by comparing political systems, we can develop an...

By comparing political systems, we can develop anappreciation for those systems that provide a large degreeof personal freedom and economic opportunity. Choose aforeign country to research. Look for significant historicalevents that influenced the country’s government. Reportyour findings to the class.

To learn more about comparative government, view theDemocracy in Action video lesson 25: Parliamentary v.Presidential Systems.

Compare and Contrast Study Foldable Make this foldable and use it to helpyou identify similarities and differences in governments around the world.

Reading andWriting As you readthe chapter, writeinformation undereach tab to help youcompare and contrastdifferent types ofgovernments and thecountries where theyare in place.

586A woman in Bizana, South Africa,

encourages her fellow citizens to vote. ▲

Cut alongthe fold lineson both sides.

AbsoluteMonarchy

Dictator-ship

PresidentialSystem

Parlia-mentarySystem

AFP/CORBIS

Step 1 Mark the midpoint of a side edgeof one sheet of paper. Then fold theoutside edges in to touch at the midpoint.

Step 3 Open andcut along theinside fold linesto form four tabs.

Step 4 Label as shown.

Step 2 Fold thepaper in halffrom side toside.

Chapter Overview Visit the CivicsToday Web site at civ.glencoe.comand click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 27 to preview chapterinformation.

http://civ.glencoe.com

As a teenager in World War II in Italy,Ginetta Sagan joined the underground resistancemovement. During the war, the young girl helpedpublish an underground paper and carriedinformation to the Allies in Switzerland. Sheescorted hundreds of fugitives—Jews, antifascists,soldiers who deserted, and many others—across a barbed wire fence that separated Italy fromSwitzerland. Ginetta immigrated to the UnitedStates in 1951 and over time helped foundAmnesty International USA. Ginetta also workedto abolish torture practices in foreign prisons.For her efforts on behalf of the oppressed, shereceived the Presidential Medal of Freedom,the nation’s highest civilian award.

Authoritarian GovernmentLike snowflakes, no two governments are exactly alike.

Each country is unique, shaped by its history, culture, politicalinterests, and economic needs; yet for thousands of years, peo-ple have been studying and classifying governments.

Aristotle, for example, was a scholar who lived in ancientGreece. He identified three types of government: rule by a sin-gle person; rule by a small, elite group; and rule by the people.Many scholars prefer to describe governments by using twobroad categories on a spectrum: those that are democratic (onone end of the spectrum) and those that are authoritarian(on the other end of the spectrum). In democratic regimes, asyou know, the people rule. In authoritarian regimes, power isheld by an individual or group not accountable to the people.

Winston Churchill, Great Britain’s leader during World War II,said that “no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise.”Yet most people who live in democratic countries—and manywho don’t—would agree that democracy beats the alternatives.Whether power is concentrated to a small group (an oligarchy)or just one person (a dictatorship), the ordinary citizens com-monly have little voice in authoritarian governments.

GUIDE TO READING

Main Idea

Many countries are shiftingtoward a more democraticsystem of government.

Key Terms

authoritarian,absolute monarch,dictator, totalitarian,constitutional monarchy,parliamentary system,prime minister

Reading Strategy

Contrasting InformationCreate a chart like the one below to explainthe difference betweenauthoritarian governmentand democratic government.

Read to Learn

• What types of government exist?

• Why are many nationschanging from authoritarian rule to amore democratic form of government?

Types ofGovernment

SECTION

Ginetta Sagan,proponent of amnestyand prisoners’ rights

588 Chapter 27 Comparing Systems of GovernmentAP/Wide World Photos

Government

Authoritarian Democratic

Chapter 27 Comparing Systems of Government 589

Absolute Monarchy The word “monarchy” describes a gov-

ernment with a hereditary ruler—a king orqueen (or czar, empress, sultan, or otherroyal figure) who inherits this position ofpower. Until about the 1600s, such rulerswere mostly absolute monarchs. That is,they had unlimited authority to rule as they wished.

Many countries still have monarchs, butabsolute monarchy is almost nonexistent.In the Middle East, however, the king ofSaudi Arabia and the emir of Qatar mightstill be considered “absolute.” Their poweris technically unrestricted, although they doconsult with advisers and are constrainedby Islamic law.

Dictatorships Dictators, like absolute monarchs,

exercise complete control over the state.They usually take power by force, althoughsometimes, when a crisis situation demandsa strong leader, authorities may place themin charge. To stay in power, most dictatorsrely on the police and military. They often

tamper with elections or refuse to holdthem. They also limit freedom of speech,assembly, and the press.

Scores of dictators have ruled through-out history. Those who only seek personalgain are often overthrown quickly. Theruler of Uganda, Idi Amin was deposed(removed from power) in 1979. His brutalregime led to hundreds of thousands ofdeaths and plunged the country into chaosand poverty. With the help of the UnitedStates, Panamanian dictator ManuelNoriega was deposed in 1989.

Others endure for decades. Fidel Castrohas been in power in Cuba since 1959.Saddam Hussein ruled Iraq from 1979until he was overthrown in 2003.

Totalitarianism Many dictators impose totalitarian

rule on their people. In a totalitarian state,the government’s control extends to almostall aspects of people’s lives. Totalitarianleaders typically have a master plan for theeconomy and society. They ban politicalopposition. They regulate what industries

(l)AP/Wide World Photos, (r)AFP/CORBIS

Forms of Government Democracies likeMexico and Japan endeavor to provide their citizens freedom and opportunities that ThomasJefferson called “the pursuit of happiness.”Vicente Fox (right) is Mexico’s president.Junichiro Koizumi (below) is Japan’s prime minister. How do democracies and authori-tarian regimes differ?

590 Chapter 27 Comparing Systems of Government

and farms produce. They suppress individ-ual freedom, dictating what people shouldbelieve and with whom they may associate.To enforce their ideology, totalitarian lead-ers control the media and use propaganda,scare tactics, and violence.

Three of the most notorious totalitarianregimes arose in the 1920s and 1930s.Theywere Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler,Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini, andthe Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.Today, China, Cuba, and North Korea areusually considered totalitarian states.

Describing What is atotalitarian government?

Democratic GovernmentsUntil the late 1600s, absolute monar-

chy was the dominant form of govern-ment. As early as the 1200s, however, theEnglish began to place restrictions on theirking. In most countries with monarchs,absolute monarchy has now given way to

constitutional monarchy, in which thepower of the hereditary ruler is limited bythe country’s constitution and laws.

Modern constitutional monarchiesgenerally follow democratic practices. Asyou learned earlier, the characteristics of ademocracy include individual liberty,majority rule with minority rights, andfree elections with secret ballots.

The people participate in governing,and elected officials make laws and policies.The monarchs are heads of state only, pre-siding at ceremonies and serving as sym-bols of unity and continuity. The queen ofGreat Britain, the emperor of Japan, andthe prince of Monaco are a few examples.

Another type of democracy is the repub-lic—a representative government in whichno leaders inherit office. As you learned, thevoters hold sovereign power in a republic.The people elect representatives and givethem the responsibility and power to makelaws and conduct government. For mostAmericans today, the terms representativedemocracy, republic, and constitutional

Two Forms of Democracy

Relationship AmongBranches of Government

Method of ChoosingTop Official

Role ofTop Official

PRESIDENTIALSYSTEM

Powers of executive,legislative, and judicialbranches are separated

President is electeddirectly by popular vote

President acts as headof government andhead of state

Executive and legislativefunctions are united;judiciary operatesindependently

Prime minister ischosen by membersof Parliament

Prime minister usuallyacts as head ofgovernment only(monarch or presidentis head of state)

PARLIAMENTARYSYSTEM

C27 01C 825989The branches of government have different responsibili-ties under the various forms of democratic government.How does the method of choosing the top official differ?


republic mean the same thing: a system oflimited government in which the people arethe ultimate source of governmental power.The United States, of course, was the firstsuch democracy. From Argentina toZimbabwe, there are now many more.

The Expansion of Democracy The number of democratic states grew

considerably in the mid-1900s, after WorldWar II. Since the mid-1970s, a new wave of

democratization has swept Latin Americaand parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.Dozens of countries that were once author-itarian are now giving citizens more rights,letting opposition parties organize, holdingfair elections, unshackling the press, andmaking other political reforms.

Democracy is more widespread todaythan ever before. Of the more than 190countries in the world, nearly two-thirdshave democratic governments elected by

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Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

DemocracyRestricted Democratic PracticeTraditional MonarchyAuthoritarian RegimeProtectorate

Africa: Governments by Type

The countries of Africapractice various forms ofgovernment. What typeof government doesNigeria have?


the people. Democracy, of course, can beextensive or limited, stable or fragile.Democratic governments can also take dif-ferent forms. You read in Chapter 1 aboutthe distinction between direct democracyand representative democracy. No countrytoday has a direct democracy, in which allcitizens participate in governing firsthand.Instead, representative democracy is the

norm, with citizens electing leaders to actfor them. Individual countries, however,have various ways of choosing their repre-sentatives and organizing the government.

Presidential Versus Parliamentary Systems

The United States, Mexico, and thePhilippines are among the handful of democ-racies with a presidential system of govern-ment. Most democratic countries in theworld today, following the model of GreatBritain, use the parliamentary system ofgovernment instead.

Such countries usually call their legis-lature a parliament and their head of government the prime minister. The ter-minology can vary, though. Japan’s parlia-ment, for example, is known as the Diet.Israel’s is the Knesset. The German primeminister has the title of chancellor.

A major feature of a parliamentary system is that the top government officialsperform both executive and legislativefunctions. The prime minister is not onlythe chief executive, responsible for carryingout the laws, but also a member of parlia-ment, the arm of government responsiblefor making the laws.

Likewise, the cabinet ministers—theadvisers who help the prime minister withexecutive work—also serve in the parlia-ment. In a presidential system, by contrast,the executive and legislative branches ofgovernment operate independently.

Another important difference involvesthe method of choosing the head of govern-ment. In a presidential system, the voters ofthe nation elect the president directly. In aparliamentary system of government, theprime minister is elected or approved bymembers of the parliament.

The top office in each system can differin another way, too. In presidential sys-tems, the president acts not only as head of

AP/Wide World Photos

Shirley Temple Black(1928– )At the height of the Depression,President Franklin D. Rooseveltonce remarked, “As long as ourcountry has Shirley Temple, wewill be all right.” The child filmstar sang and danced her waythrough more than 40 moviesbefore turning age 12. To a troubled world, Temple wasAmerica’s best-loved “ambassa-dor of goodwill.”

At age 21, Temple retired, but only fromfilms. After marrying Charles Black, shedevoted her life to public service. She servedas a delegate to the United Nations, the firstfemale Chief of White House Protocol, teacherat the State Department, and ambassador totwo countries—Ghana and Czechoslovakia.

Black arrived in Czechoslovakia as commu-nism crumbled and the nation split into theCzech and Slovak republics. “My main job washuman rights,” Black later said, “trying tokeep people like future [Czech] presidentVaclav Havel out of jail.”

In 1998, Black received a lifetime achieve-ment medal at the Kennedy Center, but shestill hasn’t retired. She remains vice presidentof the American Academy of Diplomacy, anorganization she cofounded.

�BE AN ACTIVE CITIZEN�


Checking for Understanding

1. Key Terms Write a one-sentenceexplanation of each of the fol-lowing terms: authoritarian,absolute monarch, dictator, totali-tarian, constitutional monarchy,parliamentary system.

Reviewing Main Ideas2. Identify What totalitarian rulers

took control in Germany andItaly in the 1920s and 1930s?

3. Identify Name a country thathas a constitutional monarchy.

Critical Thinking

4. Drawing Inferences How does arepublic provide a good govern-ment for diverse people?

5. Organizing Information On adiagram like the one below, identify three characteristics ofdemocracy that distinguish itfrom other forms of government.

Analyzing Visuals

6. Interpret Study the map ofAfrica on page 591. What typesof government are depicted inthe key? What African nationshave traditional monarchies?

SECTION ASSESSMENT

government (the country’s political leader)but also as head of state (the country’s cer-emonial leader). In parliamentary systems,someone other than the prime minister maybe the official head of state. In parliamen-tary monarchies like Great Britain, Spain,and Sweden, the head of state is the king orqueen. In parliamentary republics like theCzech Republic, India, and Italy, the headof state is a president, chosen in most casesby the parliament.

Pros and Cons of the Parliamentary System

With a parliamentary system of govern-ment, as we have said, power is not strictlyseparated between the legislative and exec-utive branches. This means there are fewerchecks and balances on government lead-ers—a potential drawback. However, theunity among the legislative and executivebranches does help the government runsmoothly and act quickly.

Consider what happens in the UnitedStates when different political partiescontrol the presidency and Congress.Disagreements along party lines often leadto “gridlock” that stalls political action. If

Congress repeatedly rejects the president’sbudget proposals, for example, and thepresident frequently vetoes laws passed byCongress, little gets accomplished. Under aparliamentary system of government, how-ever, the chief executive is typically fromthe majority party in the legislature. As aresult, serious conflicts rarely erupt overlaws, policies, or political appointees.

Changing With the TimesMore than half of the countries in the

world today didn’t even exist in 1950.Many young countries, such as therepublics that broke away from the SovietUnion in 1991, are still making the transi-tion to democracy. However, even in well-established nations, systems of governmentevolve as times change and people with newagendas come to power.

In the next sections, we take a closerlook at two countries that are centuries old:Great Britain and China. They have gov-ernments that differ markedly from ours—and from their own original form.

Explaining What role doesthe prime minister have in Great Britain’ssystem of government?

Characteristicsof democracy

7. Write Write a one-page paperdescribing how you think your lifewould have been different hadyou been reared in a countryunder authoritarian rule.

Background of the CaseDred Scott, an enslaved African American, worked fora physician. A member of the military, the physicianmoved often, taking Scott with him. As a result, Scottlived for a time in the state of Illinois and in the terri-tory of Wisconsin, both slave-free zones. Both zoneswere also north of the boundary set by Congress inthe Missouri Compromise of 1820. The MissouriCompromise permitted slavery south of the line andprohibited slavery north of it.

By 1846, the physician had died, and Scott wasagain living in Missouri. There he continued to workfor the physician’s widow and her brother JohnSandford, who was from New York. Scott sued for hisfreedom. He claimed that his earlier residence in afree state and a free territory made him free.Missouri’s courts denied Scott, however. In order toclaim federal court jurisdiction, Scott’s lawyers thenstated that Scott was a citizen of Missouri bringingsuit against Sandford, a citizen of New York.

The DecisionThe Supreme Court decided the case on March 6–7,1857. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney spoke for theseven-justice majority. Taney first asserted his ownview of the Framers’ so-called original intent: “Theonly rights and privileges African Americans weremeant to have were those granted by their so-called‘owners’ or by the government. Therefore, Dred Scottcould not be a citizen.” He wrote further:

[I]t is the opinion of the Court that the act ofCongress which prohibited . . . [slaveholding]north of the line mentioned therein is . . . void;and that neither Dred Scott himself, nor anymember of his family were made free by beingcarried into this territory, . . . .

The Court was saying that the suit of noncitizenScott and the Missouri Compromise were unconstitu-tional. Therefore Scott was not free.

Why It MattersThe ruling added to the tensions that led to the CivilWar. In 1868, three years after the end of the war, theFourteenth Amendment to the United States Consti-tution overruled the Dred Scott decision.

1. Why was Dred Scott not freed as a resultof the Supreme Court’s decision?

2. What is your opinion of Taney’sview of the Framers’ “originalintent”?

594The Library of Congress

Scott v. SandfordScott v. Sandford

Before the Civil War, Americans were asking:Are African Americans citizens of the UnitedStates? May Congress prohibit the enslavementof African Americans in U.S. territories?

Dred Scott appeared with his wife and twodaughters in an 1857 newspaper.

GUIDE TO READING

Main Idea

Great Britain developedthe parliamentary systemof government.

Key Terms

unitary system,devolution

Reading Strategy

Organizing InformationAs you read the section,create a table like the onebelow and identify thetwo houses of the BritishParliament. Then explainthe role each plays in thenational government.

Read to Learn

• What are the parts ofthe British constitution?

• How does Great Britainselect its prime minister?

A Profile of Great Britain

SECTION

Democratic ideals developed in Europe andwere brought to the Americas by the English colonistswho settled here. Today, the United States and theUnited Kingdom share a common heritage and beliefin the values of democracy. President George W. Bushand Prime Minister Tony Blair reaffirmed theuniquely close relationship that exists betweenthe United States and the United Kingdom bycalling it “. . . a relationship rooted incommon interests around the globe. Wecommit ourselves to the shared goals of astronger transatlantic alliance and to helpingbuild a Europe whole, free, and secure.”

A Parliamentary DemocracyGreat Britain, also known as the United Kingdom, includes

England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. This islandnation, located just north of France, covers slightly less areathan the state of Oregon. With a population of about 60 mil-lion, it is the third-largest country in Europe.

In terms of history, language, and culture, the UnitedStates has closer ties to Great Britain than to any other coun-try. The 13 original states, after all, began as 13 Englishcolonies. We owe many of our traditions to Britain, includingour belief that citizens should have a voice in government andcertain basic rights.

Nonetheless, the British and American systems of govern-ment are quite different. Britain is a constitutional monarchy,with a queen whose power is limited by the constitution.Britain’s constitution is not a single document like ours but acollection of written and unwritten guides to the law.

These include several historical documents, such as theMagna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights of 1689. Alsoincluded are the whole body of British laws, court decisions,and various traditions and customs. Until the constitutionbegan to curb the monarch’s authority, British kings andqueens ruled as absolute monarchs, passing the crown from

British Prime MinisterTony Blair

Chapter 27 Comparing Systems of Government 595Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS

House Role


one generation to the next. Today the royalfamily, led by Queen Elizabeth II, plays alargely ceremonial and symbolic role.Although the queen has the right “to beinformed, to advise, and to warn” the gov-ernment, real power rests with the electedlegislature, Parliament.

How Britain’s Government Works Great Britain’s great contribution to

modern governments around the world wasthe development of the parliamentary sys-tem. Most former British colonies—Australia, Canada, India, and South Africa,to name just a few—have patterned theirown governments after Britain’s.

Parliament The British Parliament is divided into the

House of Commons and the House of Lords.The 650 members of the Commons are themain lawmakers. They represent particulardistricts and are elected directly by the voters.

Both houses of Parliament have a role in pro-posing and passing legislation, but the Houseof Commons has much greater power thanthe House of Lords. Any member of theHouse of Commons may introduce legisla-tion, but most bills are introduced by themajority party. Members debate bills, thensend them on to standing committees towork out the final details. The committeesmust report on every bill to the House ofCommons for a vote. A majority vote isneeded for passage.

The House of Lords, with about 700members, is not an elected body and hasrelatively little power. Most members are“life peers” appointed by the prime minis-ter as a reward for their achievements. Asmaller number are nobles with inheritedtitles (dukes, baronesses, earls, and the like)or leading church officials. The House ofLords debates bills and can delay their pas-sage, but it cannot stop measures that theHouse of Commons stands behind.

Comparing Authoritarian and Democratic Systems

Selection ofLeaders

Extent ofGovernment Power

Means of EnsuringCompliance

PoliticalParties

AUTHORITARIANISM(includingabsolute

monarchy,dictatorships,

and totalitarian)

Rulers inherit theirpositions or takepower by force

Rulers haveunlimited power;the governmentmay impose anofficial ideologyand control allaspects ofpolitical, economic,and civic life

The governmentrelies on statecontrol of themedia, propaganda,military or policepower, and terror

Power lies with asingle party

Multiple partiesexist

Leaders arechosen in fairelections withuniversal suffrage

The governmentis limited inpower by theconstitution andlaws; citizens’rights andfreedoms areprotected

The governmentrelies on the ruleof law

DEMOCRACY

All governments show behaviors rangingfrom democratic to authoritarian. How dothe leaders gain their positions of power ineach form of government?

Political Parties and the Prime Minister

Two parties dominate politics in GreatBritain: the Conservatives and Labour. TheConservative Party, like the RepublicanParty in the United States, supports privateenterprise and minimal government inter-vention. The Labour Party, like our Demo-cratic Party, favors a more active role forgovernment. The Conservatives draw sup-port from the upper classes, while Labourattracts working-class voters. Several minorparties are also active in Great Britain,notably the Liberal Democrats.

The political party that wins the mostseats in the House of Commons selects theprime minister. If no party has a majority,then the strongest party typically forms analliance with another party to secure back-ing for its candidate.

Tony Blair, the leader of the LabourParty, became Britain’s prime minister in1997. His election ended nearly 20 years ofpolitical control by the Conservatives.

No limits are set on how long a primeminister or member of Parliament mayserve. In fact, no dates are fixed for parlia-mentary elections, but they must be held atleast every five years. The prime ministerusually calls for elections earlier, when hisor her party has strong public support.Thismakes it possible for the party to gain evenmore seats in the House of Commons anduse its majority to prolong its stay in office.

The Judiciary England and Wales, Northern Ireland,

and Scotland have their own separate legalsystems. In each system civil cases areheard in certain courts, and criminal casesare heard in other courts. For most legalmatters, a committee of the House ofLords is the highest court of appeal.Thus itacts as the equivalent of the United StatesSupreme Court.

British judges, like our federal judges,are appointed for life terms. This keepsthem free from political pressure.

Identifying What areBritain’s two major political parties?

Regional GovernmentsAs you know, the United States has a

federal system of government in whichpower is shared by the states and thenational government. Great Britain has aunitary system of government—one inwhich power is centralized. Most politicaldecisions for all parts of the country aremade in London, the capital. The role oflocal governments is chiefly to provide serv-ices paid for with central funds.

In the late 1990s, however, Britain begana policy of devolution—transferring powerto local authorities. Elected assemblies werecreated in Scotland, Wales, and NorthernIreland. They now govern regional matterssuch as education and some taxes. However,the people in Scotland,Wales, and NorthernIreland still elect members to Parliament,too, and Parliament is still responsible foroverall economic policy, national defense,and so forth.

Cleve Bryant/PhotoEdit

The royal familylogo as it appears

on BuckinghamPalace gate in

London, England




1. Key Terms Write a short para-graph about the government ofGreat Britain using these keyterms: unitary system,devolution.

Reviewing Main Ideas2. Describe What elements make

up Great Britain’s constitution?Identify two historical documentsthat are important parts of theconstitution.

3. Identify What two houses makeup Britain’s Parliament?

Critical Thinking

4. Drawing Conclusions Why doyou think Great Britain continuesto have a monarchy, eventhough the monarch has limitedpower?

5. Making Comparisons On a diagram like the one below,describe the differencesbetween the U.S. federal system and the British unitarysystem of government.

Analyzing Visuals

6. Interpret Study the chart onpage 596. How do the powers ofthe government leaders differunder each system of government?

SECTION ASSESSMENT

The devolved government in NorthernIreland does not go far enough for somepeople there. Many Catholics, who are in theminority, oppose the Protestant majorityand seek independence from Britain.Repeated violence between the two groupscontinues to plague Northern Ireland.

Economic Role At one time, Great Britain ruled an

immense empire that included nearly one-fifth of the world’s land and population.Today it controls only a few small islandsbeyond its borders, but it remains a keyplayer on the world stage.

Britain has the fourth-largest economy inthe world, and London ranks with New YorkCity as a leading financial center. The coun-try is one of our closest allies and regularlyconsults with U.S. officials on foreign policyand global issues. Our two nations cooper-ated during both World Wars and in morerecent conflicts, such as the 1991 Gulf Warand the current campaign against terrorism.

Britain is also firmly tied to the rest ofEurope as a member of the EuropeanUnion (EU). Remember that the EU is an

organization of independent countries thatcooperate in matters of economics andtrade, social and foreign policy, security,and justice. In 1999, the EU began to phasein a single currency, the euro, for its mem-bers. The idea is to make it easier forEuropeans to do business with one another.So far, Britain has not switched to the euro,but it may do so in the future.

Describing How often areparliamentary elections held?

�BE AN ACTIVE CITIZEN�7. Research For one week, find

newspaper or magazineaccounts about Great Britain.Find out what issues face thecountry today. Summarize theissues in a short, written report.

System of Government

Federal Unitary

“Are there any questions?”This question signifies the start ofQuestion Time. During Question Time,Parliament members ask one anotherquestions; members explain thingsand are held accountable for theiractions and votes. Although the U.S.Congress does not have QuestionTime, Americans can hold their representatives accountable at thevoting booth.

GUIDE TO READING

Main Idea

China’s moves towardfree enterprise are open-ing the country to politi-cal change.

Key Terms

dynasty, collective farm,human rights

Reading Strategy

Sequencing InformationAs you read the section,complete a time line like the one below byidentifying importantevents in China.

Read to Learn

• How did the Chineseeconomic systemdevelop following World War II?

• How is China’s government structured?

A Profile of China SECTION

Growing up in Los Angeles,Aaron Chung never lost sight of hisChinese heritage. Chung decided to visitHong Kong and the village where hisfather was born to learn about his family’shistory. Chung noted, “I often used to seethis label [Chinese American] as ahandicap, with me not belonging fully toone group or the other. Through tracingmy family ties to its origins in China, I wasable to appreciate to a higher degree . . .what it meant to be Chinese. At the sametime, being an American has presentedmany opportunities. . . . Now, instead of ahindrance, I see that being ChineseAmerican allows me to have the best ofboth worlds.”

China in HistoryThere is no ignoring the People’s Republic of China. With a

population of 1.3 billion, it is home to more people than anyother country (nearly 20 percent of the world’s population).China covers the third-largest land area, behind Russia andCanada. It boasts some of the world’s largest cities, longest rivers,and highest mountains.The Great Wall of China, which stretches4,500 miles, is the longest structure ever built. Even China’s his-tory is vast; with written records going back 3,500 years, theChinese have the world’s oldest continuous civilization.

Because of its size, China has great power. The country’senormous market potential and its exports of inexpensiveclothing, toys, and other goods make it a valuable trading part-ner for us. At the same time, China’s military strength andcommunist ideology keep us watchful.

The Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991 left China as the lastmajor Communist state. The Chinese Communist Party(CCP) has controlled the country since 1949. For centuries,however, China was ruled by a series of dynasties—familiesthat hold power for many generations.

A busy street in Shanghai, China

Chapter 27 Comparing Systems of Government 599M.E. Newman/Woodfin Camp & Assoc.

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Source: Freedom House, 2000 Survey.

DemocracyRestricted Democratic PracticeTraditional MonarchyAuthoritarian RegimeTotalitarian Regime


Asia: Governments by Type

The last dynasty began to crumble inthe late 1800s, weakened by clashes withthe West, economic problems, and socialunrest. An uprising in 1911 overthrew theemperor, and China became a republic thenext year. A stable government didn’temerge until the late 1920s, when theKuomintang, or Nationalist Party, tookpower. Meanwhile, the rival CCP hadformed, inspired by Soviet communism.Led by Mao Zedong, the Communists

gained a strong following. By 1949, theCCP controlled most of the country, andthe Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, an islandabout 100 miles east of the Chinese main-land. There they set up a separate govern-ment and a capitalist economy.

On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong pro-claimed the founding of the People’sRepublic of China, with its capital in Beijing.Mao led the country for nearly 30 years, set-ting it on a new political and economic path.

Asia has undergone a significant expansion ofdemocratically elected governments. Identify twocountries that have democratic governments.

The Communist government wanted toturn China into a socialist state. The CCPquickly seized farmland and redistributed itamong the peasants. To increase agricul-tural output, small holdings were combinedinto collective farms, worked jointly bygroups of peasants under governmentsupervision. The government also tookcontrol of all major industries, assignedjobs to workers, and developed five-yearplans for economic growth.

Under Mao, the Chinese governmenttook a hard line against individualism.More than 1 million political opponentswere executed in the first year of Mao’srule. Strict controls were placed on free-dom of expression, and organized religionwas banned. Young people were taughtunquestioning loyalty to the CommunistParty and the state.

A Shift Toward Moderation In the 1970s, with economic develop-

ment lagging, the Chinese government beganrelaxing its iron grip on society. After Mao’sdeath in 1976, the CCP expelled many of itsmore radical members, loosened central con-trol over industry and agriculture, and per-mitted some degree of free enterprise.

A new Communist Party leader, DengXiaoping, dominated China during the1980s. Deng welcomed foreign trade andinvestment, and China became more opento the rest of the world. At the same time, it

resisted its ownpeople’s efforts tomake the govern-ment more demo-cratic. The mostdramatic incidentoccurred in Beijingin 1989. Hundredsof unarmed, pro-democracy students whowere demonstrating in Tiananmen Squarewere killed by Chinese military forces.

Economic reforms are continuing inChina today. Private enterprise and foreigninvestment are expanding; yet politicalleaders remain heavily involved in directingthe economy. The government sets theprice of many goods, and it provides hous-ing and food subsidies.

The government still regulates manyaspects of private life. For example, policiesdesigned to curb population growth try tolimit families to one or two children.However, the government intrudes intopeople’s personal affairs less than in thepast. Religious freedom, for instance, isnow officially protected, and many Chinesepractice Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, orChristianity. As might be expected, China’smassiveness makes strict social control dif-ficult, especially in rural areas, where themajority of people live.

Political controls, meanwhile, remaintight. The government is quick to useintimidation and force to squelch criticism.

Tiananmen SquareIn 1989, student-leddemonstrators occupiedTiananmen Square inBeijing to demand reform.What were the demon-strators supporting?

Student Web Activity Visitciv.glencoe.com and click onStudent Web Activities—Chapter 27 to learn moreabout China’s government.

Bohemian Nomad Picturemakers/CORBIS



Population Living Under Various Types of Government

Colony/Protectorate

TotalitarianAuthoritarianMonarchyRestrictedDemocracy

Democracy0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,0003,440

298

743

28658

1,968

142 5107 122

817

322

PO

PU

LATI

ON

(in m

illio

ns)

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT19502000 Source: Freedom

House.

Nearly 3.5 billion people lived under democratic govern-ments in 2000. How many lived under totalitarian rule?

China’s constitution recognizes humanrights—the fundamental rights thatbelong to every person on Earth. Theseinclude freedom from illegal imprisonmentand torture, as well as basic civil liberties.Nonetheless, Chinese authorities frequentlymistreat people. Anyone viewed as a threatmay be beaten, locked away in prison or a mental institution, or shipped off to alabor camp.

Sequencing When did the Communists take control of China’sgovernment?

The Structure of GovernmentThe Chinese Communist Party, with 63

million members, is the dominant force ingovernment. Its presence is felt at everylevel, in every aspect of policy. Severalminor parties exist in China, but none haveany real influence. At the center of govern-ment is the secretary-general of the CCP,

Jiang Zemin. He happens to hold the titleof president of China as well, but that officeis largely ceremonial.

Next to the secretary-general, the mostimportant figure in the government is usu-ally the premier, currently Zhu Rongji.Thepremier heads the State Council, which isChina’s executive body.

The Council implements party policiesand handles the day-to-day running of thegovernment. China’s various ministries—for defense, education, health, and soforth—all fall under the authority of theState Council.

In theory, the highest governing body inChina is the National People’s Congress.The Congress includes about 3,000 mem-bers elected from different provinces. Itmeets for only about two weeks a year,however, and has little real power.

Instead, national policy is made by thePolitburo, a group of about 20 top partyleaders. Seven of these leaders, the “cream ofthe crop,” serve on the Politburo Standing

Committee.This select group mastermindsChina’s political, economic, and social pol-icy. Both President Jiang and Premier Zhuare members.

A Vast Bureaucracy China, like other Communist-led

nations, has a unitary system of govern-ment. In other words, the central govern-ment in Beijing makes political decisionsfor the entire country. Still, given its hugesize, China could not function without lay-ers of local leadership. Each province has agovernor, and power trickles on down toheads of counties, districts, townships, andtowns. All together, about 10.5 million peo-ple work for the Chinese government.

An Improving Judicial System China’s judiciary, unlike ours, is not a

completely independent branch of govern-ment. The courts bow to pressure from theCommunist Party, and criminal proceed-ings leave much to be desired. Police cangather evidence with no search warrants.Lawyers cannot object to the opposingcounsel’s questions or cite legal precedentsto support their case. Judges are often cor-rupt or inept; many came to the benchstraight from law school or from careers inthe military rather than law.

Recent reforms, however, now requirelegal training for judges. New rules aremaking trials fairer. For example, accusedpersons are allowed to see an attorneybefore trial and are assumed to be innocentuntil proven guilty.These are positive steps,but it is too early to know their effects.

Relations With the United StatesAfter the People’s Republic was

proclaimed in 1949, the United States brokeoff diplomatic ties with the government inBeijing. For many years, our official contactswere with the Nationalist authorities in

Taiwan. In 1972, however, relations withBeijing warmed when President RichardNixon made a historic visit to mainlandChina. In 1979, the United States recognized

Chapter 27 Comparing Systems of Government 603Courtesy family of Suzie Greenman

Only 13 years old, Suzie Greenman prob-ably knows more about coral reefs,

fish spawning, and marine wildlife thanmost people twice her age. That’s becauseGreenman and 14 other students from theFlorida Keys just spent the past year work-ing with the World Wildlife Fund to saveFlorida’s Tortugas Marine Reserve, theworld’s third-largest coral reef.

Following months of research, study,and preparation, the group was ultimatelyrewarded: the Tortugas Reserve is now aprotected area, a 200-square-mile sanctu-ary for one of the most biodiverse regionson the planet.

“It’s one of the prettiest places in theworld,” Greenman told TIME. “We saw thewildlife there and we realized why it was sospecial. The coral reef was already startingto be destroyed. We thought that if wecould save it before anything happened, itwould be a great achievement.”

Indeed, Greenman and her classmatesreceived a standing ovation after makingtheir case to the Florida Fish & WildlifeConservation Commission in Miami.Likewise, they were applauded in the statecapital of Tallahassee, when the groupmade presentations to Governor Jeb Bushand his cabinet.

Would you liketo get involved inwildlife conserva-tion? Go to theWorld WildlifeFund’s Web site:www.wwf.org

Suzie Greenmanfrom Florida

http://www.wwf.org



1. Key Terms Use each of the fol-lowing terms in a sentence thatwill help explain its meaning:dynasty, collective farm,human rights.

Reviewing Main Ideas2. Identify When was the People’s

Republic of China formed?3. Describe How has China’s

economy become more moderate since the 1970s?

Critical Thinking

4. Evaluating Information DoesChina support human rights?Explain your answer.

5. Organizing Information On adiagram like the one below,describe the role each plays inChina’s government.

Analyzing Visuals

6. Interpret Study the map on page600. What nations have govern-ments that practice restricteddemocracy? What nations havetotalitarian governments?

SECTION ASSESSMENT

Walt Handelsman

�BE AN ACTIVE CITIZEN�7. Write Write an e-mail to an

American company that conductsbusiness in foreign countries todiscover any cultural or businesspractices the company has incor-porated into its operations.

Governmentof China

Secretary-General

Premier

Politburo

Analyzing Visuals Humanrights advocates urged theUnited States to deny most-favored-nation trading statusto China because of concernsover China’s record of humanrights abuses. What commentis the cartoonist makingabout the U.S. decision toengage in trade with China?

Beijing as the sole legitimate government ofChina. Our two countries now trade brisklyand engage in cultural, educational, and sci-entific exchanges.

Relations are still strained at times, espe-cially over China’s poor record of protectinghuman rights. The United States also criti-cized Chinese authorities for holding thecrew of a U.S. surveillance plane in April2001, which made an emergency landing

after colliding with a Chinese fighter jet.(The 24 Americans were released after 11days.) However, as a recent Chinese visitortold President Bush, maintaining “friendlyrelations and cooperation . . . is in the inter-est of Asia, the Pacific Region, and the worldat large.”

Describing What does thePolitburo do?


Critical Thinking

Why Learn This Skill?When you ask why an event occurred, you arelooking for a cause-and-effect relationship. Acause is the action or situation that producesan event. What happens as a result of acause is an effect. Tracing causes and effectsas you read or study deepens your mentalgrasp of the topic.

Learning the SkillTo identify cause-and-effect relationships, fol-low these steps:• Identify and focus on two or more events or

developments.• Decide if one event caused the other. Look

for “clue words” such as because, so,brought about, produced, as a result of, ortherefore.

• Look for logical relationships betweenevents, such as “Vance’s bike had a flattire. He rode his scooter.”

• Identify the outcomes of events. Rememberthat some effects have more than onecause, and some causes lead to more thanone effect.

Practicing the SkillOn a separate sheet of paper, list the causesand effects in each statement that follows ondiagrams similar to the sample on this page.

Although a member of the EuropeanUnion, Great Britain has retained some ofits traditional separation. It declined adop-tion of the euro in 2002.Mexican and American governments havejoined the Partnership for Prosperity toincrease investment and job opportunitiesin Mexico’s poorest regions. These placesbenefited little from the North AmericanFree Trade Agreement.

Japan’s constitution of 1889 allowed forno checks and balances among its legisla-tive, executive, and judicial branches. As aresult, military leaders were able to stepin and seize power. After World War II,framers of the 1947 constitution cor-rected the earlier weaknesses.Among the world pressures exertedagainst South Africa’s apartheid govern-ment was its exclusion from internationalorganizations. When apartheid ended,South Africa again participated in theUnited Nations and other world conferences.

4

3

2

1

Practice key skills with Glencoe’sSkillbuilder Interactive WorkbookCD-ROM, Level 1.

Understanding Cause and Effect

In a current newsmagazine, read an accountdescribing a government action or program.Identify at least one cause and one effect inthe situation. Show the cause-and-effect rela-tionship in a diagram like the one shown onthis page.

Applying the Skill

CAUSE

EFFECT

Heavy snowfall in mountains; Early thaw

Flooding in valley

Section 3

• Communists led by Mao Zedong seizedpower in China in 1949.

• China’s leaders established a totalitariangovernment strictly controlled by theCommunist Party.

• China has begun to allow some elements offree enterprise.

Using Your Foldables Study OrganizerUse your completed foldable to writefour compare-and-contrast statements.For example, Great Britain’s head ofgovernment is the ________, whereasChina’s government leader is the_________. Recite your statements tothe class.

606(t)David & Peter Turnley/CORBIS, (b)Brian Yarvin/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Section 2

• Great Britain has aparliamentary democ-racy. The monarch’spower is limited.

• The nationallegislature, Parliament,holds almost allgovernmental authorityin Great Britain.

Section 1

• Democracy is a systemof government in whichthe people rule.

• Authoritariangovernment is asystem of governmentin which the power and authorityto rule is held by an individual or agroup not accountable to the people.

Reviewing Key TermsWrite the key term from the chapter thatmatches each definition below.

1. a system of government in which a king or aqueen holds unlimited power

2. the form of government in which executiveand legislative functions both reside in anelected assembly

3. the leader of the executive branch in a parlia-mentary system

4. fundamental rights that belong to all people

5. a government that exercises complete control of the state

6. the transfer of power to local authorities

7. a family that holds governing power over along period of time

8. a government in which the power of thehereditary ruler is limited by the nation’s con-stitution and laws

Reviewing Main Ideas9. Who holds power under an authoritarian

regime?

10. How do dictators usually gain control of acountry?

11. What three totalitarian regimes emerged inthe 1920s and 1930s?

12. What is another name for a representativedemocracy?

13. What group is the main lawmaker in Britain’sParliament?

14. What are the two major political parties inGreat Britain?

15. When did the Communist Party take controlof China?

Critical Thinking16. Making Comparisons How does parliamen-

tary government differ from presidential government?

17. Organizing Information On a diagram likethe one below, explain why we expect tosee numerous surpluses and shortages inan economy that is centrally planned andone in which government sets the prices.

Technology Activity18. Search for information on the Internet about

China’s economy. How is it changing? Whatare the economic problems it faces? Sum-marize your findings in a one-page paper.

Analyzing VisualsStudy the bar graph on page 602; then answerthe following questions.

19. What comparison do the sets of graphsshow?

20. How did the number of democratic govern-ments change?

Economics Activity21. Keep a log of items you use in one week.

Include such items as your clothes, food, orsports equipment. Note whether each itemis foreign-made or produced domestically.Then write a one-page paper in which yougive your opinion on international trade andits effects on you.

22. Working in small groups, research a nationwhose government was not described inthis chapter. Is it authoritarian or demo-cratic? Presidential or parliamentary? Doesit have legislative representatives? Do politi-cal parties compete for office? Compileyour findings in a pamphlet.

Practicing Skills 23. Understanding Cause and Effect In your

local newspaper, read an article describinga current event that took place in anothercountry. Determine at least one cause andone effect of that event.

Self-Check Quiz Visit the Civics Today Web site atciv.glencoe.com and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 27 to prepare for the chapter test.

Standardized Test Practice

Directions: Read the excerpt from the writings of Adam Smith below. Then choose the best topic sentence

for the selection.

“It is the highest impertinence and pre-sumption, therefore, in kings and ministers,to pretend to watch over the economy ofprivate people, and to restrain theirexpense. . . . They are themselves always,and without any exception, the greatestspendthrifts in the society. Let them lookwell after their own expense, and theymay safely trust private people with theirs.If their own extravagance does not ruin thestate, that of their subjects never will.”F Government should take every possible

action to help the economy.G Every nation progresses through six

stages of economic development.H Government should not be involved in

the economic affairs of people.J Economics provides a framework for

decision making.

Test-Taking TipRead the excerpt carefully. Remember that

Adam Smith supported the doctrine oflaissez-faire. What does the doctrine sayabout government’s role in the economy?


Governmentcontrolsproductionand prices

Surpluses

Shortages


by comparing political systems, we can develop an...

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