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Buddhism and Hinduism 1

Buddhism and Hinduism

The practices and goals of Buddhism and Hinduism have similarities and differences. The Theravada Buddhism is

relatively conservative, and generally closest to the early form of Buddhism. The Mahayana and Vajrayana beliefs

developed later. It appears that later schools of Buddhism developed a variety of other rituals and devotional

practices that were inspired or influenced by existing religions and cultures of Nepal, India, China, Japan, SoutheastAsia, and Tibet. However, the more historical or beginning forms of Hinduism and the teachings of Buddha have

pronounced differences, as evident in the recorded materials of the Pali Canon of the Theravada school of Buddhism.

The historical Vedic religion, Buddhism, Jainism, and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is considered among

the very earliest Upanishads,[1] (the Upanishad text was compiled under King Janaka of Mithila) all share a common

cultural theme influenced by the north eastern areas of India, modern day eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Nepal.

Hinduism and Buddhism have shared parallel beliefs that have existed side by side.[2] The influence of Upanishads,

earliest philosophical texts of Hindus, on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While

Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and

Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.

[3]

Buddhism may have been influencedby some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies. [4] In Buddhist texts he is presented as

rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".[5] Later Indian religious thoughts were influenced by this

interpretation and novel ideas of the Buddhist tradition of beliefs. [6]

Buddhism attained prominence in the Indian subcontinent, but was ultimately eclipsed in the 11th century CE at its

point of origin by Hinduism and Islam. While Buddhism declined in India, Buddhism continued outside of India.

Tibetan Buddhism is the predominant religion in the Himalayan region while Theravada Buddhism continues in Sri

Lanka and Southeast Asia, and Mahayana Buddhism continues in India, East Asia and among the Chinese diaspora.

Early history

The Land lying on the southern side of the Hindu-Kush Mountains was considered the land of the Hindus or

Hindustan and the religion followed by the people there was known as Hinduism. This was before the dawn of Islam

in the region. Hinduism it is clear has heavily influenced and inspired most of the religions which sprung from this

land namely Sikhism, Jainism etc. including Buddhism. In Hinduism, Buddha is the last avatar of the ten avatars of

Lord Vishnu. This is evidenced by the fact that most of the concepts of soul, physical form, moksha, samsara and

Brahman are all identical to Hinduism including the use of the same terminology. However the distinguishing

aspects arise in the concepts of Dharma and Karma . While the word Buddha was not used to describe the last avatar

of Vishnu, the description, time and place of his arrival is well chronicled in scriptures prior to the advent of the

Buddha. Consequently the word Buddha is mentioned in several of the Puranas that are believed to have been

composed after his birth.

[7][8]

Certain Buddhist teachings appear to have been formulated in response to ideaspresented in the early Upanishads in some cases concurring with them, and in other cases criticizing or

re-interpreting them.[1][9][10]

In later years, there is significant evidence that both Buddhism and Hinduism were supported by Indian rulers,

regardless of the rulers' own religious identities. Buddhist kings continued to revere Hindu deities and teachers, and

many Buddhist temples were built under the patronage of Hindu rulers. [11] This was because never has Buddhism

been considered an alien religion to that of Hinduism in India, but as only one of the many strains of Hinduism.

However 'Buddhism' which had its birth in Indian state of Bihar could not spread to the rest of India due to the other

strains of Hinduism. So was compelled to move east toward China where it flourished for a while.
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Similarities

Technical language

The Buddha adopted many of the terms already used in philosophical discussions of his era; however, many of these

terms carry a different meaning in the Buddhist tradition. For example, in the Samanna-phala Sutta, the Buddha is

depicted presenting a notion of the 'three knowledges' ( tevijja)a term also used in the Vedic tradition to describeknowledge of the Vedasas being not texts, but things that he had experienced (these are not noble truths). [12] The

true 'three knowledges' are said to be constituted by the process of achieving enlightenment, which is what the

Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of the night of his enlightenment. [13]

Karma (Sanskrit: from the root k, "to do") is a word meaning action or activity and, often implies its

subsequent results (also called karma-phala, "the fruits of action"). It is commonly understood as a term to denote

the entire cycle of cause and effect as described in the philosophies of a number of cosmologies, including those of

Buddhism and Hinduism.

Karma is a central part of Buddhist teachings. In Buddha's teaching, karma is a direct result of a person's word,

thought, and action in life. In pre-Buddhist Hinduism, karma has to do with whether the actions performed in rituals

are done correctly or not. Therefore, there is little emphasis on moral conduct in its conception. In Buddhism, since a

person's word, thought, and action form the basis for good and bad karma, sila (moral conduct) goes hand in hand

with the development of meditation and wisdom. Buddhist teachings carry a different meaning from pre-Buddhist

conception of karma.[14]

The Buddha derived his teaching of the concept of karma through direct experience rather than from the existing

culture. But he used the same terminology that people are using in that area so they can relate to what taught. In the

Maha-Saccaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya in the Pali Canon, the Buddha told of his experience after having

purified his mind with the four Jhanas :

"When the mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of defilement, pliant, malleable,

steady, & attained to imperturbability, I directed it to the knowledge of recollecting my past lives. I recollectedmy manifold past lives, i.e., one birth, two...five, ten...fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand, many

eons of cosmic contraction, many eons of cosmic expansion, many eons of cosmic contraction & expansion:

'There I had such a name, belonged to such a clan, had such an appearance. Such was my food, such my

experience of pleasure & pain, such the end of my life. Passing away from that state, I re-arose there. There

too I had such a name, belonged to such a clan, had such an appearance. Such was my food, such my

experience of pleasure & pain, such the end of my life. Passing away from that state, I re-arose here.' Thus I

remembered my manifold past lives in their modes & details. "This was the first knowledge I attained in the

first watch of the night.

"When the mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of defilement, pliant, malleable,

steady, & attained to imperturbability, I directed it to the knowledge of the passing away & reappearance ofbeings. I saw by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human beings passing away &

re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in

accordance with their kamma: 'These beings who were endowed with bad conduct of body, speech, &

mind, who reviled the noble ones, held wrong views and undertook actions under the influence of wrong views

with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination,

the lower realms, in hell. But these beings who were endowed with good conduct of body, speech & mind,

who did not revile the noble ones, who held right views and undertook actions under the influence of right

views with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the good destinations, in the heavenly

world.' Thus by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human I saw beings passing away &

re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in

accordance with their karma. "This was the second knowledge I attained in the second watch of the night.
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Dharma (Sanskrit, Devanagari: or Pli Dhamma, Devanagari: ) means Natural Law,Reality or Duty, and

with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. A

Hindu appellation for Hinduism itself is Santana Dharma, which translates as "the eternal dharma." Similarly,

Buddhadharma in an appellation for Buddhism. The general concept of dharma forms a basis for philosophies,

beliefs and practices originating in India. The four main ones are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism (Jaina Dharma), and

Sikhism (Sikha Dharma), all of whom retain the centrality of dharma in their teachings. In these traditions, beings

that live in harmony with dharma proceed more quickly toward, according to the tradition, Dharma Yukam, Moksha,

or Nirvana (personal liberation). Dharma can refer generally to religious duty, and also mean social order, right

conduct, or simply virtue.

The Rig Veda says man is born and dies only once.[15] The Rig Veda mentions life after death in heaven in the

company of ancestors. The ritual system of the Vedas was central to Vedic life and thought and depended 'on the

notion of constant sacrifice, the reintegration of multiple elements into a moment of unity before a new dispersal into

being'.[16]

It is highly probable that in India the concept of reincarnation (along with karma, samsara, and moksha) was

developed by non-Aryan people outside of the caste system whose spiritual ideas greatly influenced later Indian

religious thought. Buddhism and Jainism are continuations of this tradition, and the early Upanishadic movementwas influenced by it.[17][18][19][20][21] Reincarnation was likely adopted from this religious culture by Brahmin

orthodoxy, and Brahmins composed the earliest known scriptures containing these ideas in the early Upanishads.[22]

According to the Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, the Upanishadic treatments of samsara, karma, and reincarnation

are "fundamental contributions of the Upanishads to Hinduindeed, South Asianeschatology."[23]

According to Hinduism, the soul (atman) is immortal, while the body is subject to birth, decay, old age and death.

The meme of reincarnation is intricately linked with the notion of karma, another concept first recorded in the

Upanishads. Karma (literally: action) is the sum of one's actions, and the force that determines one's next

reincarnation. The cycle of death and rebirth, governed by karma, is referred to as samsara.

The Shakyamuni Buddha rejected all theories that beings have an eternal, immutable self that transmigratedthe

'dweller within the body' or atmanhe also criticized the statement "I have no self" (See below). Buddhism

developed an understanding of a 'continuum or stream of skanda' through such disciplines as vipassan and shamata,

which has become reified in later Buddhist discourse as the Mindstream doctrine, a reification that Shakyamuni

Buddha would have challenged. Hence, it is understood as an upaya doctrine, as are all doctrines of the

Buddhadharma. The mindstream was further developed by the Cittamatra and Yogacara schools and it affected the

development of the 'store consciousness' (lyavijna) and the buddha nature conceptions and tathagatagarbha

literature. In English Buddhist discourse the nomenclature 'reincarnation' is unfavoured due the insidious bias of an

'entity' that 'incarnates'. Buddhism challenges all such 'entities'. Instead of an 'entity', what is reborn is an 'evolving

consciousness' (M.1.256) or 'stream of consciousness' (D.3.105), whose quality has been conditioned by karma. [24]

Buddhist scriptures regularly discuss what is generally understood by the lay person as future and past lives, thoughthese are more appropriately understood following Buddhavacana as the continuity of the mindstream of sentient

beings. The phenomenon and institution of tulku within the Vajrayana tradition is an interesting qualification and

analogue to the reification of the entity and the transmigration and reincarnation meme within many of the plethora

of schools and sects of the Sanatana Dharma.
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Tibetan Buddhism

Buddhism from other areas such as China, Kashmir, Japan entered the Himalaya and is integrated with the practice

lineages of the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Geluk schools of Tibetan Buddhism, which in turn dialogued with the

indigenous Bn traditions.

Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, certain practitioners progress to increasingly

profound levels of yoga, starting with Mah yoga, continuing to Anuyoga and ultimately undertaking the mostsubtle, Atiyoga. In qualification, the Nyingmapa do not equate a value judgment with the yana, one is not better than

another, the yana most appropriate for a practitioner is determined by their karma, propensity and proclivity. The

majority of practitioners stay within one yana for the duration of their lifetime. The Nyingmapa view all traditions,

not just their own through the modal of the nine yana. The Bonpo have a comparable modal of nine. Elements of Adi

Yoga for both the Bonpo and Nyingmapa are perceived in other traditions. Indeed, Nyingmapa and Bonpo are not

the only source of Ati Yoga teachings as both traditions testify, as Adi Yoga is propagated in other worlds and

dimensions. In the Sarma traditions, the Anuttara yoga class is equivalent to the three most subtle yana of the

Nyingmapa. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart

rhythm timing in movement exercises is known as Trul khor or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies,

and the body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple ofLukhang.

Tibetan Buddhist doctrines unite a seemingly diverse group of practices to offer a variety of ways to truth (Sanskrit:

satya; refer Two Truths) and enlightenment (Sanskrit: bodhi) in accordance with the different qualities and capacities

of sentient beings. These practices involve the use of tantra and yoga. Yoga used as a way to enhance

concentration.[25]

Nagarjuna's Madhyamika view and Yogacara's Mind-only view are used in Tibetan Buddhism as bases for Yoga

practices. Focused meditation clears the mind of unenlightened concepts.[25]

In the 13th and the 14th centuries, the Sarma traditions developed a fourfold classification system for Tantric texts

based on the types of practices each contained, especially their relative emphasis on external ritual or internal yoga.The first two classes, the so-called lower tantras, are called the Kriya and the Chatya tantras; the two classes of

higher tantras are the Yoga and the Anuttara Yoga (Highest Yoga).[26]

Symbolism

Mudra: This is a symbolic hand-gesture expressing an emotion. Depictions of the Buddha are almost always

depicted performing a mudra.

Dharma Chakra: The Dharma Chakra, which appears on the national flag of India and the flag of the Thai royal

family, is a Buddhist symbol that is used by members of both religions.

Rudraksha: These are beads that devotees, usually monks, use for praying.

Tilak: Many Hindu devotees mark their heads with a tilak, which is interpreted as a third eye. A similar mark is

one of the characteristic physical characteristics of the Buddha. Swastika and Sauwastika: both are sacred symbols. It can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise and both are

seen in Hinduism and Buddhism. The Buddha is sometimes depicted with a sauwastika on his chest or the palms

of his hands.[27]
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Mantra and Tibetan Buddhism

In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of

devotion.

A mantra () is a religious syllable or poem,

typically from the Sanskrit language. Their use varies

according to the school and philosophy associated with

the mantra. They are primarily used as spiritual

conduits, words or vibrations that instill one-pointedconcentration in the devotee. Other purposes have

included religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth,

avoid danger, or eliminate enemies. Mantras existed in

the historical Vedic religion, Zoroastrianism[28]) and

the Shramanic traditions, and thus they remain

important in Buddhism and Jainism as well as other

faiths of Indian origin such as Sikhism.

Yoga

The practice of Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of both Hinduism and

Buddhism.[29] However there are distinct variations in the usage of yoga terminology in the two religions. In

Hinduism, the term "Yoga" commonly refers to the eight limbs of yoga as defined in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,

written some time after 100 BCE, and means "yoke", with the idea that one's individual atman, or soul, would yoke

or bind with the monistic entity that underlies everything (brahman). Yoga in Hinduism also known as being

'complex', based on yoking (integrating). Yoga defines a specific process, it has an emphasis on knowledge and

practice, as well as being known to be 'mature' and difficult. [30] The most basic meaning of this Sanskrit term is with

technique. The technique of the different forms of yoga is what makes the practice meaningful. Yoga is not an easy

or simple practice, viyoga is what is described as simple. Yoga is difficult in the fact of displaying the faith and

meaning of Hinduism. Many Hindus tend to pick and choose between the five forms of yoga because of the way theylive their life and how they want to practice it in the form they are most connected to. [31] In the Vajrayana Buddhism

of Tibet, however, the term "Yoga" is simply used to refer to any type of spiritual practice; from the various types of

tantra (like Kriyayoga or Charyayoga) to 'Deity yoga' and 'guru yoga'. In the early translation phase of the Sutrayana

and Tantrayana from India, China and other regions to Tibet, along with the practice lineages of sadhana, codified in

the Nyingmapa canon, the most subtle 'conveyance' (Sanskrit: yana) is Adi Yoga (Sanskrit). A contemporary scholar

with a focus on Tibetan Buddhism, Robert Thurman writes that Patanjali was influenced by the success of the

Buddhist monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox. [32]

In the 1900 there was a man by the name of Swami Kpalvnanda who was considered " The Man behind Yoga". In

1977 Swami left his home in West India and traveled to Sumneytown, Pennsylvania where he could live in silenceand continue his peaceful life practicing his particular style of yoga called, prna-yoga. Once Swami Kpalvnanda

moved to North America he brought with him something that people in North America have never seen. Swami

changed people and communities forever, by creating a worldwide movement of spiritual international communities

based on his prna-yoga. Swami inspiried many people and in return he got a spiritual centre after him. The Kripalu

Yoga Centre (Swami's yoga centre) is one of the largest and most successful spiritual centre in North America. Even

though Swami Kpalvnanda is not the most well-known man in history, he will always be "The Man behind

Yoga".[33]

There is a range of common terminology and common descriptions of the meditative states that are seen as the

foundation of meditation practice in both Hindu Yoga and Buddhism. Many scholars have noted that the concepts of

dhyana and samdhi - technical terms describing stages of meditative absorption - are common to meditativepractices in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Most notable in this context is the relationship between the system of four
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dhyanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sam%C4%81dhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sam%C4%81dhihttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dhyanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Thurmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tibetan_Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dzogchenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yana_%28Buddhism%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyingmapahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sadhanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantrayanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sutrayanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guru_yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deity_yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charyayogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kriyayogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vajrayanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brahmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C4%80tman_%28Hinduism%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sikhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jainismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zoroastrianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historical_Vedic_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attentionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spiritual_conduithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spiritual_conduithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syllablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mantrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMantras_caved_into_rock_in_Tibet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buddhisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tibet


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Buddhist dhyana states (Pali:jhana) and the samprajnata samadhi states of Classical Yoga.[34] Also, many (Tibetan)

Vajrayana practices of the generation stage and completion stage work with the chakras, inner energy channels

(nadis) and kundalini, called tummo in Tibetan.

Zen Buddhism

Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.[35]

In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga, the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.[36]

Zen Buddhism traces some of its roots to yogic practices.[37] Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both

for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular. [38]

Differences

Despite the similarities in terminology there exist differences between the two religions. The major differences are

mentioned below.

God

Hinduism propounds that every living being, be it a human or animal, has a body and a soul (consciousness) and the

bridge between the two is the mind (a mixture of both). If there is an imbalance between any of these three

components it can result in illness and 'death'. 'Death' as we know it, is the ceasing of the body to function and

therefore the soul which is immortal will have to migrate to another body and occupy some-other mind thereby

creating consciousness there, be it a human or animal depending upon the 'karma' or 'past deeds' done in the previous

physical body/bodies or life/lives. Central to the philosophy of Hinduism is Brahman which is the embodiment of all

souls and therefore the ultimate consciousness. Brahman is infinite, has no dimensions, and is embodiment of all

knowledge and the absolute truth and therefore the ultimate bliss and enlightenment for all souls. To joinBrahman is

the ultimate goal of all souls, a soul can only joinBrahman upon becoming perfect, until such time the soul will have

to keep changing bodies and experience events based on its karma in-order to perfect itself and therefore - continues

the cycle of birth and death.Brahman is also the sum total of the trinity gods (and avatars) worshiped by Hindus viz.

1.Brahma-the creator 2. Vishnu-the protector 3. Shiva or Maharashtra -the destroyer. Brahma is responsible for

sending the part of theBrahman which was imperfect to perfect itself on earth and for that purpose created various

levels of physical form. Vishnu who is the protector pronounces that one must perform ones dharma or duty or

follow the laws in-order to obtain good karma and hence graduate to a high physical and mental form and finally join

the ultimateBrahman . 3. Maheshwara or Shiva is the god of destruction and 'death' says that just like how a new

star can only be born upon the destruction of an old star which has been burning bright, just so do we find that only

in complete destruction is there creation and that the ultimate truth, immortality and permanence is in the soul which

joins theBrahman and that physical matter is only recycled over and over again. A soul will have been successful

when it stops getting recycled like how lowly and unconscious physical matter does. Therefore 'death' is not the endas the soul is immortal and endless.

Differences between Hinduism and Buddhism:

1. Buddha was one of the avatars of Vishnu, the preachings of Buddha-from the Hindu perspective therefore

represents only a fraction of the whole truth. Buddha preaches that attachment with people was the cause of

sorrow when 'death' happens and therefore propagates detachment with people. Hinduism on the other hand does

not propagate detachment but stresses upon duty or dharma and how interactions with people has to take place

based on dharma or duty. In Hinduism, Lord Shiva explains 'death' to be journey of the immortal soul in pursuit

of 'Moksha' and therefore a fact of life.

2. While Buddhism says retirement into forest for meditation is to take place starting from childhood, this is viewed

as escapism by Hinduism, Hinduism allows for this to happen only after performing all dharmas or duties of oneslife, starting from studying scriptures, working to support children and family and taking care of aged parents and
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lastly after all the dharma done retire to the forest and slowly meditate and fast until physical disintegration & to

reach the ultimate truth orBrahman.

3. Buddhism could explain that attachment was the cause of sorrow in society but could not explain the reason for

differences in wealth, class etc. in society. Therefore Buddhism's cure for sorrow was detachment and

non-involvement (non-action or negative action). Hinduism on the other hand explained that both sorrow or

happiness is due to 'Karma' or past actions and bad karma can be overcome and good karma can be obtained by

following dharma or righteous duty (pro-action or positive action) which will ultimately provide 'Moksha' i.e.

overcoming the cycle of life and joiningBrahman.

Gautama Buddha did not deny the existence nor forbid the worship of the popular gods, but such worship is not

Buddhism and the gods are merely angels who may be willing to help good Buddhists but are in no way guides to

religion, since they need instruction themselves. The focus of the Noble Eightfold Path is not so much about

worshipping god, achieving heaven in the next life (perhaps for a number of lay devotees but not for bhikkhu /

bhikkhuni), nor is it about experiencing Brahma consciousness in this life or the next. The reason is that in all these

realms, beings are subject to rebirth after some period of time. It is like going around in circles in the round of rebirth

despite all the effort and striving. Therefore, the purpose of the holy life in the Buddhas path is about liberation from

the cycle of rebirth and experience awakening in this very life (some might take longer, depending on the person).The Buddha himself realized awakening after about six years of practice. He entered into Sunyata, dwells in rapture,

sukkha (happiness), tranquility, equanimity, and the like. Also according to the Pali Canon, he visits any realms he

feels like in that lifetime after awakening. The Buddha was liberated from all rebirth in samsara after parinirvana.

The Buddha (as portrayed in the Pali scriptures, the agamas) set an important trend in nontheism in Buddhism in the

sense of dismissing the notion of an omnipotent god.[39] Nevertheless, in many passages in the Tripitaka gods (devas

in Sanskrit) are mentioned and specific examples are given of individuals who were reborn as a god, or gods who

were reborn as humans. Buddhist cosmology recognizes various levels and types of gods, but none of these gods is

considered the creator of the world or of the human race. [39]

Buddhist canonical views about God and the priests are mentioned below:

13. 'Well then, Vasettha, those ancient sages versed in ancient scriptures, the authors of the verses, the utterers

of the verses, whose, ancient form of words so chanted, uttered, or composed, the priests of to-day chant over

again or repeat; intoning or reciting exactly as has been intoned or recited-to wit, Atthaka, Vamaka,

Vamadeva, Vessamitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Vasettha, Kassapa, and Bhagu [11]did even they

speak thus, saying: " We know it, we have seen it", where the creator is whence the creator is?

Scholar-monk Walpola Rahula writes that man depends on this creation "for his own protection, safety, and security,

just as a child depends on his parent." He describes this as a product of "ignorance, weakness, fear, and desire," and

writes that this "deeply and fanatically held belief" for man's consolation is "false and empty" from the perspective of

Buddhism. He writes that man does not wish to hear or understand teachings against this belief, and that the Buddha

described his teachings as "against the current" for this reason.[40]

In later Mahayana literature, however, the idea of an eternal, all-pervading, all-knowing, immaculate, uncreated and

deathless Ground of Being (the dharmadhatu, inherently linked to the sattvadhatu, the realm of beings), which is the

Awakened Mind (bodhicitta) or Dharmakaya ("body of Truth") of the Buddha himself, is attributed to the Buddha in

a number of Mahayana sutras, and is found in various tantras as well. In some Mahayana texts, such a principle is

occasionally presented as manifesting in a more personalised form as a primordial buddha, such as Samantabhadra,

Vajradhara, Vairochana, Amitabha and Adi-Buddha, among others.
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Rites and rituals

According to the Pali Canon, there are numerous suttas where the Buddha discourages Brahmins from the practice of

rites and rituals. Virtue (ethical conducts) is a requisite in meditation practice. In other words, purity in words,

thought, and action is crucial in the path instead of rites and rituals. In the Kutadanta Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, the

Brahmin Kutadanta went to see the Buddha for advice on how to best conduct a sacrifice that doesn't involve taking

of life. Answering, the Buddha points to some other spiritual practices that are much more beneficial than rites andrituals:

The brahmin Kutadanta then asked the Buddha if there was any sacrifice which could be made with less

trouble and exertion, yet producing more fruitful result:

The Buddha told him of the traditional practice of offering the four requisites to bhikkhus of high morality.

Less troublesome and more profitable again was donating a monastery to the Order of Bhikkhus.

Better still were the following practices in ascending order of beneficial effects:

Going to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha for refuge

Observance of the Five Precepts

Going forth from the homelife and leading the holy life, becoming established in morality, accomplished in thefour jhanas, and equipped with eight kinds of higher knowledge resulting in the realization of extinction of

asavas, the sacrifice that entails less trouble and exertion but which excels all other sacrifices.

In later tradition such as Mahayana Buddhism in Japan, the Shingon Fire Ritual (Homa /Yagna) and Urabon

(Sanskrit: Ullambana) derives from Hindu traditions.[41] Similar rituals are common in Tibetan Buddhism. Also see

Shinnyo-en.Both Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism share common rites, such as the purification rite of Homa

(Havan, Yagna in Sanskrit), prayers for the ancestors and deceased (Ullambana in Sanskrit, Urabon in Japanese).

Caste

The Buddha repudiated the caste distinctions of the Brahmanical religion,[42] and was as a result described as a

corrupter and opposed to true dharma in some of the Puranas. [43] In one sutta, the Buddha satirizes and debunks the

brahminical claims regarding the divine nature of the caste system, and shows that it is nothing but a human

convention.[44][45] However, some scholars argue that caste (varna, or more commonly jti) is an Indian

phenomenon that is not restricted to Hindu sections of society. It has been argued that the approving use of the term

Brahmin in Buddhist and Jain texts shows that even these socially critical movements were comfortable with a

caste structured society as long as obligations and privileges accorded to the various castes were justly distributed

(cf. Dhammapada ch. XXVI; cf. Straktnga I.xii.11-21). Moreover, caste is not philosophically important to many

schools that are conventionally understood under the heading of Hindu philosophy. Some philosophical schools,

such as Yoga, seem to be implicitly critical of life in conventional society guided by the values of social and

ecological domination, while other schools, such as Advaita Vednta, are openly critical of the idea that caste

morality has any relevance to a spiritually serious aspirant. [46]

Buddhism implicitly denied the validity of caste distinctions by offering ordination to all regardless of caste. [47][48]

The Buddhist writer Ashvaghosa directly opposed the caste system of Hinduism by drawing upon anomalous

episodes in Hindu scriptures.[48] While the caste system constitutes an assumed background to the stories told in

Buddhist scriptures, the sutras do not attempt to justify or explain the system, and the caste system was not generally

propagated along with the Buddhist teachings.[49] The early texts state that caste is not determined by karma. [50]

The notion of ritual purity also provided a conceptual foundation for the caste system, by identifying occupations

and duties associated with impure or taboo objects as being themselves impure. Regulations imposing such a system

of ritual purity and taboos are absent from the Buddhist monastic code, and not generally regarded as being part of

Buddhist teachings.[51]
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Cosmology and worldview

In Buddhist cosmology, there are 31 planes of existence within samsara.[52] Beings in these realms are subject to

rebirth after some period of time, except for realms of the Non-Returners. Therefore, most of these places are not the

goal of the holy life in the Buddha's dispensation. Buddhas are beyond all these 31 planes of existence after

parinibbana. Hindu texts mostly mentions the devas in Kamma Loka. Only the Hindu god Brahma can be found in

the Rupa loka. There are many realms above the brahma realm that are accessible through meditation. Those inBrahma realms are also subject to rebirth according to the Buddha.

In Mahayana Buddhism, several Hindu gods and divinities are venerated and hold an important place in the rites and

rituals: Brahma, Indra, Saraswati, Surya, Vayu, Varuna, Prithvi, etc.

ARUPA-LOKA (Formless Realms) The immaterial or formless world (arupa loka) includes four planes into which

beings are born. The inhabitants of these realms are possessed purely of mind and have no physical bodies and are

unable to hear Buddha's teachings. Thus, the beings of this realm need to be reborn in the lower human realm to

attain enlightenment.[52] They achieve this by attaining advanced meditational levels in another life. They do not

interact with the rest of the universe.

RUPA-LOKA (Fine-Material World) The fine material sphere (ruupa loka) consists of sixteen planes. Beings takerebirth into these planes as a result of attaining the jhanas. They have bodies made of fine matter. The sixteen planes

correspond to the attainment of the four jhanas. The devas of the Rupadhatu have physical forms, but are sexless

and passionless. They live in a large number of "heavens" or deva-worlds that rise, layer on layer, above the earth.

These can be divided into five main groups. Suddhavasa devas: Birth in these five realms are a result of attaining

the fruit of non-returning (Anagami), the third level of enlightenment: These five realms, called suddhaavaasaa or

Pure Abodes, accessible only to those who have destroyed the lower five fetters :self-view, sceptical doubt, clinging

to rites and ceremonies, sense desires, and ill-will. They will destroy their remaining fetters :craving for fine material

existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance during their existence in the Pure

Abodes. Those who take rebirth here are called "non-returners" because they do not return from that world, but attain

final nibbana there without coming back. They guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass intoenlightenment as Arhats when they pass away from the Suddhavasa worlds. Among its inhabitants is Brahma

Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world (SN 6.1)

KAMA-LOKA (The Sensuous World) Birth into these heavenly planes takes place through wholesome kamma.

These devas enjoy aesthetic pleasures, long life, beauty, and certain powers. The heavenly planes are not reserved

only for good Buddhists. Anyone who has led a wholesome life can be born in them. People who believe in an

"eternal heaven" may carry their belief to the deva plane, and take the long life span there to be an eternal existence.

Only those who have known the Dhamma will realize that, asthese planes are impermanent, some day these sentient

beings will fallaway from them and be reborn elsewhere. The devas can help people by inclining their minds to

wholesome acts, and people can help the devas by inviting them to rejoice in their meritorious deeds. The Devas in

these realms have physical forms similar to, but larger than, those of humans. They lead the same sort of lives thathumans do, though they are longer-lived and generally more content, indeed sometimes they are immersed in

pleasures. This is the dhatu that Mara has greatest influence over. They are also more interested in and involved with

the world below than any of the higher devas, and sometimes intervene with advice and counsel. Each of these

groups of deva-worlds contains different grades of devas, but all of those within a single group are able to interact

and communicate with each other. On the other hand, the lower groups have no direct knowledge of even the

existence of the higher types of deva at all. Due to not having direct knowledge of the realms above the Brahma

realm, some of the Brahmas have become proud, imagining themselves as the highest creators of their own worlds

and of all the worlds below them (because they came into existence before those worlds began to exist).
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Practices

To have an idea of the differences between Buddhism and pre-existing beliefs and practices during this time, we can

look into the Samaaphala Sutta in the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon. In this sutra, a king of Magadha listed the

teachings from many prominent and famous spiritual teachers around during that time. He also asked the Buddha

about his teaching when visiting him. The Buddha told the king about the practices of his spiritual path. The list of

various practices he taught disciples as well as practices he doesn't encourage are listed. The text, rather than statingwhat the new faith was, emphasized what the new faith was not. Contemporaneous religious traditions were

caricatured and then negated. Though critical of prevailing religious practices and social institutions on philosophical

grounds, early Buddhist texts exhibit a reactionary anxiety at having to compete in religiously plural societies. Below

are a few examples found in the sutra:

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to high and luxurious furnishings such as these

over-sized couches, couches adorned with carved animals, long-haired coverlets, multi-colored patchwork

coverlets, white woolen coverlets, woolen coverlets embroidered with flowers or animal figures, stuffed quilts,

coverlets with fringe, silk coverlets embroidered with gems; large woolen carpets; elephant, horse, and chariot

rugs, antelope-hide rugs, deer-hide rugs; couches with awnings, couches with red cushions for the head and

feet he (a bhikkhu disciple of the Buddha) abstains from using high and luxurious furnishings such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to scents, cosmetics, and means of beautification

such as these rubbing powders into the body, massaging with oils, bathing in perfumed water, kneading the

limbs, using mirrors, ointments, garlands, scents, bracelets, head-bands, decorated walking sticks ..fancy

sunshades, decorated sandals, turbans, gems, yak-tail whisks, long-fringed white robes he abstains from

.means of beautification such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to talking about lowly topics such as these talking

about kings, robbers, ministers of state; armies, alarms, and battles; food and drink; clothing, furniture,

garlands, and scents; relatives; vehicles; villages, towns, cities, the countryside; women and heroes; the gossip

of the street and the well; tales of the dead; tales of diversity [philosophical discussions of the past and future],the creation of the world and of the sea, and talk of whether things exist or not he abstains from talking

about lowly topics such as these...

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...are addicted to running messages and errands for people such as

these kings, ministers of state, noble warriors, priests, householders, or youths [who say], 'Go here, go

there, take this there, fetch that here' he abstains from running messages and errands for people such as

these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...engage in scheming, persuading, hinting, belittling, and pursuing

gain with gain, he abstains from forms of scheming and persuading [improper ways of trying to gain material

support from donors] such as these. "Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by

wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: reading marks on the limbs [e.g., palmistry]; reading omens and signs;interpreting celestial events [falling stars, comets]; interpreting dreams; reading marks on the body [e.g.,

phrenology]; reading marks on cloth gnawed by mice; offering fire oblations, oblations from a ladle, oblations

of husks, rice powder, rice grains, ghee, and oil; offering oblations from the mouth; offering blood-sacrifices;

making predictions based on the fingertips; geomancy; laying demons in a cemetery; placing spells on spirits;

reciting house-protection charms; snake charming, poison-lore, scorpion-lore, rat-lore, bird-lore, crow-lore;

fortune-telling based on visions; giving protective charms; interpreting the calls of birds and animals he

abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as:

determining lucky and unlucky gems, garments, staffs, swords, spears, arrows, bows, and other weapons;

women, boys, girls, male slaves, female slaves; elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, cows, goats, rams, fowl,

quails, lizards, long-eared rodents, tortoises, and other animals he abstains from wrong livelihood, from
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lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as

forecasting: the rulers will march forth; the rulers will march forth and return; our rulers will attack, and their

rulers will retreat; their rulers will attack, and our rulers will retreat; there will be triumph for our rulers and

defeat for their rulers; there will be triumph for their rulers and defeat for our rulers; thus there will be triumph,

thus there will be defeat he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these. "Whereas somepriests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there

will be a lunar eclipse; there will be a solar eclipse; there will be an occultation of an asterism; the sun and

moon will go their normal courses; the sun and moon will go astray; the asterisms will go their normal

courses; the asterisms will go astray; there will be a meteor shower; there will be a darkening of the sky; there

will be an earthquake; there will be thunder coming from a clear sky; there will be a rising, a setting, a

darkening, a brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms; such will be the result of the lunar eclipse... the

rising, setting, darkening, brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms he abstains from wrong livelihood,

from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as

forecasting: there will be abundant rain; there will be a drought; there will be plenty; there will be famine;there will be rest and security; there will be danger; there will be disease; there will be freedom from disease;

or they earn their living by counting, accounting, calculation, composing poetry, or teaching hedonistic arts

and doctrines he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.


calculating auspicious dates for marriages, betrothals, divorces; for collecting debts or making investments and

loans; for being attractive or unattractive; curing women who have undergone miscarriages or abortions;

reciting spells to bind a man's tongue, to paralyze his jaws, to make him lose control over his hands, or to bring

on deafness; getting oracular answers to questions addressed to a mirror, to a young girl, or to a spirit medium;

worshipping the sun, worshipping the Great Brahma, bringing forth flames from the mouth, invoking the

goddess of luck he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.


promising gifts to devas in return for favors; fulfilling such promises; demonology; teaching house-protection

spells; inducing virility and impotence; consecrating sites for construction; giving ceremonial mouthwashes

and ceremonial bathing; offering sacrificial fires; administering emetics, purges, purges from above, purges

from below, head-purges; administering ear-oil, eye-drops, treatments through the nose, ointments, and

counter-ointments; practicing eye-surgery (or: extractive surgery), general surgery, pediatrics; administering

root-medicines binding medicinal herbs he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as

these.[53]

Meditation

According to the Maha-Saccaka Sutta, the Buddha recalled a meditative state he entered by chance as a child and

abandoned the ascetic practices he has been doing:

I thought: 'I recall once, when my father the Sakyan was working, and I was sitting in the cool shade of a

rose-apple tree, then quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful mental qualities I entered

& remained in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from seclusion, accompanied by directed thought &

evaluation. Could that be the path to Awakening?' Then following on that memory came the realization: 'That

is the path to Awakening.'

[54]

According to the Upakkilesa Sutta, after figuring out the cause of the various obstacles and overcoming them, the

Buddha was able to penetrate the sign and enters 1st- 4th Jhana.


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I also saw both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I

thought, What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear?

Then consider the following: The question arose in me and because of doubt my concentration fell, when my

concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I act so that the question does not arise in me

again.

I remained diligent, ardent, perceived both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of lightand shapes disappear. I thought, What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms

disappear?

Then consider the following: Inattention arose in me because of inattention and my concentration has

decreased, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I must act in such a way

that neither doubt nor disregard arise in me again.

In the same way as above, the Buddha encountered many more obstacles that caused the light to disappear and found

his way out of them. These includes, sloth and torpor, fear, elation, inertia, excessive energy, energy deficient,

desire, perception of diversity, and excessive meditation on the ways. Finally, he was able to penetrate the light and

entered jhana.

The following descriptions in the Upakkilesa Sutta further show how he find his way into the first four Jhanas, which

he later considered samma samadhi.

When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an

imperfection of the mind. When I realized that inattention sloth and torpor fear elation inertia

excessive energy deficient energy desire perception of diversity excessive meditation on the

ways, I abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind.

When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an imperfection

of the mind. When I realized that inattention sloth and torpor fear elation . inertia excessive

energy deficient energy desire perception of diversity excessive meditation on the ways, I

abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind, so I thought, I abandoned theseimperfections of the mind. Now the concentration will develop in three ways. ..And so, Anuruddha, develop

concentration with directed thought and sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought,

but only with the sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought and without thought

sustained, developed with the concentration ecstasy; developed concentration without ecstasy; develop

concentration accompanied by happiness, developing concentration accompanied by equanimityWhen

Anuruddha, I developed concentration with directed thought and sustained thought to the development

when the concentration accompanied by fairness, knowledge and vision arose in me: My release is

unshakable, this is my last birth, now there are no more likely to be any condition.

[54]

According to the early scriptures, the Buddha learned the two formless attainments from two teachers, Alara Kalama

and Uddaka Ramaputta respectively, prior to his enlightenment.[55] It is most likely that they belonged to the

Brahmanical tradition.[56] However, he realized that neither "Dimension of Nothingness" nor "Dimension of Neither

Perception nor Non-Perception" lead to Nirvana and left. The Buddha said in the Ariyapariyesana Sutta:

But the thought occurred to me, This Dhamma leads not to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to

stilling, to direct knowledge, to Awakening, nor to Unbinding, but only to reappearance in the dimension of

neither perception nor non-perception. So, dissatisfied with that Dhamma, I left.

[54]

Cessation of feelings and perceptions

The Buddha himself discovered an attainment beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, the

"cessation of feelings and perceptions". This is sometimes called the "ninth jhna" in commentarial and scholarly


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literature.[55][57] Although the "Dimension of Nothingness" and the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor

Non-Perception" are included in the list of nine Jhanas taught by the Buddha, they are not included in the Noble

Eightfold Path. Noble Path number eight is "Samma Samadhi" (Right Concentration), and only the first four Jhanas

are considered "Right Concentration". If he takes a disciple through all the Jhanas, the emphasis is on the "Cessation

of Feelings and Perceptions" rather than stopping short at the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor

Non-Perception".

In the Magga-vibhanga Sutta, the Buddha defines Right Concentration that belongs to the concentration (samadhi)

division of the path as the first four Jhanas:

And what is right concentration? There is the case where a monk quite withdrawn from sensuality,

withdrawn from unskillful (mental) qualities enters & remains in the first Jhana: rapture & pleasure born

from withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. With the stilling of directed thoughts &

evaluations, he enters & remains in the Second Jhana: rapture & pleasure born of composure, unification of

awareness free from directed thought & evaluation internal assurance. With the fading of rapture, he

remains equanimous, mindful, & alert, and senses pleasure with the body. He enters & remains in the Third

Jhana, of which the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.' With the

abandoning of pleasure & pain as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress he enters &remains in the Fourth Jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is called right

concentration.

[58]

The Buddha did not reject the formless attainments in and of themselves, but instead the doctrines of his teachers as

a whole, as they did not lead to nibbana. He then underwent harsh ascetic practices that he eventually also became

disillusioned with. He subsequently remembered enteringjhna as a child, and realized that, "That indeed is the path

to enlightenment."

In the suttas, the immaterial attainments are never referred to as jhnas. The immaterial attainments have more to do

with expanding, while the Jhanas (1-4) focus on concentration. A common translation for the term "samadhi" isconcentration. Rhys Davids and Maurice Walshe agreed that the term samadhi is not found in any pre-buddhist

text. Hindu texts later used that term to indicate the state of enlightenment. This is not in conformity with Buddhist

usage. In " The Long Discourse of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya" (pg. 1700) Maurice Walshe

wrote that:

Rhys Davids also states that the term samadhi is not found in any pre-Buddhist text. To his remarks on the

subject should be added that its subsequent use in Hindu texts to denote the state of enlightenment is not in

conformity with Buddhist usage, where the basic meaning of concentration is expanded to cover meditation

in general.

[53]

Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon

the yogis' concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques, but rejected their theories of

liberation.[59] In Buddhism, sati and sampajanna are to be developed at all times, in pre-Buddhist yogic practices

there is no such injunction. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating, for example,

while a Buddhist monastic should do so.[60]

Another new teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with a liberating

cognition.[61]

Religious knowledge or 'vision' was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold.

According to the Samaaphala Sutta this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of

'meditation' (Sanskrit: dhyna) coupled with the perfection of 'ethics' (Sanskrit: la). Some of the Buddha'smeditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the
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attainment of 'religious insight' (Sanskrit: praj) was original.[62]

The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques. [63] They describe meditative practices

and states that existed before the Buddha, as well as those first developed within Buddhism. [64] Two Upanishads

written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation. [65]

While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that

formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels betweenUpanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the

early Buddhist texts.[66] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.[67] Having argued that the cosmological

statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains

evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.[66]

Vedas

Buddhism does not deny that the Vedas in their true origin were sacred although have been amended repeatedly by

certain Brahmins to secure their positions in society. The Buddha declared that the Veda in its true form was

declared by Kashyapa to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes. [68] In

the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka of the Mahavagga (I.245)[69] section the Buddha names these rishis, and declared that

the original Veda the Vedic rishis "Atthako, Vmako, Vmadevo, Vessmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhradvjo,

Vsettho, Kassapo, and Bhagu"[70] but that it was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The

Vinaya Pitaka's sectionAnguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that

the Buddha refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time. [71]

The Buddha is recorded in the Canki Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 95) as saying to a group of Brahmins:

O Vasettha, those priests who know the scriptures are just like a line of blind men tied together where the first

sees nothing, the middle man nothing, and the last sees nothing.

In the same discourse, he says:

It is not proper for a wise man who maintains truth to come to the conclusion: This alone is Truth, andeverything else is false.

He is also recorded as saying:

To be attached to one thing (to a certain view) and to look down upon other things (views) as inferior - this the

wise men call a fetter.

Walpola Rahula writes, "It is always a question of knowing and seeing, and not that of believing. The teaching of the

Buddha is qualified as ehi-passika, inviting you to 'come and see,' but not to come and believe... It is always seeing

through knowledge or wisdom, and not believing through faith."[72] Budhdha is a form of a God for Buddhists.

In Hinduism, philosophies are classified either as Astika or Nastika, that is, philosophies that either affirm or reject

the authorities of the Vedas. According to this tradition, Buddhism is a Nastika school since it rejects the authority ofthe Vedas.[73] Buddhists on the whole called those who did not believe in Buddhism the "outer path-farers"

(tiirthika).[74]

Conversion

Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the issue of whether Hindus

evangelize is open to interpretations.[75] Those who view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion tend to

believe that to be a Hindu, one must be born a Hindu. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy,

a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs

into one's life and by considering oneself a Hindu. [75] The Supreme Court of India has taken the latter view, holding

that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their

ethnic or racial heritage.[76]
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Buddhism spread throughout Asia via evangelism and conversion.[77] Buddhist scriptures depict such conversions in

the form of lay followers declaring their support for the Buddha and his teachings, or via ordination as a Buddhist

monk. Buddhist identity has been broadly defined as one who "takes refuge" in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha,

echoing a formula seen in Buddhist texts. In some communities, formal conversion rituals are observed. No specific

ethnicity has typically been associated with Buddhism, and as it spread beyond its origin in India immigrant

monastics were replaced with newly ordained members of the local ethnic or tribal group. [78]

Early Buddhism and early Vedanta

Early Buddhist scriptures do not mention schools of learning directly connected with the Upanishads. Though the

earliest Upanishads had been completed by the Buddha's time, they are not cited in the early Buddhist texts as

Upanishads or Vedanta. For the early Buddhists they were likely not thought of as having any outstanding

significance in and of themselves, and as simply one section of the Vedas. [79]

The Buddhist texts do describe wandering, mendicant Brahmins who appear to have valued the early Upanishads'

promotion of this lifestyle as opposed to living the life of the householder and accruing wealth from nobles in

exchange for performing Vedic sacrifices.[80] Furthermore, the early Buddhist texts mention ideas similar to those

expounded in the early Upanishads, before controverting them.[81]

Brahman

The old Upanishads largely consider Brahman (masculine gender, Brahm in the nominative case, henceforth

"Brahm") to be a personal god, and Brahman (neuter gender, Brahma in the nominative case, henceforth

"Brahman") to be the impersonal world principle.[82] They do not strictly distinguish between the two, however. [83]

The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahm: first, he has light and luster as his marks; second, he is

invisible; third, he is unknowable, and it is impossible to know his nature; fourth, he is omniscient. The old

Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahman as well.[82]

In the Buddhist texts, there are many Brahms. There they form a class of superhuman beings, and rebirth into the

realm of Brahms is possible by pursuing Buddhist practices. [84] In the early texts, the Buddha gives arguments to

refute the existence of a creator.[85]

In the Pli scriptures, the neuter Brahman does not appear (though the word brahma is standardly used in compound

words to mean "best", or "supreme"[86][87]), however ideas are mentioned as held by various Brahmins in connection

with Brahm that match exactly with the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads. Brahmins who appear in the

Tevijja-suttanta of the Digha Nikaya regard "union with Brahm" as liberation, and earnestly seek it. In that text,

Brahmins of the time are reported to assert: "Truly every Brahmin versed in the three Vedas has said thus: 'We shall

expound the path for the sake of union with that which we do not know and do not see. This is the correct path. This

path is the truth, and leads to liberation. If one practices it, he shall be able to enter into association with Brahm."

The early Upanishads frequently expound "association with Brahm", and "that which we do not know and do notsee" matches exactly with the early Upanishadic Brahman.[88]

In the earliest Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Absolute, which came to be referred to as Brahman, is

referred to as "the imperishable".[89] The Pli scriptures present a "pernicious view" that is set up as an absolute

principle corresponding to Brahman: "O Bhikkhus! At that time Baka, the Brahm, produced th e following

pernicious view: 'It is permanent. It is eternal. It is always existent. It is independent existence. It has the dharma of

non-perishing. Truly it is not born, does not become old, does not die, does not disappear, and is not born again.

Furthermore, no liberation superior to it exists elsewhere." The principle expounded here corresponds to the concept

of Brahman laid out in the Upanishads. According to this text the Buddha criticized this notion: "Truly the Baka

Brahm is covered with unwisdom."[90]

The Buddha confined himself to what is empirically given. [91][92][93] This empiricism is based broadly on bothordinary sense experience and extrasensory perception enabled by high degrees of mental concentration.[94]
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Adi Shankara in his works refuted the Buddhist arguments against tman. He suggested that a self-evident conscious

agent would avoid infinite regress, since there would be no necessity to posit another agent who would know this. He

further argued that a cognizer beyond cognition could be easily demonstrated from the diversity in self existence of

the witness and the notion.[108] Furthermore, Shankara thought that no doubts could be raised about the Self, for the

act of doubting implies at the very least the existence of the doubter. Vidyaranya, another Advaita Vedantic

philosopher, expresses this argument as:

No one can doubt the fact of his own existence. Were one to do so, who would the doubter be? [109]

Cosmic Self declared non-existent

The Buddha denies the existence of the cosmic Self, as conceived in the Upanishadic tradition, in the Alagaddupama

Sutta (M I 135-136). Possibly the most famous Upanishadic dictum is tat tvam asi, "thou art that." Transposed into

first person, the Pali version is eso ham asmi, "I am this." This is said in several suttas to be false. The full statement

declared to be incorrect is "This is mine, I am this, this is my self/essence." This is often rejected as a wrong

view.[110] The Alagaduppama Sutta rejects this and other obvious echoes of surviving Upanishadic statements as

well (these are not mentioned as such in the commentaries, and seem not to have been noticed until modern times).

Moreover, the passage denies that ones self is the same as the world and that one will become the world self atdeath.[111] The Buddha tells the monks that people worry about something that is non-existent externally (bahiddhaa

asati) and non-existent internally (ajjhattam asati); he is referring respectively to the soul/essence of the world and

of the individual.[111] A similar rejection of "internal" Self and "external" Self occurs at AN II 212. Both are

referring to the Upanishads.[111] The most basic presupposition of early Brahminic cosmology is the identification of

man and the cosmos (instances of this occur at TU II.1 and Mbh XII.195), and liberation for the yogin was thought

to only occur at death, with the adept's union with brahman (as at Mbh XII.192.22).[112] The Buddha's rejection of

these theories is therefore one instance of the Buddha's attack on the whole enterprise of Upanishadic

ontology.[113][114]

BrahminThe Buddha redefined the word "brahman" so as to become a synonym for arahant, replacing a distinction based on

birth with one based on spiritual attainment.[115][116] The early Buddhist scriptures furthermore defined purity as

determined by one's state of mind, and refer to anyone who behaves unethically, of whatever caste, as "rotting

within", or "a rubbish heap of impurity".[117]

The Buddha explains his use of the word brahman in many places. At Sutta Nipata 1.7 Vasala Sutta, verse 12, he

states: "Not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahmin. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one

becomes a brahman."[118] An entire chapter of the Dhammapada is devoted to showing how a true brahman in the

Buddha's use of the word is one who is of totally pure mind, namely, an arahant.[119] However, it is very noteworthy

that the Bhagavad Gita also defines Brahmin, and other varnas, as qualities and resulting from actions, and does not

mention birth as a factor in determining these. In that regard, the chapter on Brahmins in the Dhammapada may beregarded as being entirely in tune with the definition of a Brahmin in Chapter 18 of the Bhagavad Gita. Both say that

a Brahmin is a person having certain qualities.

A defining of feature of the Buddha's teachings is self-sufficiency, so much so as to render the Brahminical

priesthood entirely redundant.[120]
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Soteriology

Upanishadic soteriology is focused on the static Self, while the Buddha's is focused on dynamic agency. In the

former paradigm, change and movement are an illusion; to realize the Self as the only reality is to realize something

that has always been the case. In the Buddha's system by contrast, one has to make things happen. [121]

The fire metaphor used in the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta (which is also used elsewhere) is a radical way of making the

point that the liberated sage is beyond phenomenal experience. It also makes the additional point that thisindefinable, transcendent state is the sage's state even during life. This idea goes against the early Brahminic notion

of liberation at death.[122]

Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the permanent realization at death of a nondual meditative

state anticipated in life. In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept ("becoming

cool", "going out") were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is

liberated in life.[123] The Buddha taught that these meditative states alone do not offer a decisive and permanent end

to suffering either during life or after death. [124]

He stated that achieving a formless attainment with no further practice would only lead to temporary rebirth in a

formless realm after death.

[125]

Moreover, he gave a pragmatic refutation of early Brahminical theories according towhich the meditator, the meditative state, and the proposed uncaused, unborn, unanalyzable Self, are identical.[126]

These theories are undergirded by the Upanishadic correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm, from which

perspective it is not surprising that meditative states of consciousness were thought to be identical to the subtle strata

of the cosmos.[127] The Buddha, in contrast, argued that states of consciousness come about caused and conditioned

by the yogi's training and techniques, and therefore no state of consciousness could be this eternal Self. [126]

Nonduality

Both the Buddha's conception of the liberated person and the goal of early Brahminic yoga can be characterized as

nondual, but in different ways. The nondual goal in early Brahminism was conceived in ontological terms; the goal

was that into which one merges after death. According to Wynne, liberation for the Buddha "... is nondual in another,more radical, sense. This is made clear in the dialogue with Upasiva, where the liberated sage is defined as someone

who has passed beyond conceptual dualities. Concepts that might have some meaning in ordinary discourse, such as

consciousness or the lack of it, existence and non-existence, etc., do not apply to the sage. For the Buddha,

propositions are not applicable to the liberated person, because language and concepts (Sn 1076: vaadapathaa,

dhammaa), as well as any sort of intellectual reckoning (sankhaa) do not apply to the liberated sage.[128]

Nirvana

The word nirvana (Pali: Nibbana) was first used in its technical sense in Buddhism, and cannot be found in any of

the pre-Buddhist Upanishads (It can be found in Jain texts). The use of the term in the Bhagavad Gita may be a sign

of the strong Buddhist influence upon Hindu thought.[42]

buddhism & hinduism-wicki

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