Spanish rabbi Ben1hry.in of Twd.elo rrayeled. throwghout Ewrope, north Africa, and. southwest Asia between1165 and. 1173 c.z. Ifu &y hape ventared. as far as Ind.ia, and. he mentionad. both Indin nnd' China in histrayel account. His rnain p\ose wa.tilo record the cond.itions ofJewish comrnwnities, but he ako des*!1d' .thewany land.s and abowt thyee builQrad. iitits that he visited. His narels tooh place d.uring an era ofpolitical d.ecline

for tbe Byzantio, ,*pr\ if#e *ill foand. Con*antinople a flowrishing and. prosperous city.it.-.. \i:'fn. circumference of the ciry of Constan\ople is eigh-

;.': Islam. In Constantinople is the church ofilagia Sophia,

ment there. And in that ol6e men from all the races of

The Greek\habitants are very rich in gold and,pre-

+: reen miles; half of it is surrounded by.the s.q, and half;: Uy land, and it is situated upon two arms of th\sea) onethe world com e befo{the emperor and empress withjugglery and withfrjugglery, and they introduce lions,;:i..,.,Y J - -- --.E- --:--- - - -- -\i:' f .l ' r--h r.1 T\r I .r -'t \ li1.'coming from the sea of Russia [the Black Sea], \d one leopard s, bery{and wild asses) and th.y engage them inii.,fto* rJre sea of Sepharad fthe Mediterranean]. \ comb at wlth one another; and the same thing is done:;,:'.' AII sorts of merchants come here from the lan with b{ds. No entertainment like this is to be found in

iitnrUyton, from the land of Shinar [Mesopotamia], ftodil:.,,Persia, Me dia [western Iran], and all the sovereignty of

anyy'tter land.From every part of the Byzantine empire tribute is!l,,th. Iand of Egypt, from the land of Canaan [Palestine],i1.;','.trd tn. empire of Russia, from Flungary, PatzrnaL


6/16

33oPAR.TIIIITHEPOSTCLASSICALERA,5O0ToI000C.E.

Attractions olConstantinoPle

Greens snd Blues

outside the household' Indeed' womel often did t"t pgtttipT: T,b"tq"tts ana Paties, especially when *i"t not"ta freeiy or when the iff^itt *ttt likely to become;ti;i;;;;"v courd compromise awoman's honor'The less priviiegeJcl^Js"s of const^ntinople occupied.less splendid dweliingArdsans and crafts -orr*, usually lived in r;;;;; "bo',r" their shops, while clerks agovernmentofficialslivedinmultistclry"pu,.*",,.buildings.Workersandthepoooccupieddangerousandrickery""t*t"t"'t'"'ittgkitchensandsanitaryfacilities-"!*lilr"f*?XT;, *""rh, ttre ciry had its attractions. As the heii to Rome, costantinople was a city oi u";nr, which -.r" tit"t of relaxation and exercise as wellhygienicbathing.Tavernsandrestaura,,t,off.,.dsettingsforsocialgatlrerings-checkers, chess, ano dice games *t" "'ptJ4if p"p"r"tlt:ll1tt^tt at-taverns-atheaters provided.rr,JaJrr"*.rrt in the foirnof ,ong, durr.", and striptease' Masstertainment toot pr"tt lt' the Hippodrg*:' " large-stadium "dl1:t"t to the impepalace. There Byr"";*.:;;...il"^..rr.a athlet"ic matches, cortests between wanimals, and circuses ["irrri"L clowns, juggrers, acrobats, and dwarfs'Most popul"' of tf" Clty;s p"stimes *ttt tftt tf-tariof races that took place inHippodrome. Sp...".lri, p"Jr.irr.f3,.l*-:;;s ran high, and until the seventh ctury they oft"r, .orrtriilitJJ to puuli. air*ru""."t. Racin! fans formed wo factiothe Greens and the ;fi;;;;;f,rr*"d .i"J tiu"rrv weit bevond the HippodromGreens and Blues frequently fought * tt'" '*tit l* *"tlT^ltsought to influeimperial officials to atil' o"" g'oop 3ver th1 other' On oue occasion' Greeus and Bunited and mounted a ser-ious popular opririig ;;r"st the hightaxes imposed bytinran. In532tr"v oL"Jtr'e Hippodrom" ffi 1'?"'g-:-o i::T.";1:r'r:Tt:"J:'ffiJ*y-q""ff"a tf'e aistorUance' btironly after killing thousands or r:left constanunople ;;il;i.r, and fustinian took rhe opportunitv to rebuild theon a lavish scare. By th. lut. sevenrh ..rr*ry].hJ;J;y uit*.t" Gi"er'ts and Bluesfaded. The partles '*n*ta' but they i"t';;;giy tooL o"'tl"'" character of civiceties, and leaders of tf-'" *o grouPs became rtspJtttd offi'cials at the imperial court

ClnssIcAL HPRITAGEAND ONTHODOX CTTNISTIANITY

The first chrisuan emperor of the Roman empire gave both his name a'd his faconstantireopre. Like ;;";y;;;"; *n .,.rro#.u*.i nyr"rr,i* christianirv deveatong distinctive lines, ;J;;;;. a fuith differ.* no- the early christianity oRoman empire. Th. p;;;ffi.*o ft.lftfir. of classical Greece had a much dinfluence in Byzantiu"r'irr"i r" western Etrrope, and the classical legacy helpshape Byzantirr. .ao.uJor, "rrJ.*fr*."f a*.tof,.rrt as well as Orthodox ChristiByzantine church r""a.lJ air^greed with their western counterparts on matters otrine, rirual, una tf'o"ft u"tf'6r1fy By the mid-eleventh century' differences bethe eastern ^nd -t"""t churches had becomi 'o g""t that'tl-reir leaders formavided Medir"""""u"'Cil';,"*ty i"to the f"'*'"" Orthodox and Roman Cachurches.The LegacY of Classical GreeceAtthoughlocaiinhabitantsspokeGl3k,theofficiallanguageofearlyConstantinwas Larin, the language of Rome. T.ir" .onrr"lii." U"lt*n Blzantium andwas apparent in lustiiian's code of laws';;;;p"ared in Latin' After the

I


7/16

CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTiUM 3ffii eenrury, however, Greek replaced Latin as the language of government in the Byzan-ffirtin" empire. Byzantine scholars often did not learn to read Latin' and they drew in-#jtilff..*"Iinspiration from the New Testament (originally composed in Greek) andffi.l tt, philosophy and literature of classical Greece rather than classical Rome.ffii 'ih. l.g^ry of classical Greece was especially noticeable in Byzantine education. Anffi'educational sysrem was necessary because of the large bureaucracy that administered Byzantine Educationffit ;; empire: government machinery called for large numbers of literate and intelligentffi_.,individuats. Byzantine a-ristocrats often hired. tutors to provide private instruction for*',rh.ir children, girls as well as boys. But the bureaucratic workforce emerged mosdyti from a state -organized school system that offered a primary education in reading,i .witing, and grammar, followed by studies of classical Greek literature, philosophy,fi. Although mosr peasants and mffJtriurban workers h_ad 1o formal education, basic,tlit.ru.y was widespread in Byzantfii'society. Alongside the bureaucrats, Byzantine$. ;.r.n""as, manuficturers, clergy, and military personnel usually had at least a primaryfi merchants) manufacturers) clefgy) anct mrlrtary personner usuany nao at least a Pnfrraryfr'"d,r."rioo. At the pinnacie of the itate educational system.was a school of higher learn-f; ing in Constantinople that offered advanced instruction in law, medict"::1"d fhlo.t;ii ,pttt This school functioned almost continuciusiy from its founding in 425 c.s. untilFt,' ,tt. end of the Byzantine empire more than one thousand yezus later in 1453'Et,:,,' .r r , .t, 1 ---- -^,-- D-,---rt-^ ^^L^l^--Li^ ^1"^ .^11-.t.4 t}..c Byzo,ntine

Scho larship1 Like the educational ryit.*, Byzantine scholarship also reflected the cultural

i.,, t.e".v of classical Greece . Byzantrne scholars concentrated on the humanities-liter-:t* r lr - - -, L-- ----l- ^-- rL^- ^^ +L- -^h,-^l ..i^^.^" ^. -oJi.i-. 'Fherrii rrot., history, and phiiosophy-rather than on the natural sciences or medicine' They". -. --^.t,--^s rnmrrpnrari^" ^- TJ^--" Dlotn Arictntle and nther nrominent fisures-,t-, produced commentaries on l{omer, Plato, Aristotle, and other prominent figures,i1.,. r"a their works served as rexrbool$ studied in schools alongside writings from classi-ii:.,. ' .. n- -'. - ,-,1-r. , tt-- ,-' ,,-- ^r--^--:^- -^^^iA^-^A +L-,-.-1,,^^ r[,- .li-o-t heirc:, cal times. Byzantines with a literary education considered themselves the direct heirsbyii: of ciassicai Greece, ald they went to great lengtis to preserve and transmit the classi-:;: I r---^-- r^)^^) -l-^^! ^n t:+^-^--. ^-J ^L:l^-^^l-i^^l ,,,^.1," ^-l^".i-^l (]reecp thcti. ."1 i.g".y. Indeed, almost all literary and ptulosophical works of classical Greece thatl,,1'iurvive have come down to the present in copies made between the tenth and twelfthz:t:'.. '1. -^ '- I';:,,,,,',..1.111i.., centuries in the Byzantine empire .

tsyzantine Churchgi fn. most distincriye fearure of By22n1ing Christianity was its close relationship with Church anC Statetrt- the imt-, the imperial government. From the time of Constantine on, caesaropapist emperors:i, '--,-,-,1 ,--t 1^-t--^r--:- --^r:-:^.-^ ^-J +L^^r^-i-^l '-^r+o.. Cn^ctanrinp hi-"alf inter-fuarticipated activeiy in religious and theological matters. Constantine himself inter-

":v-ened in theologicai debates, even when the issues at stal(e had little or no direct polit-j ical implication. In 325 C.2., for example, Constantine organized the Council ofp. Nicaea, which brought together bishops, spokesmen, and leaders from all the impor-i'tant Christian churches in order to consider the views of the Arians. Followers of ai,;,triest from Alexandria named Arius (250-336 c.e.), the Arians taught that Jesus hadi;. been a mortal human being and that he was a crealion of God rather than a divineir:i., ^ -*- .1 L;,,being coerernal with God. Yet many Christian theologians held to the contrary: thati in a unique and mysterious way Jesus was both a mortal human being and a manifesta-iltion of God lumself, that Jesus simultaneously possessed ftilly human and firlly dividlvlneEjnrtor.r. Although he originally favored Arian views, Constantine came to accept thelalternative and personally attended sessions of the Council of Nicaea in order to sllp-i port it. His presence eniouraged the council to endorse his preferred view as ortho-it-:dox and to condemn Arianism as heresy.#'' Throughout Byzantine history the emperors treated the church as a departmentfi, of state. They appointed individuals to serve as patriarch of Constantinople-thep';highest ecclesiastical offi.cial in the Byzantine church, counterpart of the pope in


8/16

a1llJJ'{-

Iconoclasm

This illustration from a Psalter]esus parnted on a wall'

PARTIIIiTHEPoSTCLASSICALERA,500ToI000c.e,Rome-and they rnsuucted p at'archl !]*:P ",i"d !i:':- ::1]ilffit:T: ;Tsupported imperial n"'nt "'id ""'oo'^t:*i:rt'*::: lili::ili""i'*i"i"stic:milUxJi'"1,'"T:';:;T"Tfi ":i':::Ts'J:l*Ji"r'ai"""andProteautnorrLrs!' 4'u rL E---a- ed with those of the larger. soctery' -.- ^ ^when imperial views clashed YtT:T:: :#;"il Cv Bvzrnti.re emperors wa9 icThe most dirT sive tttittf^tt"f po[ry-implemented by Byzantrne eroclasm, inaugurated uv e*pt[&" rir t']g"ti';;?4ii c'e')' Bv the dme of lrrure, Byzantiuq h* 1'#r"*1t*" ;;'"91;fu;;73p:tt'*:tr; .Hli:*r m::#ffi:Jl:i*:T:'4+i['';; i; ;".'lhev inspired'lhe popuimagination *o ""to*igii"t;;;;91i1V p""oo"g"t' Leo' however' became cvinced that the u.rr.r*iol of religious im"g.s'w", sinfui, tantamount to the worshiphysical idols' In zzu-J-t'n""i-'u"'tta tt;;;;li; of iconoclasm (which liter*.*, ,,the breardng oi*rrr,,;, desuoying.reutn'* #",u": Tlij^:Iottng their uschurches. The poticy Ur#atllJt ,p*f..a p.;r.r,, and riots throughout the emsince icons *"r. .*.r"i.;;;ffi ri"ig ,rr" rtw Debates about iconoclasm rageBvzantium for more *fr i;J".d'*, i' Saa lia .f" iconoclasts abandon theiforts. Meanwhile, tlte to*out"y &Ttlt"":* o"t" "gA" the wi-llingness of Byzanemperors to involve *;;;"t iitttttv in religious and theologi* :lll3;te of cIn its theology, gy';;J"" 61tti5d"nity'reflected the conunumgcal Greek oL""'onf"""i'uJ" fu;sillj;;;;g'd fromiewish sources'attracred adherents in the Roman .*plr.,^rrtJolog,"is sought ways to harmo

&*ffiu* giide*D*'w r 1 :'^,.'^.1- Ofprepared abo*r 900 c"E. depicts an iconoclast whitewashing an

lmage


9/16

Monssticism snd PoPuIs,r PietY[.,e".r"rop"pisr emperors, powerful patriarchs, and other high church officials con-fi;i"t""a themselves with theological and ritual matters and rarely dealt direcdy with the*-hy pop.rl"tion of the Byzantine church. For their part the Byzantine laity had little&, i"r*.J, in fure points of theology or high-level church administration, and they posi-fltivelv resented policies like iconoclasm that infringed on cherished patterns of wor-h.. . '-iinip. f"t religious inspirarion, the laity looked less to the church hierarchy than to the

:. tocal monasteries.i , Byzantine monasticism grew out of the efforts of devout individuals to lead espe- Asce tictsml.bi"ity trnty lives. Drawing inspiration from early Christian ascetics in Egypt, Mesopo-ptr*i", and Persia, these individuals observed regimes of extreme ascelicism and self-#enial. Some abandoned society altogether and went to live in *re desert or in cavesffi hermits. Others dedicated themselves to celibacy, fasting, and prayer. During thecentury a few men and at least two women demonstrated their ascetic commit-fuents by perching for years at a time atop tall pillars. St. Simeon Stylite , the first andnort fr-orrt of these "pillar saints," attracted the attention of admirers from as far

ay as Gaul.:Because of the extreme dedication of hermits and ascetics, disciples often gatheredound them and established communities of men and women determined to followi-ir example. These communities became the earliest monasteries of the Byzantine[qh. They had few ruies until St. Basil of Caesarea (329-379 c.n.), the patriarchEeonstantinople during the mid-fourth century, urged them to adopt reforms thatlhanced their effectiveness- In Basilian monasteries, monks and nuns gave r'rp their

FrConal possessions and lived communaily. They obeyed the rule of elected superiors,H rll .o-*onity members devoted themselves to work and prayer. After the fourth$tury, Basilian monasticism spread rapidly throughout the Byzanorre empire-f.Unlike their counterparts in western Europe and other lands,

Byzantine monas-ryes tbr the most p"rt did not become centers of education, study, learning, andhotarship. Yet *oi"steries under the ruie of St. Basil had a reputation for piety and$b,tion that endeared them to the Byzantine laity. Basilian monks went to great$mtrt i" search of mystical union with God through me ditation and prayer' Some$btoyed special techniques such as controlled breathing and intensely focused gaz-p.to bring divine illumination. Others retired to remote destinations to iead a strict

CFIAPTER. 13 | THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTIUM 333Christianity with other, long-established cultural traditions, notably Greek philoso-phy. A faith embracing both Christian revelation and Greek reason, ttrey recognized,would have a powerftil appeal.The influence of Greek philosophy in Christian theology was especially promi-nenr in Greek-speaking Byzantium. Theologians invested a great deal of time and in-rellectual energy in the examination of religious questions from a philosophical pointof view. They looked to classical philosophy, for example, when seeking to under-,stand the nature of lesus and the extent to which he possessed both human and di-vine characteristics. Although tirese debates often became extremely technical, theyillustrare the continuing influence of classical Greek philosophy. Debates about Jesus'nature represented an effort to Lrnderstand Christian doctrine in light of the termsand concepts that classical philosophers lad employed in their analysis of the world.A school maintained by the patriarch qfiConstantinople provided instruction for,,clergy and church officials in advanced'"rilieology of this sort. Though it differed in,many ways from Mediterranean society of classical times, Byzantium built its owncultural and religious traditions on a solid classical foundation'

Greek Philosophy andByzo"ntine Theology

ByzantlneMonastlclsmandSf. Basi/

ML Athos


10/16

CHAPTER 13 THE COMMONWEALTH OIJ tsYZAN'| I 335::existence. Most famous of the austere monasteries are those of Mt. Athos, a cold and:r,windswept peninsula in northern Greece that has been the site of monasteries since

the ninth century C.r. Since the eleventh century, monastic authorities have made,1dt. Athos off-limits for all females, both human and animal, out of concern that,,.they might inspire carnal thoughts among the monks. The strict devotion of the,,,fironks of Mt. Athos and other Basilian monasteries inspired piety among the Byzan-:, tine laity because the monks represented a religious faith more immediate and mean-i ingful than that of the theologiar-r.s and ecclesiastical bureaucrats of Constantinople.r Monks and nuns also provided social services to their communities. They pro-.vided spiritr-ral counsel to local laity, and they organized relief efforts by bringing-:rfosd and medical attention to communities struclc by disasters. They won the sup-;port of the Byzantine populace, too, when they vigorously opposed the policy ofi iconoclasm and fought to restore icongo churches and monasteries. Tensions some -i times arose between clergy and laity beC4gse monasteries often owned extensive tracts. of land, and the monks had differenf'conomic interests from the peasants who.worked the iand. Nevertheless, by setting examples of devotion and by tending tothe needs and interests of the laity, monks helped to maintain support for their faithin the Byzantine empire.Tensions between Eastern and Westeri ChristianityByzantine Christianity developed in tension particularly with the Christian faith of

. western Europe. During the centuries following Constantine's legalization of Chris-::irrn,i:tianiry, church leaders in Jerusalem, Aiexandria, Antioch, Constanlinople, ald Romelidxercised great influence in the larger Christian cornmunity. AfterArab peoples con-ilquered most of southwest Asia and introduced Islam there in the seventh century,the influence of the pauiarchs in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch declined, Ieav-ing only Constantinople and Rome as the principal centers of Christian authority.The tensions that developed between Constantinople and Rome mirrored politi- Constantinople

cal strains between Byzantine and western European societies. The specific issues that and Romedivided the two Christian communities, however, were religious and theological. One

. of them was the iconoclastic movement of the eighth and ninth centuries. Western;,theologians regarded religious images as perfectly appropriate aids to devotion and].resented Byzantine claims to the contrary, whereas the iconoclasts took offense at thet efforts of their Roman counterparts to have images restored in Byzantium.r In later centuries, Christian churches based in Constantinople and Rome dis-agreed on many other points. Some ritual and doctrinal differences concerned formsof worship and the precise wording of theological teachings-relatively minor issuesthat by themselves need not have caused deep division in the larger Chrislian com-murtity. Byzantine theologians objected, for example, to the fact that western priestsshaved their beards and used u.nleavened instead of leavened bread when saying Mass.Other differences concerned substantive theological matters such as the precise rela-tionship between God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit-all regarded as manifestations ofGod by most Christian theologians.Alongside these ritual and doctrinal differences, the Byzantine patriarchs and SchlsmRoman popes disputed their respective rights and powers. Patriarchs argued for theautonomy of all major Christian jurisdictions, including that of Constantinople, whilepopes asserted the primacy of Rome as the sole seat of authority for all Christendom.I Ultimately, relations became so strained that the eastern and western churches went:separate ways. In 1054 c.p. the patriarch and pope mutually excommunicated eachrother, each refusing to recognrze the other's church as properly Christian. Despite


11/16

336 PART IiI I

Soc ia| Problems

Challengesfrom the West

THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA, 5OO TO 1OOO C.E.

effortsatreconciliation,theresuitingschismbetweeneastefnandwesternchurchn::ir,.:."*'.[fti1il,tffi"#*:J""t'h:'.*:ili::iilil.'?J;:,*:i:'.':Christian chur';;;;;' the Roman Catholic church'Tnr IxruuENcE oF BYzANTIUM

IN ENSTERN EUNOPE,Byzantines called thems elvesRorna,ial ('Romans"), and 11tt':tt":t sometimes

trathe' lineage to ancesrors who went"to ",":::f**'*#:;:t#trJff."t"r1*.#:"i; JS ffi::ffi #ilT'##;#;;tr o"q Me diter rane an s o ci eciassical times. Unde, dr;;. tn. fU.&t tt-*"* U"ti" had formed a coherentlitical and economic unit' al trade and'tYi::*::::X**::LtilffiJJ:l*T:,n:?"ff.Hffi fffi:*iil:".;, r,"*.'.i a dynamic sociery foundethersramicraithhadJ;;;ili;il"3*i"::"'::"y:*l'ff :H::Tn'#3;,:'j;ffi?*1"ffi'"fl::T;i.i+FF;i"*',.':i:.':i:t'lheno*hernrimr{emmedinand*,"'ffi ;:':i'{gi*:*ll#''',':J:t3ffi ::il",i*Hemmed in and t"tttl:;T*"J".i*.1.gt""*g "bgl the late eleventh centu"'fr iffi^'fr1"'i;ffi ffi il;F:lr:jl&:,:*:::;,:^Tff$i:Ti':Jiffs its Mediterranean lnfluence wi4lrLu' "",;1, .i*L.r.i"t, and cultural relatf*l'lJ:'*'t**::1ffi;f; *i!n;;;-p"f "'1"3"""#'i^"''1."m. to an end in the fifteentrr;ent|fl :;: ^l:t..b::,iii""J* il.':l$:"'ffi;L'J1ffil ;;5tflTnT,"Jr:JJ; .li. ; *rop e and trre e as ter n MeraneanbasinthatdevelopedqdelnvzanlL;r;t:lf *::lm'#:"'H;*Tififfi:il?i1$*11ffJ:f T"TrxiJr'ffi ,#;ilsurvivesandcontinuestoshathe lives of millions ot people in Russia and eastern Etuope'

Domestic Problems qnd Foreign Pressureswhen B asii II, " the B ul g ar- S laver ,'' *' o :*, li 1 t" l.? *" IJ.1lli'i}t'Jffi:':ffini,"*il;:ff :i:ffir:C3::"t*,T*n:"ru::'$;T|.X..il,lT,i;Htrl;iliJi'll?xf t:"d;:*f:,::*l?,i,1T'iJo"l*il*uffering from serious mternal wcar\rruDouo ned declineverses, In fact, it had '**'a a long,o"":L:l:i*:i:"::i;ili", n.ro to everses' In fact, it had entered a IonB u"""*,."uri.*'.ig' proUl.*s help to e*niJ ii "*er fully recovered' Both domestthis decline.

D o mestic pro bre ms "'.*"' i::::*kg:,T,*: :l;',:H **.'#ffitiTfterals who governed ":iifif.ITf#iffffi;;;;;;; with the locar aristocr..-i#:i**nin:n*i::it*'#.#ffi '*$1.';r'*"*rSome of ttrese Powern:i;"r**i::li['::i';ilT:i1:iidil;;f ai"op'"ai"o*r"""Moreover, the elite tr"" "tto"tt'lated vast "';;;;;i"ttJ tr''t rtt" oeasantryincreasing pressure' Formerlv +: q*k?:l;:h;;;;m's

militarv svstem

;'J;:i:H';T::"fi ll"':'#,,ff 'ri*,Tlft:x1f :!fiIlTJ':'T*Trecruits available 'o"J'"t"i-ltJ jtclining;l;itP;t from free p""'"t"t cau; r :H:,?: Pl: ffi trl'*.t;;:#$;;tium arso race d rresh ro rei gn chaFrom the west came representatives of a dynanJ a-nd expanding western Europ


12/16

CFIAPTER 13 { THE COMMOI{\A/EALTH OF BYZANTIUM J3

ftety. Beginning in the eleventh century vigorous econom-ic development in westernffitrrope supported a remarkable round of military and political expansion. During thei6aily eleventh century, the Normans-a Scandinavian people who had seized Normandyffp northern France) and setded there-estabtshed themselves as an independenr powerffisouthern Italy. By midcentury Norman adventurers led by Robert Guiscard had taken

$$ontrol of southern Italy and expelied Byzanrine authorities there.$r. : During the rwelfth and thftteenth centuries, the Normans and other wesrern Eu-p:ropean pe oples mounted a series of crusades-vast military campaigns intended toffii,ecapture ]erusalem and other sites holy to Christians from Muslims-and took thel.:oPportuniry to carve out states in the heart of tire Byzantine empire. Venetian mer-$:ihants even managed to divert the fourth crusade (L202-I204) from its original$mission in the eastern Mediterranean to Constantinople . Venetians had becomefprominent in the commercial iife of the eastern Mediterranean, and they viewed thegl,fourth crusade as ar opportunity to strengthen their positron against Byzantine com-ivsr ur Lr ur4u! 4o iu vPPvr Luruly LU )Lrtrrburcll ursr Pulruurl dBd.u-tsl. -DyzallLurc LUTII'i''petition. As it happened, the expedition never got beyond Constanrinople, whichcrusaders conquered and sacked in 1204. Byzantine forces recaptured the capital ini;126I, but the destruction of Constantinople dealt dre Byzantine empire a blow fromwhich it never completelv recovered.

As Europeans expanded into Byzantine territory from the west, nomadic Turkishpeoples invaded from the east. Most important arnong them were the Muslimg!.Saljuqs, who beginning in the eleventh century sent rvaves of invaders into Anatolia.Given the military and financial problems of rheByzantine empire, the Saljuqs foundAnatolia ripe for plunder. In 107I they subjected the Byzantine army to a demoraliz-ing defeat at the batde of Manzikert. Byzantine factions then turned on each other

Mep [13 .2]The Byzantine empre and itsneighbors, about II00 c.s.

For an interactlve versionof this map, go to\4,'V'fw'mhhe. corn/bentley3chl 3maps.

Challengesfrom the East


13/16

338 PART III I THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA, 5OO TO lOOO C.E'

I)ur ing the sack of Constantinople in 1 204 , crusading forces seized ald carted away B.vzaniine treasures of ailsorts-including the great bronze horses that norv stand over the entrance to St. Mark's basilica in Venice.

in civil war, allowing the Saljuqs almost free rein in Anatolia, By therury, the Saljuqs had seized much of Anatolia, and crusaders fromlate rwelfthwestern Eu

tium survived until the mid-fifteenth century, but the late Byzantine empire enIittle autonomy and continually faced fresh challenges from Italian merchants,ern European adventurers" and Turkish nomads. In 1453, after a long era of dethe Byzantine empire came to an end when Ottoman Turks captured Constantiand absorbed its territories into their own expandittg realm.Early Relations between Byzantium and Slavic PeoplesBy the time Constantinople fell, Byzantine traditions had deeply influenced the poand cultural development of Slavic peoples in eastern Europe and Russia' Closetions between Byzantium and Slavic peoples date from dre sixdr century. When Jian deployed Byzantium's miiitary resollrces in the western Mediterranean,peoples from the north took advantage of the opportunity to move into Byza


14/16

CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZAI{TIul\4 339,tterritory. Serbs and Croats move d:,;into the Ballcan peninsula, and Bulgars'lestablished a powerful kingdom in thei:lower Danube region.,,1 Relations benveen Byzantium andi.::Bulgaria were especially tense. By the.eighth cenrury, however) as a resr-rlt oflits wealth and sophisticated diplo-',.,^^ry, Byzantium had begun to influ-tt'.n.. Bulgarian politics and society.:;','syzantine emperors recognized Bul-

iilt';garian rulers, enhancing their statusi';lr,^,o lesitimefe sove.rei gns, Rvz,anfirr mi tar legitimate sovereigns. Byzantiumi;i"';:,n.^A Rrrlserts enfered into noliticnl',4nd Bulgaria entered into political,.;npo*mercial, and cr'rltural relations'i;i:.,l;.7 --L^,-^ ^f D--l*^"-:^.^ -""1:.^* {:-:l:^^i',,Members of Bulgarian ruling familiesi', often went to Constantinople for aformal education in Greek language*a fiteratr-rre and fbllowed Byzantine

examples in organi zng their courtand capital.to Baikur lands, and Bulgars and otherSlavic peoples began to convert toOrthodox Christianiry. The most fa-mous of the missionarie s to the Slavswere Saints Cyril and Methodius) rwobrothers from Thessalonilci in Greece.During the mid-ninth century Cyriland Methodius conducted missionsin Bulgaria and Moravia (which in-i anded much of the modern Czech,slovakian, and Hungarian territories). \\4ri1e there,, they devised an alphabet, known as the Cyrillic alphabet, for the previously illiterate

,:, Slavic peoples. Though adapted from written Greek, the Cyrillic alphabet represented.. the sounds of Slavic languages more precisely than did the Greek, and it remained in usei.. in much of eastern Europe until supplanted by the Roman alphabet in the twentiethtcenttrry. In Russia and most other parts of the former Soviet lJnion, ttre Cyrillic alpha--bet survives to the present day... The crealion of a written Slavic language enabled Slavic peoples to organize com-,plex political structures and develop sophisticated traditions of thought and literature.More immediately, the Cyrillic alphabet stimulated conversion to Orthodox Chris-.tianity Missionaries translated the Christian scriptures and church rituals into Slavonic,,and Cyrillic writing helped them explain Chriitian values and ideas in Slavic terms.,Meanwhile, schools organtzed by missionaries ensured that Slavs would receive reli-;,'gious instruction alongside their introduction to basic literacy. As a result, OrthodoxiCtrristianity deeply influenced the cultural traditions of many Slavic peoples.

qnd Russisbe gan to org anLze large states: the Russians 'created several principalities governed fromSrategically situated on the Dnieper River

This illustration fi orn a r\^'elfth-centur)r malLuscriptdepicts ninth-centltry incursions of Bulgarians iutoByzantine territory, culminating in a lecture by theBulgarian krng to the Byzanrine emperor, shown herei,vith bound hands.

Cvril and Methodius

Mi"ssions to the Slavs

::n-("

' : ;r. ,,.-{i.i;.., -,..:

i+;i '.! r


15/16

The Conversionof Prtnce Vladimir

The Growth of Kirv

34O PART III I THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA, s0o TO 1000 c.E.along the main trade route linking Scandinavia and Byzantium, ICev becamwealthy and powerful center) and it dominated much of the territory betweenVolga and the Dnieper from the tenth to the thirteenth century. Russian merchavisited Constanrinople in large numbers and became well acquainted with Byzansociety. Russian princes sought alliances with Byzantine rulers and began to expan interest in Orthodox Christianity.About 989 Prince Madimir of ICev converted to Orthodox Christianity anddered his subjects to follow his example. Madimir was no paragon of virtue: he laudrunkenness and reportedly maintained a harem of eight hundred girls. Afterconversion, however, Byzantine influences flowed rapidly into Russia. Cyrillic wing, literacy, and Orthodox missions all spread quicldy throughout Russia. Byzanteachers traveled north to establish schools, and Byzantine priests conducted servfor Russian converts. For two centuries ICev served as a conduit for the spreaByzantine cuitural and religious influence in Russia.Byzantine arr and architecture dominated ICev and other Russian cities. Iconthe Byzantine style encouraged popular piety, and religious images became a pripal form of Russian artistic expression. The onion domes that are a distinctive feaof early Russian cfurches were the result of architects' efforts to imitate the domstructures of Constantinople using wood as their principal buildrng material.The princes of ICev established firm, caesaropapist control over the Russianthodox church-so called to distinguish it from the Eastern Orthodox church ofByzantine empire. They also drew inspiration from Byzantine legal traditioncompiled a writren law code for their lands. By controlling trade with Byzantiumother lands, they gained financial resources to build a flourishing society. Ineleventh century ICev reportedly had four hundred churches and eight large marplaces. By the early twelfth century its population approached thirty thousand, afire in I I24 consumed six hundred churches.

Eventually, Russians even claimed to inherit the imperial mande of Byzantium.cording to a popular theory of the sixteenth century, Moscow was the world's thRome: the first Rome had fallen to Germanic invaders in the fifth centlrry) whereassecond Rome, Constantinople, had fallen to the Turks a thousand years later. Moscsurvived as the third Rome, the cultural and religious beacon that would guideworld to Orthodox Christian righteousness. Inspired by this theory, missionaries ttheir Russian Orthodox faith to distant lands. During the sixteenth and later centurthey brought Siberia into the fotd of the Orthodox church, crossed the Bering Su"ttd dirp"t.hed missions to Alaska and even northern California. Thus, long aftercollapse of the eastern Roman empire, the ffiantine legacy continued to work itsfluence throush the oufward reach of the Ru3$ian Orthodox church.

The Byzantine empire originated as asurvivor of the classic al era. Byzantium inherited a hardy economy, a set of gov-erning institutions, an imperial bureaucracy, an official religion, an establishedchurch, and a rich cultural tradition from classical Mediterranean sociery andthe Roman empire. Byzantine leaders drew heavily on this legacy as they dealtwith new challenges. Throughout Byzantine history, classical inspiration wasespecially noticeable in the imperial office, the bureaucracy, the church, and the


16/16

CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF

educational system. Yet in many ways Byzantium changed profoundly over thecourse of its thousand-year history. After the seventh century the Byzantine em-pire shrank dramatically irr size, and after tfie eleventh century it faced relentlessforeign pressule from western Europeans and nomadic Turkish peoples. Chang-ing times also brought transformations in Byzantine social and economic orga-nization. Yet from the fifth to the twelfth century and beyond, Byzantiumbrought political stability and economic prosperity to the eastern Mediterraneanbasin, and Byzantine sociery served as a principal anchor supporting commer-cialandculturaIexchangesinthepostclassicalworld'Throughitspolitical,eco-nomic, and cultural influence, Byzaufiium also helped shape the development ofthe larger Byzantine commonwealtlg..*g eastern Europe and the eastern Med.iter-ranean basin.

Life of St. B-asil of C-aesarea'..Trans fer "f Ro *an govrnmeni to,' Constantinopleii :,.-...,Reign of,]"ustrnian,

'Reign:of Leo III ' ',' 't ? ' ...,.:'' .,.: : . .'.....Iconoclasuc .orr*o*rrn

BYZANITIUM 34L

RntUn 'of rConsrarl'!''!

byzantine chapter ap

Documents