buffalo husbandary

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Further Reading

Alton GG, Jones LM, Angus RD and Verger JM (1988)Techniques for the Brucellosis Laboratory. Paris: INRA.

Beerens H and Luquet FM (1987) Guide Pratiqued'Analyse Microbiologique des Laits et ProduitsLaitiers. Paris: Lavoisier-APRIA.

Blasco JM (1997) A review of the use of B. melitensis

Rev1 vaccine in adult sheep and goats. PreventiveVeterinary Medicine 31: 275281.

Corbel MJ and Brinley-Morgan WJ (1984) GenusBrucella Meyer and Shaw 1920, 173AL. In: Krieg NRand Holt JG (eds.) Bergey's Manual of SystematicBacteriology, vol. 1, pp. 377388. Baltimore: Williams& Wilkins.

Davies G and Casey A (1973) The survival of Brucellaabortus in milk and milk products. British VeterinaryJournal129: 345353.

Garin-Bastuji B and Blasco JM (2000) Caprine and ovinebrucellosis (excluding B. ovis infection). In: The OIE

Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests andVaccines, 4th edn, pp. 475489. Paris: OIE.

Garin-Bastuji B and Verger JM (1994) Brucella abortusand melitensis. In: Hahn G (ed.) The Signicance ofPathogenic Microrganisms in Raw Milk, pp. 167185.Brussels: IDF.

Garin-Bastuji B, Blasco JM, Grayon M and Verger JM

(1998) B. melitensis infection in sheep: present andfuture. Veterinary Research 29: 255274.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Brucellosis (1986)6th Report, Technical Report Series 740. Geneva:WHO.

MacMillan AP and Stack J (2000) Bovine brucellosis. In:The OIE Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests andVaccines, 4th edn, pp. 328345. Paris: OIE.

Nielsen K and Duncan JR (1990) Animal Brucellosis.Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Young EJ and Corbel MJ (1989) Brucellosis: Clinical andLaboratory Aspects. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Brucellosis see Diseases of Dairy Animals, Infectious: Brucellosis.

Buffalo Breeds see Dairy Animals: Water Buffalo.

BUFFALO HUSBANDRY

Asia

M R Jainudeen, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang,Selangor, Malaysia

Copyright 2002, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Introduction

Tropical Asia is the homeland for almost 158 millionof the population of 163 million domestic buffaloes(Bubalus bubalis) in the world (1999 estimate).Domestic buffaloes in Asia are of two types: the

swamp type for draught in the eastern half of Asia

Contents

AsiaMediterranean Region

186 BUFFALO HUSBANDRY/Asia


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and the river type for milk in the western half of Asia(see Dairy Animals: Water Buffalo). Once a sadlyneglected farm species, the river type buffalo cur-rently produces about 55 million tonnes of milkannually from some of the world's best buffalobreeds in India and Pakistan. They breed throughoutthe year, conceive at 250275 kg body weight, calve

for the rst time at 35 years following a gestationperiod of 305320 days, and produce two calvesevery 3 years. Lactating animals are fed mainly onstraw, crop residues and mineral supplements suchas ureamolassesmineral block (UMMB). In mostrural areas, animals are hand-milked twice daily withthe calf present to stimulate milk letdown. Lactationis 200300 days with rst lactation milk yields of15001800 kg. Breeding females are retained in theherd until about the ninth lactation (16 years of age)with reasonable economic returns. River buffaloesare vulnerable to most infectious and meta-

bolic diseases affecting cattle. In India and Pakistan,milk is marketed through a network of milk co-operatives, which guarantee a stable price throughoutthe year for the farmer. Buffalo milk contains twice asmuch butterfat as cows' milk. Besides ghee, severalother products are manufactured from buffalo milk,such as butter, cheese, full cream milk powder, skimmilk powder and infant formulae. Thus, the domesticbuffalo is emerging as an alternative source for themanufacture of dairy products worldwide.

Buffalo Species, Types and Population

The term `buffalo' refers to three species in the familyBovidae. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) andthe North American buffalo (Bison bison ) have yet tobe domesticated. On the contrary, the Asian buffalo(Bubalus bubalis) was domesticated around the sametime in history as cattle for draught power, milk andmeat. The domestic buffalo is also known as the`water buffalo' because of its fondness of coolingitself in water (Figure 1).

These two buffalo types differ in their wallowinghabits, chromosome numbers and physical features(Table 1). The river buffalo makes up nearly 75% ofthe buffalo population in Asia (Figure 2). The dairybreeds of river buffaloes in India are the Murrah,Nili-Ravi and Surti and in Pakistan the Nili-Ravi andKundi.

Breeding Management

Buffaloes, like cattle, are polyestrous, breedingthroughout the year, but the calving pattern is inu-enced by rainfall, feed supply, ambient temperatureand photoperiod. In India and Pakistan, most buf-faloes calve between November and March.

Puberty

The buffalo attains puberty at a later age than cattle(see Oestrus Cycles: Puberty). On recommended

levels of nutrition, most conceptions occur when thefemale weighs 250275 kg. In the male viable spermappear at about 24 months of age.

Oestrus Cycle

The oestrus cycle length is about 21 days with oestruslasting 12 to 30 hours and ovulation occurringspontaneously after the end of oestrus (Table 2).

Figure 1 Wallowing behaviour of river buffalo.

BUFFALO HUSBANDRY/Asia 187

Table 1 Some characteristics of swamp and river buffaloes

Characteristic Swamp buffalo River buffalo

Location Eastern half of Asia Western half of AsiaCountries Burma, China, Indonesia, Malaysia,

Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam

India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Nepal, Sri Lanka,

BangladeshHorns Grow outwards and curve in a semicircle

but remain on the plane of the foreheadGrow downwards and backwards

Breed(s) Single breed Seven recognized breeds, e.g. Murrah,Nili-Ravi and Surti

Wallowing habits Swamps Clean running water, e.g. rivers or streamsChromosome number (2n) 48 50

Purposes Draft and meat Milk and meat


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Unlike cattle, overt signs of oestrus are not pro-nounced (see Oestrus Cycles: Characteristics). Inmost smallholder farms, a male buffalo may not beavailable for oestrus detection. Homosexual behavi-our or standing to be mounted by another female isobserved only occasionally in the buffalo. As a result,

most inseminations are based on less-reliable signs

such as clear vulval discharge, restlessness, frequenturination, vocalization and reduction in milk (seeMating Management: Detection of Oestrus). Oestruscommences toward late evening with peak sexualactivity at night.

Artificial Insemination

Since the early 1950s, articial insemination (AI) hasbeen practised in the river buffalo in the Indian sub-continent but its progress has been very slow becauseof the difculty of detecting oestrus and low con-ception rates in smallholder farms.

Buffalo semen is routinely collected in AI centreswith an articial vagina, similar in design to that forcattle. Ejaculate volume and concentration of semenare lower in buffalo than cattle. Techniques of semenevaluation, processing and cryopreservation are as incattle with minor modications (see Gamete andEmbryo Technology: Articial Insemination).

AI centres in India and Pakistan provide anAI service with either chilled or frozen semen. InPakistan, an AI network consisting of over 140 mainand about 400 subcentres provides more than 3

million inseminations annually.

Asia

River Buffalo

Swamp Buffalo

Figure 2 Distribution of domestic buffaloes in Asia. (Adapted from FAO, 1999.)


Table 2 Reproductive parameters of buffalo and cattle

Parameter River buffalo Cattle

Sexual season Polyoestrous PolyoestrousAge at puberty (months) 1536 1024

Oestrous cycleLength (days) 1822 1429Oestrus (h) 1230 1724

Gestation length (days) 305320 278293

Age at rst calving (months) 3656 2436Calving intervals (months) 1521 1214Ejaculate volume (ml) 36 410Sperm concentration (106 ml1) 3001500 8002000

First service conception rate(frozen semen) (%)

1050 4575

Adapted from Jainudeen and Hafez (2000).


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Most inseminations are usually performed between12 and 24 h from the onset of oestrus. At this time,the cervix is sufciently dilated for the deposition ofsemen in the uterine body with the same inseminationequipment as for cattle.

Both India and Pakistan export frozen semento upgrade or crossbreed indigenous buffaloes in

Thailand, China and the Philippines.

Embryo Transfer Technology

Several countries are engaged in developing embryotransfer (ET) technology in the buffalo. The basicprinciples of ET technology in cattle are applicable tobuffalo except that embryos are collected from theuterus on day 5 of the cycle instead on day 7 or 8adopted in cattle (see Gamete and Embryo Techno-logy: Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer). Alsothe pregnancy rates have been less than 10% in Bul-garia and India, as compared with 5070% in dairycattle. Poor superovulatory response to gonado-trophins, low embryo recovery rates and the smallnumber of calves born suggest that the technology isnot ready for commercial application in the buffalo.

In vitro fertilization (IVF) of buffalo oocytes is analternative to superovulation (see Gamete andEmbryo Technology: In vitro Fertilization). Severallaboratories have produced buffalo embryos by IVF.In 1997, the rst IVF buffalo calf was born in India.Since oocytes can be collected at slaughter from high-producing buffaloes at the end of their lactation

(see `Feeding the Lactating Buffalo', below), IVF haspotential applications in Pakistan and India.

Gestation

Gestation is longer in buffalo than cattle, varyingfrom 305 to 320 days for the river buffalo and from320 to 340 days for the swamp buffalo. Pregnancy isroutinely diagnosed by rectal palpation of the uterusfrom about 40 to 45 days following insemination.

Parturition

The birth process is similar to that of cattle (seePregnancy: Parturition). The foetus is delivered inanterior presentation with fully extended limbs andfoetal membranes are expelled 45 h later. Twinningis rare, and the incidence is less than 1 per 1000 births.Birth weights range from 26 to 35kg with male calvesweighing 23 kg more than female calves.

Postpartum Period

After calving, the rst oestrus and ovulation occur atabout 60 and 90 days respectively in well-managedherds. Postpartum anoestrus or failure to resume

oestrous cycles after calving remains a major problem

contributing to long calving intervals (see OestrusCycles: Postpartum Cyclicity).

Fertility

Conception rates based on the nonreturn rates to AIare inaccurate, because of the inherent difculty ofdetecting oestrus (see above). Pregnancy rates, based

on rectal palpation, usually range from 50% to 60%with chilled semen, 25% to 45% with frozen semen,and over 60% for hand matings.

A buffalo usually produces, on average, two calvesevery 3 years. However, in well-managed herds, calv-ing intervals of 14 to 15 months have been achieved.

Several Southeast Asian countries have embarkedupon crossbreeding the indigenous swamp to the riverbuffalo. The F1 crossbreds (river swamp) possessan intermediate karyotype of 2n49. Unlike othermammalian hybrids possessing chromosome com-plements differing from their parents, both male and

female hybrids are fertile.

Reproductive Management

As mentioned previously, seasonal calving patterns inbuffaloes have been attributed to ambient temper-ature, photoperiod and feed supply. In India andPakistan, buffaloes calving in summer or autumnresume ovarian cyclicity earlier than those calving inwinter or spring. Perhaps decreasing day length andcooler ambient temperatures favour cyclicity.

In the past, `silent oestrus' ovulation not precededby oestrus was believed to be a major problem inbuffalo breeding but recent hormonal studies haverevealed that it is due to the farmer's inability todetect oestrus.

Improvements in nutrition could increase growthrates and hasten the onset of puberty. Similarly, earlyweaning, induction of oestrus with prostaglandinor intravaginal progesterone-releasing devices andbetter nutrition have hastened the resumption of earlypostpartum ovarian activity and reduced the calvingto conception intervals. Induction of oestrus withsynthetic analogues of prostaglandin F2a and xed-

time insemination with frozen semen may proveuseful in restricting mating seasons so that calvingoccurs when water and green feed are abundant.

Male buffaloes show marked seasonal uctuationsinlibidoandsemenquality,whichmaybeovercomebyproviding cooling facilities during the hot season. Inaddition, females could be inseminated with semencollected and cryopreserved during the cooler months.

Most reproductive management programmesadopted for cattle can be effectively applied forthe buffalo but the commercial and smallholderfarmers have not realized the benets of such

programmes.

BUFFALO HUSBANDRY/Asia 189


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Feeding Management

Many Asian countries have limited feed resources forfeeding their buffaloes. The available resources areessentially tropical pastures (both green and mature),straws and crop residue, which are generally low inprotein (see Developing Countries, Cow Manage-

ment: Asia).

Feeding the Calf

Two systems are practised for rearing buffalo calves.In smallholder farms, calves are allowed to suckletheir dams both for milk letdown and to suck 12 l ofmilk. As they grow older, suckling time is graduallyreduced and replaced by grass and small quantities ofconcentrate. Beyond 46 weeks of age, the calf is usedonly for milk letdown. In commercial farms, calvesare weaned at birth and managed as for dairy calves(see Replacement Management, Cattle: PreruminantDiets and Weaning Practices). Often male calves areneglected and die of starvation.

Feeding the Lactating Buffalo

Feeding systems of buffaloes for milk can be broadlyclassied as (1) extensive, (2) semi-intensive, and (3)the intensive system. The second system is mostcommon, with animals tethered in the farmer'sbackyard and fed mainly on cut fodder and cropresidues. Lactating animals receive 0.5 kg concentratemixture per litre of milk produced.

Large herds of high-producing buffaloes arelocated near big cities in India and Pakistan.These animals, purchased from the villages imme-diately after calving, are transported to cities wherethey are conned in large holding areas and fed withdry fodder and large quantities of discarded breadand other preparations made of our. `Dry' animalsare sent to the abattoir since it is uneconomical totransport them back to their original villages.

Nutritional Requirements

The energy and protein requirements have been

established for maintenance and milk production forthe river buffalo (Table 3). There is no physiologicalneed for concentrate feed to maintain butterfatcontent that is about twice as much as cows' milk.Feeding concentrates increasesmilk fat content as highas 15%, since the buffalo releases unwanted fat intothe milk and stores only a minimum in body tissues.

Utilization of Crop Residues

Several physiological and physical factors contributeto the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality rough-

age and crop residues. Among these factors are the

large rumen volume, high rate of salivation, slowerrate of passage of digesta through the reticulo-rumen,slow rumen motility and higher cellular activity.

The dry matter intake and digestibility of roughage

can be improved by supplementing with a mixtureof urea and molasses. The mixture is available asa block lick (UMMB). This block supplies ferment-able energy, bypass protein, and macro- and micro-minerals to make the rumen microora and faunamore efcient in digesting roughages. Buffaloes fedthese supplements show better body condition,shorter calving intervals and higher milk yields.

Milk Harvesting and Storage

The annual production of buffalo milk in the AsianPacic region exceeds 55 million tonnes (see Table 4)with India and Pakistan contributing more than over50 million tonnes (Figure 3). Almost all the milk isproduced in smallholder farms.

Milking Technique

Milk letdown is slower in buffalo than in cattle. Thepresence of the calf initiates the milk letdown reex.In most smallholder farms, animals are hand-milkedwith the calf to stimulate milk letdown, whereas inbig herds in India and Pakistan they are machine-

milked as for cattle. Normally buffaloes are milkedtwice a day.

Milk Yield

The lactation length is about 300 days in the Murrahbreed and about 320 days in the Nili-Ravi breed.Milk yields range from 1500 to 1800 kg for the rstlactation with a steady increase to a peak in the fourthlactation, and are then maintained at peak levels untilthe ninth lactation. Thus, a buffalo could be retainedin the herd up to about the ninth lactation (16 years of

age) with reasonable economic returns.

Table 3 Metabolizable energy and digestible crude proteinrequirements for maintenance and milk production of the riverbuffalo

Parameter River buffalo

Metabolizable energyDry and lactating buffalo

(kcal kg1 W0.75)97.8 to 188.8

Milk production (kcal kg1 W0.75

4% fat-corrected milk)

1171 to 1863

Digestible crude proteinDry and lactating animals (g kg1 W0.75) 1.28 to 3.48

Milk production (g 100 g1 of protein in milk) 126.6 to 166.34

Adapted from Mudgal (1988) and Ranjhan (1998).



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With selective breeding, improved management andthe establishment of more dairy herds, milk yields areincreasing. The individual3000l-per-lactation female,considered a record 30 years ago, is now common.There are many that yield 4000 l in a lactation of 300days some have even attained 5000 l.

Most Asians consume buffalo milk in liquid form.Surplus milk is processed into butter, ghee, condensedmilk, curd and cheese (see Milk Fat Products: Anhy-drous Milk Fat Butteroil, Ghee). Dairy products thatare usually made from cows' milk are also produced

from buffalo milk in modern dairy plants. The dairy

industry has grown from small creameries to largedairy plants supported by thousands of small farmerswho supply between 5 and 10 l of milk per day.

Milk Marketing

The rapid expansion of the buffalo dairy industry

in the past two decades can be attributed to theCooperative Milk Marketing model, rst developedin Gujarat, India (Table 5), then adopted by otherstates in India and Pakistan. In this model, thesmallholder farmer is guaranteed a stable price formilk throughout the year, eliminating the middlemanfrom the prots. In addition, these cooperativesprovide loans to farmers to purchase superior an-imals, sell animal feed and provide a routine veterin-ary and AI service. Their extension programmes helpproducers to increase production and reduce costs.

Composition and Nutritive Value

Few differences exist between buffalo and cattle inthe nutritive value of milk and milk products (seeMilk: Introduction). However, the lower water andhigher fat contents make buffalo milk better suitedfor the manufacture of fat-based and solids-not-fat-based milk products, such as butter, ghee and milkpowder (Table 6). Calcium, iron and phosphorus inmilk are higher in buffalo than in cow. The lowercholesterol content in buffalo milk should make itmore popular than cows' milk with the health-conscious public.

Unlike the cow, the buffalo converts the yellowpigment b-carotene into vitamin A, which is colour-less, and is passed on to milk. Therefore, buffalo milkis distinctively whiter than cows' milk; the latter isnot only pale creamish-yellow but also the milk fat isgolden yellow.

Proteins of buffalo milk, particularly the wheyproteins, are more resistant to heat denaturationthan those of cows' milk. Dried milk products pre-pared from buffalo milk exhibit higher levels ofundenatured proteins when processed under similar

conditions.

Table 4 The domestic buffalo's contribution to milk and meatproduction in Asia

Country Numbers

(106)

Milk

(Mt106)

Meat

(Mt106)

River type

Bangladesh 0.854 0.022 0.004India 92.090 35.340 1.403

Iran 0.465 0.169 0.011Iraq 0.065 0.190 0.001Nepal 3.419 0.729 0.117Pakistan 21.213 16.456 0.603

Sri Lanka 0.721 0.067 0.005

Swamp type

Cambodia 0.694 0.013

Chinaa 20.818 2.300 0.242Indonesia 3.145 0.053Laos 1.286 0.016Malaysia 0.150 0.010 0.004

Myanmar 2.379 0.104 0.020Philippines 3.006 0.018 0.051

Thailand 4.200 0.061Vietnam 3.000 0.031 0.105

Total Asia 158.032 55.356 2.713Total World 163.134 57.353 2.933

a China has a population of about 150 000 crossbred buffaloes (river swamp buffalo).Adapted from FAO (1999).

Pakistan (16.5)

30%

India (35.3)

65%

Bangladesh (0.02)


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Ultra-high temperature (UHT) treated buffalo milkand cream are intrinsically whiter and more viscousthan their cows' milk counterparts, because greaterlevels of calcium and phosphorus are converted intothe colloidal form.

Milk Products

Ghee accounts for about 45% of the total milk pro-duced in India. Ghee is claried butterfat and con-tains about 99% of milk fat. Ghee from buffalo milkhas no colour, unlike ghee from cattle, which isgolden yellow due to the presence of carotenoids asstated earlier. Ghee is the only source of animal fat inthe vegetarian diet of the human population in India.

Cheese made from buffalo milk displays typicalbody and textural characteristics. For the manufac-ture of Mozzarella cheese, buffalo milk is preferred tocows' milk (see Buffalo Husbandry: Mediterranean

Region). Certain traditional cheese varieties, such aspaneer in India or pickled cheeses from the MiddleEast countries, are best made from buffalo milk.

Amul is a cooperative factory in Gujaratwhich produces a range of milk products exclusively

manufactured from buffalo milk. The productsinclude butter, full cream milk powder, skim milkpowder, ghee, infant formulae, cheese, chocolates, icecream and nutramul. Amul products are exported tothe United States, New Zealand and the Gulf States.The sales gures for Amul's butter have increasedfrom 1000 tonnes year1 in 1966 to over 25 000

tonnes year1 in 1997.

Health Management

Contrary to the popular belief that domestic buffaloesthrive in the harsh, humid conditions in the tropics,they are susceptible to thermal stress, infectious dis-eases and disorders similar to those of cattle.

Thermal Stress

With less than one-tenth the density of sweatglands compared to cattle, the domestic buffalo'sability to sweat and lose heat through evapor-ative cooling is signicantly diminished. In addition,their dark body coat promotes heat absorptionfrom the direct rays of the sun whereas the thickepidermal layer prevents heat dissipation throughconduction and radiation. Thus, the domestic buffalois more sensitive than cattle to direct solar radiationand high ambient temperatures during the summermonths.

Thermal stress may lead to higher calf mortality,lower milk yields and slow growth, and can depresssigns of oestrus (see Stress, Heat, in Dairy Cattle:Effects on Mik Production and Composition; Effectson Reproduction). Thermal stress can be reduced byproviding cooling facilities such as shade and wal-lows, and by sprinkling water on to the skin during

Table 6 Composition of milk of river buffalo and cow

Constituent Buffalo milk Cows' milk

Water (g l1) 820 870

Total solids (g l1) 172 125Lactose (g l1) 55 46

Proteins (g l

1) 44 33Fat (g l1) 75 36Cholesterol (mg g1) 0.65 3.14

Adapted from Rajorhia (1988) and Ganguli (1992).

Table 7 Common diseases and disorders of the domestic buffalo in Asia

Aetiology Disease or disorder

Viral Rinderpest; foot and mouth disease; malignant catarrhal fever

Bacterial Haemorrhagic septicaemia (Pasteurella multocida); Johne disease (Mycobacteriumparatuberculosis); tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis); mastitis (Staphylococcus

and Streptococcus spp.; Escherichia coli; Corynebacterium pyogenes)Parasitic Haemoprotozoa: Anaplasma, Babesia, Theirleria, Trypanosoma and Schistosomia

speciesGastointestinal nematodes: Haemonchus contortus; Toxocara vitulorum; liver uke

(Fasciola gigantica, F. hepatica)Ectoparasites: tick infestation (Boophilus microplus, B. annulata); mange

(Sarcoptis scabiei; Psoroptes spp.)Metabolic disorders Hypocalcaemia (milk fever); hypoglycaemia (ketosis); hypomagnesaemia;

hypophosphataemia; selenium toxicity; bracken fern poisoningAbortion, retention of foetal

membranes, repeat breeding

Brucellosis (Brucella abortus); vibriosis (Campylobacter fetus); trichomoniasis

(Trichomonas foetus); leptospirosis (Leptospirosis pomona and L. hardjo)Vaginal, uterine and

ovarian disordersPrepartum vaginal prolapse, postpartum uterine prolapse; puerperal metritis,

endometritis; cystic ovaries; delayed resumption of ovarian cycles

Adapted from Adlakha and Sharma (1992).



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the hotter part of the day and feeding roughageduring the night.

Infectious Diseases

River buffaloes are susceptible to most diseasesaffecting cattle (Table 7). Compared with cattle,buffaloes show greater resistance to foot-and-mouth

disease and brucellosis but have a higher incidence ofparasitic diseases because of their wallowing habits.

The dairy buffalo is as susceptible to mastitis as thedairy cow. Bacteria causing mastitis, their treatmentand control are similar to those for cattle (see MastitisPathogens: Contagious Pathogens; EnvironmentalPathogens).

There is a high incidence of calf mortality caused byToxocara vitulorum, virulent strains of Escherichiacoli, rota and corona viruses. Larvae ofTo. vitulorumare transmitted from the dam to the calf through themilk during the rst month of life.

Puerperal metritis and retained foetal membranesoccur in the buffalo. The high incidence of metritisand other genital infections has been partly attributedto the unhygienic practice of dilating the vagina witheither inserting objects or blowing air for stimulatingmilk letdown.

Metabolic Disorders

High milk-producing river buffaloes are as suscept-ible to metabolic disorders as dairy cows. Apparently,the aetiology is similar because affected buffaloes

respond to therapy and control as for dairy cows.

See also: Buffalo Husbandry: Mediterranean Region.Dairy Animals: Water Buffalo. Developing Countries,Cow Management: Asia. Gamete and EmbryoTechnology: Artificial Insemination; Multiple Ovulationand Embryo Transfer; In vitro Fertilization. MastitisPathogens: Contagious Pathogens; EnvironmentalPathogens. Mating Management: Detection of Oestrus.Milk: Introduction. Milk Fat Products: Anhydrous MilkFat Butteroil, Ghee. Oestrus Cycles: Puberty;Characteristics; Postpartum Cyclicity. Pregnancy:Parturition. Replacement Management, Cattle: Pre-

ruminant Diets and Weaning Practices. Stress, Heat, inDairy Cattle: Effects on Milk Production andComposition; Effects on Reproduction.

Further Reading

Adlakha SC and Sharma SN (1992) Infectious diseases. In:Tulloh NM and Holmes JHG (eds.) Buffalo Productionin Subseries: ProductionSystem Approach, pp. 271303. London: Elsevier.

Anonymous (1981) The Water Buffalo: New Prospects foran Under-Utilized Animal. Washington, DC: National

Academic Press.

Cockrill WR (1974) The Husbandry and Health of theDomestic Buffalo. Rome: FAO.

FAO (1999) FAO Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics, vol. 12,no. 14. Rome: FAO.

Ganguli NC (1992) Milk processing and marketing. In:Tulloh NM and Holmes JHG (eds.) Buffalo Productionin Subseries: ProductionSystem Approach, pp. 393411. London: Elsevier.

Jainudeen MR and Hafez ESE (2000) Cattle and buffalo.In: Hafez B and Hafez ESE (eds.) Reproduction in FarmAnimals, 7th edn, pp. 159171.

Mudgal VD (1989) Energy and protein requirements fordairy buffaloes. In: Nagarcenkar R (ed.) A Compendiumof Latest Research Based on Indian Studies, pp. 130141. New Delhi: Indian Council of AgricultureResearch.

Mudgal VD (1992) River buffalo production systems inAsia. In: Tulloh NM and Holmes JHG (eds.) BuffaloProduction in Subseries: ProductionSystem Approach,pp. 377392. London: Elsevier.

Rajorhia GS (1988) Dairy technology applied to buffalomilk. In: Bhatt PN (ed.) Invited Papers and SpecialLectures, Proceedings, vol. 2 Part 2, pp. 624640. NewDelhi: Indian Council of Agriculture Research.

Ranjhan SK (1998) Text Book on Buffalo Production,4th edn. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

Mediterranean RegionA Borghese and B Moioli, Animal ProductionResearch Institute, Monterotondo, Italy

Copyright 2002, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Introduction

The buffaloes reared in the Mediterranean region arethe Asian buffalo or water buffalo, i.e. Bubalus bu-balis. This species includes two types: (1) the rivertype, with 50 chromosomes, with an adult maleweight ranging between 450 and 1000 kg, and annualmilk production of 10003000 kg; and (2) the swamptype, with 48 chromosomes, with an adult maleweight of 325450 kg, and annual milk productionup to 600 kg. While the major purpose of the riverbuffalo is milk, the swamp buffalo is reared mainlyfor draught.

Only 3% of the world buffalo population is reared

in the Mediterranean region, which includes a few

BUFFALO HUSBANDRY/Mediterranean Region 193

buffalo husbandary

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