BY CHANCE OR BY DESIGN:CAN MARINE RESERVES HELP MANAGERS PROTECT CORAL REEFS FROM UNMANAGEABLE STRESSES?

FL Map

Executive Order on Coral Reef Protection 1998no mention of bleaching1998 bleaching event shifted the focus from human threats to GCCUSVI--Long-term monitoring of coral reefs in decline from hurricanes, other causesIn USVI, disease > bleachingVI National Parktop 10 on Endangered Park List

What is needed to better manage coral reefs in the face of changing climateCan marine reserves help? What role can deeper reefs play?What are the challenges?More research on links between disease, bleaching, and human activities

BLEACHING

White Plague

White Poxelkhorn coral

METHODS MATTERVideo transects vs. chain transectsOne-time assessments wont do itIndividual coral colony monitoringFrequency of sampling

VIDEOGRAPHY

Quantitative dataSelection of random transectsStatistical rigorPermanent visual record

Aqua-Map Sonar-based Mapping System

NewfoundPERCENT BLEACHED CORAL

1998 Newfound 13% chain; 43% video (24% cover) Lameshur 18% chain; 47% video (10% cover)1999 Recovery. No loss of coral cover.Lameshur

Newfound Reef

What killed this coral?

Rationale for Monument CreationSmaller size classes, serial depletion of speciesCommercially extinct species: Nassau Grouper

Over-fishing Coral Reef Decline

Significant Habitats Gained Mid-shelf reefliving coral cover 4x higher than inshore reefs

?

What is in the new monuments?

Resistance/Resilience of Deeper ReefsLess vulnerable to bleaching because of their depth (cooler temps., less radiation)Less diseaseLess damage from storms [more with GCC?], anchors, runoffSource of new larvae? Fecundity?Species compositiondeep vs. shallow

CONCEPTUAL REEF MODEL

WBDSTORMSDIADEMADIE-OFFSEA FAN FUNGUSPLAGUEBBDDUSTNO MORE FISH!!CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF YUKKY REEFRUNOFFCaution: not for navigational purposes!!

Research NeedsRelationship between bleaching and disease (deep reefs less susceptible?)Link between mortality and bleachingCan the marine reserves reverse the declines? Effects of reserves on ecological processesherbivory and coral recruitmentFecundity of deep water coralsReproduction of diseased corals (reduced?)Connectivity

CONCLUSIONSMarine reserves have potential to offset bleaching and diseaseIncreased herbivory---- recruitmentFewer other stresses

Today I will be presenting results of some of the research that we have done in the US Virgin Islands and I will be exploring the possibility that the new marine reserves in the islands can help us protect coral reefs from stresses such as bleachingstresses that at first glance seem pretty unmanageable.Will be focusing on the US Virgin Islands and specifically on new no take zones that have been established there. Will discuss some relevant research on bleaching and disease, and the potential for the new marine reserves to mitigate the effects of global climate change. Interesting to note that sedimentation and overfishing are mentioned, for example, in the Exec. Order but NOT bleaching or disease. I know that bleaching is considered a disease by many but for the purposes of this talk I am differentiating it from diseases such as black band, white band, white pox, etc. There has been over 20 years of long-term monitoring and research in the USVI, most of by NPS and USGS.Some of this work has been on the effects of hurricanes--- many predict that there will be more hurricanes with GCC. Virgin Islands National Park, on St. John, was listed as one of the 10 most endangered parks, based partly on effects of overfishing and degradation from disease. Here I will be building on some of the ideas presented in the Proceedings of the Workshop on Mitigating Coral Bleaching Impact through MPA designBleaching has occurred in the USVI but has caused less mortality than coral diseases and hurricanes.Here bleaching is extensive on a reef in Virgin Islands National Park that has over 50% coral cover. Depth here is about 10 m.White Plague first noted around St. John in 1997. This was BEFORE the 1998 bleaching episode.We have seen this on coral colonies of 13 different species. Monitoring of disease is occurring each month at Tektite Reef. No seasonal trend has been apparent as disease has been seen every month and some of the worst episodes have been in the cooler months. Diseased portions never recover.

White pox is now affecting some of the elkhorn corals around St. John, although this colony has now almost completely healed. One of the challenges is that it is not always possible to tell what has caused the bleached or dying areas.We are not here to discuss methods, but a few words on this are in order here.If we are going to effectively monitor bleaching and the RESULTS of bleaching, we need to be careful in selecting the method. With regard to monitoring a particular reef, I recommend video transects augmented by monitoring of individual coral colonies. To follow the fate of these corals, monitoring should be done every week if possible.

In the USVI, we have focussed (pun intended) most of our attention on the video method that uses a digital video camera in an underwater housing to record cover by corals and other reef organisms. We have developed a protocol that is in use in several national parks. The second component of this video protocol involves sampling design and the selection of sampling units (i.e., transects, that are truly independent of each other, to satisfy statistical criteriaNow we have the tools to randomly select transects and we should start to use them. Even inexpensive GPS units can be used . During the 1998 bleaching episode, we used 2 methods along permanent transects on two reefs.The method gave similar results for coral cover but very different values for the percent of bleached coral. Possibly this discrepancy arose because the bleaching was more pronounced on the upper surfaces of the corals visible in planar view and less so on the sides of colonies sampled with the chain method.

Both reefs recovered from this bleaching event. Data on percent cover masks the effects of bleaching on individual coral colonies.

Note in 1999, this bleached coral was mostly dead but had some live tissue near its base.

Then in 2000, totally dead.

What killed it?

It could have recovered from bleaching and then died from disease!!This elkhorn coral was photographed in February of this year. White pox is evident. Haulover Bayinside the national park and not subject to any obvious runoff, sewage or other pollution. This photograph was taken March 26, 2003. Two diseases and snail predation! This is one of the challenges.

Frequency of sampling or observations is important. If this coral was just observed once in February and then a year later, one might conclude that white pox killed it.So disease here associated with coolest month.

In 2001, President Clinton established VICRNM and greatly expanded the boundaries of the existing monument at Buck Island, St. Croix. VICRNM is 12, 708 acres.Buck Island increased by over 18,000 acres. Significant new habitats were included within these areas. NO FISHING OR ANCHORING ARE ALLOWED (although trap fishing is allowed within VINP). The proclamations establishing the new VICRNM and the expansion of BUIS refer the need for greater protection of coral reefs and other habitats and organisms considered part of an entire, functional tropical marine ecosystem.Although for over two years scientists and managers discussed the best ecological boundaries for these no take zones, in the end the process was political and any inclusion of coral reefs and other key habitats was serendipitous.

Fortunately, significant coral reef, seagrass , and mangrove habitats were included within these new monuments.

Over 18000 acres added. Maximum depth is about one mile. Significant new habitats encompassed within this boundary, including spur and groove zones not found in initial monument. Another challenge is to figure out just what is in these new monuments. Off St. John, maximum depth of about 150 and about a mile deep off Buck Island. Concepts of resistance and resilience as discussed in the Bleaching/MPA workshop are helpful.Resistance = ability of individ. corals to either resist bleaching or to recover after they have been bleached Resilience = ability of reef to return to previous state through growth/reproduction of surviving corals and through recruitment from upstream areas.

Do we see less bleaching in deeper water? In 1987-1988, corals of several species were bleached to depths of 60. Anecdotal reports of less bleaching in deep water 130 feet south of St Thomas during 1989 (1990) bleaching (Rafe Boulon)

[but see Spencer et a. 2000deep water corals may be more sensitive to UV!]

Similar species composition in shallow and deep water (not sure if this is the case for some Pacific Reefs).[But, even without temperature increase, Wilkinson 2000 page 8Increase in CO2 could cause decrease in calcification, thus slowing growth, increasing their fragility, and decreasing their capacity to BUILD reefs-- Bob Halley--maybe buffering effects]

At depth of 130 or so, Montastreas still dominate. Also Agaricias, Colpophyllia, Diplorias.

Views from 90 feet down, south of St. John. Some evidence of white plague and black band disease. MPAS will not always be located at sites with the highest coral cover, highest diversity, etc. How often do we actually get to choose the boundaries based on purely ecological reasons?

Clearly, if marine reserves are going to help offset stresses like bleaching and disease, they must include functional coral reefs with all the necessary components.HERBIVORY, CORAL RECRUITMENT, GROUPERS, HERBIVORESNOT TO SCALE!!LESS CORAL, MORE ALGAEHERBIVORY, CORAL RECRUITMENTCan marine reserves reverse declines in benthic habitats and changes in reef fish assemblages?With more herbivory because more herbivorous fishes, better coral recruitment. What are the migration patterns of fish and coral larvae; ontogenetic shiftsLinks among habitats reefs and seagrass bedsSometimes as scientists we complain that managers do not have the political will to act on the results of our research. In this case, the managers need a lot more information from us. Scientists dont like to stick their necks outWe have a choice----we can be clinicallly depressed or Hope there is HOPE!I think that marine reserves, especially those with deeper reef zones and higher coral cover, can help offset bleaching and disease.

Greater herbivory will lead to more recruitmentIf reefs within marine reserves bleach, more likely to recover because fewer other stresses.