buddhism, fourth edition

8/22/2019 Buddhism, Fourth Edition

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REVELATION


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BUDDHISM

WORLD RELIGIONS

FOURTH EDITION


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WORLD RELIGIONS

rican Traditional eligion

ahai Faithuddhism

atholicism & Orthodox hristianity

onucianism

aoism

induism

slam

Judaism

ative merican eligions

ProtestantismShinto

Sikhism

Zoroastrianism


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by

Madhu Bazaz Wangu

Series Editors: Joanne OBrien and Martin Palmer

BUDDHISM

WORLD RELIGIONS

FOURTH EDITION


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Buddhism, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009, 2006, 2002, 1993 by Inobase Publishing

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or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any inormation storage or retrieval systems, without

permission in writing rom the publisher. For inormation contact:

Chelsea House

An imprint o Inobase Publishing

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New York NY 10001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wangu, Madhu Bazaz.

Buddhism / by Madhu Bazaz Wangu.4th ed.

p. cm. (World religions)

Previously published: New York : Facts On File, 2006.

Includes bibliographical reerences and index.

ISBN 978-1-60413-105-5

1. BuddhismJuvenile literataure. I. Title. II. Series.

BQ4032.W36 2009

294.3dc22

2008051265

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OTTS

Preface 6

PT 1 Introduction: The Modern Buddhist World 8

PT 2 The Life of the Buddha 18

PT 3 The Spread of Buddhism 36

PT 4 The Varieties of Buddhism 56

PT 5 The Literature of Buddhism 76

PT 6 The Arts and Buddhism 92

PT 7 The Year in Buddhism 110

PT 8 Buddhism Today 122 Fact File and Bibliography 138

Further Reading and Web Sites 139

Glossary 140

Index 142

About the Author and Series Editors 144

Picture Credits 144


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6 BUDDHISM

Prefacelmost rom the start o civilization, more

than 10,000 years ago, religion has shaped

human history. Today more than hal the

worlds population practice a major reli-

gion or indigenous spiritual tradition. nmany 21st-century societies, including

the United States, religion still shapes peo-

ples lives and plays a key role in politics

and culture. nd in societies throughout

the world increasing ethnic and cultural

diversity has led to a variety o religions

being practiced side by side. This makes

it vital that we understand as much as wecan about the worlds religions.

The World eligions series, o which

this book is a part, sets out to achieve this

aim. t is written and designed to appeal

to both students and general readers. The

books oer clear, accessible overviews o

the major religious traditions and insti-

tutions o our time. ach volume in the

series describes where a particular religionis practiced, its origins and history, its cen-

tral belies and important rituals, and its

contributions to world civilization. are-

ully chosen photographs complement

the text, and sidebars, a map, act fle, glos-

sary, bibliography, and index are included

to help readers gain a more complete

understanding o the subject at hand.

These books will help clariy what

religion is all about and reveal both the

similarities and dierences in the great

spiritual traditions practiced around the

world today.

Buddhists as a Proportion

o the Population.

50%95%

2%49%

0.1%1.9%

Less than 0.1%


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Inobase Publishing

Preace


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8

CHAPTER 1

BUDDHISM

INTRODUCTION:

THE MODERN

BUDDHIST

WORLD

Approximately 370 million people in the world today are

practicing uddhists, making uddhism the ourth largest

o the worlds religions. owever, uddhism has an inuence

even greater than the number o its adherents would indicate.

From the time that Siddhartha Gautamaknown as the ud-

dhafrst preached his simple doctrine about 2,500 years ago,

uddhism has spread throughout sia rom its homeland in

ndia. t has had a signifcant and lasting impact on ndia, hina,

Japan, Korea, Thailand, Mongolia, and other sian nations.Today uddhism is the majority religion in Thailand, Mongo-

lia, ambodia, Myanmar (ormerly urma), hutan, Sri Lanka,

Tibet, Laos, ietnam, Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore. Though the

most populous nation in the world, hina, is ofcially atheist, a

sizable minority o its people adhere to uddhist belies. Millions

more hinese, though they are not practicing uddhists, are

inuenced by the cultural aspects o uddhism.

uddhism is not confned solely to sia. n the past century it

has won admirers and ollowers in urope and the United States.

A young Burmese monk in a temple shrine room. The

gilt statues o the Buddha depict him with one hand

touching the earth to symbolize enlightenment.


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Introduction: The Modern Buddhist World


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10 BUDDHISM

ndeed, the majority o the people in one U.S. stateawaiiis

uddhist.

ll the countries that came under the inuence o uddhism

were enriched culturally and artistically. The image o the ud-

dha appears in colossal statues, delicate fgurines, and innumer-

able styles o art throughout sia. Scenes rom the uddhas lieare as important in sian art as the story o Jesus hrist is in

Western art.

WHAT IS BUDDHISM?

uddhism is a path to spiritual discovery. ts ounder, Siddhartha

Gautama, looked at the human condition much as a doctor does.

e ound disease, decay, and death. e ully realized that joy and

pleasure existed as well, but he recognized that those qualities didnot last. ll things in lie were transient or temporary. So even in

joy the awareness o impermanence and death caused unhappi-

ness and suering.

ecause o his ndian background Siddhartha did not believe

that death was a fnal release rom suering. n ndian religious

tradition souls are reborn into new bodies ater death. The cycle

o birth, death, and rebirth goes on unendingly. ll living beings

are caught in this cycle. Siddhartha strove to fnd a way to get o

the treadmill o endless rebirths. Throughmeditation he realized the path to fnal

release and became enlightened.

THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

The uddha diagnosed human desire

in all its orms as the cause o suering.

Thereore his treatment, or solution,

was to eliminate desire by right thoughts

and right actions. This could be done by

ollowing the ightold Path. This was a

series o eight stages o a high ethical code.

The frst stages on this path were guides,

calling or kindly behavior to all living


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A stone carving o theBuddha on the huge stupa,

or dome-shaped shrine, at

Borobadur on the island

o Java in Indonesia. The

position o the Buddhas

hands shows that he is

teaching the dharma,

the law and the way.

The Buddhas hair is in

a topknot, representing

spiritual wisdom, and he

has elongated earlobes,

signiying his previous lie o

wealth when heavy jewels

would have weighed down

his ears.

things. Later stages were more difcult

and required meditation and discipline.

This truth, or law, o uddhism is

known as dharma. ndeed, uddha dhar-

ma is the name o the religion in sia. t is

also called the Middle Way. The uddhaadvised those who wished to ollow the

dharma to avoid extremes o behavior,

such as severe sel-denial or, at the other

extreme, selfsh attachment to pleasure.



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12 BUDDHISM

e stated, void these two extremes:

attachment to the pleasures o the senses,

which is low and vulgar, and attachment

to sel-mortifcation, which is painul.

oth are unproftable.

NIRVANA

orrectly ollowing the ightold Path brings one in time to nir-

vana, a term that is difcult to defne. uddhists have said that

it cannot be described in words. t is not the heaven o hristi-

anity or slam. n Sanskrit, the ancient ndian language, nirvana

means blowing out (as a ame is blown out). n uddhism what

is blown out is hatred, greed, and delusion.

Looking at it in another way, nirvana is the loss o the ego, or sel, a condition that ends the path o suering and pain when

human beings travel rom one lie to another. The word nirvana

Pilgrims in Tibet entering ahilltop Buddhist temple or

morning devotions.


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also implies boundless expansion, which

may be described as becoming part o the

universe. t was nirvana that Siddhartha

attained when he became the uddha.

AN ETHICAL CODEuddhism is like other religions in its

concern or the welare o humankind

indeed, or all living things. n the striving

or the attainment o nirvana, it teaches a

high ethical code. t asks its ollowers to abstain rom taking lie

o any kind; not to lie, cheat, or steal; and to treat others with

kindness. atred does not cease by hatred at any time, said the

uddha. atred ceases by love.

THE GREAT VARIETY OF BUDDHISM

The uddha never wrote down his teachings. is disciples mem-

orized his words, and their ollowers carried on the oral tradition.

The frst comprehensive written record o the uddhas doctrine

was not compiled until 500 years ater his death.

THERAVADA AND MAHAYANA

y that time uddhism had already developed two major orms:Theravada uddhism and Mahayana ud-

dhism. n general Theravadas adherents

ollowed more literally the teachings o

the historic uddha, while the ollow-

ers o Mahayana more reely adapted the

uddhas doctrine.

y and large Theravada uddhism is

ollowed today by people on the southern

rim o siaSri Lanka, Myanmar, Thai-

land, ambodia, Laos, and parts o Malay-

sia. Mahayana uddhism spread north

and east rom ndia into hina, Tibet,

ietnam, Korea, and Japan.

OLDER RELIGIONS

In many parts o Asia, Buddhism

absorbed or provided a space or the

continuation o older traditional religions

such as Bon in Tibet. In other countries

rivalry sometimes meant that the older

religions redefned themselves againstBuddhism. In China, or example, the rise

o Buddhism led to the traditional religion

o Daoism developing monasticism or

the frst time.



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14 BUDDHISM

Missionaries rom hina spread ud-

dhism to Korea and rom there it came to

Japan. The Japanese, showing their inge-

nious talent or turning oreign things into

uniquely Japanese traditions, assimilated

uddhism into their culture. Most Japa-nese today ollow the practices o both

uddhism and Shinto, the ancient Japa-

nese belie in kami, or nature spirits.

VARIETY OF PRACTICE

s a result o its tolerant tradition uddhism today displays a

wide variety o practices and customs. n Thailand, during the

rainy season that begins in July, schoolchildren make candles topresent as gits to the local uddhist temple and celebrate with

song and dance. ach year in Sri Lanka orange-robed uddhist

monks lead an elephant through the streets. t carries one o the

countrys holiest uddhist relicsa tooth o the uddha himsel.

n Tibet spiritual guides called lamas gather around people who

are dying, reciting certain texts to assist the dying person to reach

a higher plane o existence. n Korea each pril shops and houses

are estooned with paper lanterns as colorul processions pass

through the streets in celebration o the uddhas birthday. nJapan many people simply recite the phrase call on the mida

uddha in their everyday lives. ll these people are paying hom-

age to the uddha.

A MORAL MESSAGE

The message o uddhism has an appeal on many dierent intel-

lectual levels. t can be either very simple or immensely compli-

cated. For the person with such everyday concerns as how to

earn a living, it oers a moral message o compassion, honesty,

and sel-control. ts appeal is as great to a practitioner in indus-

trial Japan as it is to peasants in rural communities o Southeast

sia. On the other hand it can provide a basis or lielong medita-

tion and thought.


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Today, members o the sangha still teach and pursue the goal

o enlightenment. Men and women put on the robes o uddhist

monks or nuns and enter monasteries. They spend much o their

time reciting together the scriptures o uddhism, or in solitary

meditation on the truths o the religion. They depend on the

donations o the aithul or their subsistence. Some take theiralms bowls into the streets, and others receive donations o ood

or money at the monastery.

THE MONASTIC LIFE

Like uddhism itsel, the lie o a monk or nun is exible. Some

people enter as children and stay or their entire lietimes. Oth-

ers lead the monastic lie or a short time and then return to the

everyday world. This is not rowned upon, or they have earnedmerit or the time they spent in complete devotion to the ud-

dhist way. n the countries o Southeast sia it is very common

or laypersons such as successul merchants and cratspeople to

enter a monastery or the months o the rainy season and then go

back to their work. ll uddhists, whether

they are monastic or laypersons, ollow

the path that leads to release rom suer-

ing. n ollowing this path, they are said to

be taking reuge in the Three Jewelstheuddha, the dharma, and the sangha.

THE UNIVERSAL APPEAL OF BUDDHISM

uddhism has a universal appeal. t recog-

nizes the suering that all people endure

and provides a way to overcome it. ny-

one can practice it, or as the uddha

said, My doctrine makes no distinction

between high and low, rich and poor; it is

like the sky, it has room or all; like water

it washes all alike.

n sia, its birthplace, it has recently

begun to ourish again in countries such

THE THREE JEWELS

Amid all the dierent orms and prac-

tices o Buddhism, one o the ew

things all agree on is that a Buddhist takes

reuge in the Three Jewels. These are the

Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha.

Indeed, many Buddhists recite the phrase

I take reuge in the Buddha, I take reuge

in the dharma, and I take reuge in the

sangha as a daily prayer. When Buddhists

speak o taking reuge, they mean ollow-

ing the path that leads to the end o suer-

ingnirvana. A Tibetan proverb sums upthe Three Jewels: The Buddha is the great

physician; the dharma is the remedy; the

sangha is the nurse who administers the

remedy.



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16 BUDDHISM


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as hina, Mongolia, and the ussian states

o Kalmyk and uryat, where it had been

almost stamped out by the communist

governments.

n the West uddhism has grown sig-

nifcantly since the 1960s, when it becamepopular among artists and writers, espe-

cially the young, or its promotion o spir-

itual values and promise o inner peace. n

Great ritain, or example, the number o

uddhist centers has grown rom about

hal a dozen in the 1950s to several hun-

dred today.

The uddhas dharma has stood thetest o time. t is practical, or it provides

specifc action and stresses individual eort. The uddha said

that he himsel could only point the way: ach person must ol-

low the ightold Path on his or her own. Look within yoursel,

he told his ollowers. ou are the uddha.

BUDDHIST REVIVAL

Buddhism in China is now able to

unction relatively reely and many

historic temples are being restored by

the government in collaboration withthe Buddhist sangha. In Mongolia the all

o communism in 1991 ound Buddhism

barely alive. Within a ew years more than

900 temples and monasteries had been

ounded or reopened. Although this has

now dropped down to around 600, it rep-

resents the revival by popular demand o

the Mongolian aith in Buddhism.



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18 BUDDHISM

THE LIFE OF

THE BUDDHA

CHAPTER 2

Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who would become known asthe uddha, was born around the year 563 B.C.E. is birth-

place was the town o Kapilavastu in what is now epal. Siddhar-

tha was the son o Shuddhodana, the chie (sometimes called a

raja, or king) o the Sakyas. ence the title Sakyamuni, or Sage

o the Sakyas, by which Siddhartha was later known.

There is no doubt that Siddhartha really existed. bout 250

years ater his death an ndian emperor set up inscribed stone

pillars at the important sites o Siddharthas lie and teachings.

These are regarded as reliable historical records.

ORAL HISTORY

The details o the uddhas lie, as retold in this chapter, come

rom an oral tradition begun by those who actually knew and

saw him. These accounts were not written down until around

500 years ater his death, by which time all sorts o legends and

miraculous stories had grown around him.

Stone statues o the Buddha dressed in a simple monks

robe at Ayutthaya in Thailand. Founded in 1350,

Ayutthaya became the second capital o the kingdom o

Siam (the ormer name o Thailand); the frst capital o

the Buddhist kingdom was at Sukhotai.


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The Lie o the Buddha


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20 BUDDHISM

QUEEN MAYAS DREAM

ccording to the uddhist tradition Siddharthas mother, Queen

Maya, was a woman o perect orm and bee-black tresses, ear-

less in heart and ull o grace and virtue. One day a eeling o

great peace and joy came over her. That night, while she slept,

she had a wonderul dream: n elephant with six tusks, carryinga lotus ower in its trunk, touched her right side. t that moment

her son was miraculously conceived.

When the queen told her husband o the dream he called

rahmins (also spelled rahmans), or learned men, to interpret

it. They predicted that the child would be either the greatest king

in the world or the greatest ascetic, a holy man who practices sel-

denial. is name would be Siddhartha, which means he whose

aim is accomplished.

THE BIRTH OF SIDDHARTHA

ccompanied by dancing women and guards, Queen Maya went

to her athers home to prepare or the birth. s she stepped rom

her chariot in the Lumbini Gardens she stopped to rest, taking

hold o a branch o a sal tree.

Legend tells us that at that moment uddha emerged rom her

right side. Without any help the inant walked seven steps in each

o the our directions o the compass. n his ootprints lotus ow-ers sprouted rom the earth. The miraculous inant announced,

o urther births have to endure, or this is my last body. ow

shall destroy and pluck out by the roots the sorrow that is caused

by birth and death.

Seven days ater the wondrous birth Queen Maya died. ence

Mahaprajapati, Mayas sister, looked ater Siddhartha.

THE GREAT RENUNCIATION

The prediction o the learned men had disturbed Siddharthas

ather, King Shuddhodana. From the time o his sons birth

Shuddhodana encouraged his son to ollow the path o kingship.

Shuddhodana surrounded his son with pleasures and granted

his every wish. ever did Siddhartha see or learn about any


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kind o suering or hardship. When he let the palace the kings

guards went ahead o his chariot, clearing the streets o anything

unpleasant or disturbing.

rahmin priest instructed Siddhartha in the ways o govern-

ment, preparing him to govern wisely. Siddhartha also learned

the arts o warhow to fght with a sword and shoot an arrowrom his bow. The young man was strong and healthy, and his

physical beauty and lively spirit attracted many riends. ll o his

companions were children o the ofcials o the court.

BIRTH OF A SON

When Siddhartha was about 20 he married asodhara, the

daughter o one o the kings ministers. Their wedding east

lasted or many days, and gits were distributed to the peopleo the kingdom to mark the occasion. Within a year asodhara

bore Siddharthas son, named ahula, which means etter or

impediment.

King Shuddhodana was pleased, or he had provided every-

thing his son would need or happiness in his lie and success as

a great king. Some years passed, during which time Siddhartha

lived in the palace with his wie and son, enjoying all the plea-

sures o a king.

OLD AGE, SICKNESS, AND DEATH

Then, when he was 29 years old, Siddhartha asked his charioteer,

hanna, to take him or a ride without the consent o the king.

s the prince rode through the city he saw three things that he

had never seen beore. One was an old man, one was a man su-

ering rom illness, and the third was a corpse surrounded by

mourners.

Siddhartha asked hanna to explain the meaning o these

strange sights. hanna responded that old age, sickness, and

death were natural and unavoidable things that came to all peo-

ple. They were to be endured.

Shocked, Siddhartha returned to the palace and thought about

what he had seen. For the frst time he conronted the reality o



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22 BUDDHISM

A 19th-century Chinese painting called The Great Departure, illustrating

Prince Siddhartha leaving his athers palace ater renouncing the luxury

into which he had been born to take on the lie o a wandering holy man.

Tradition holds that the circumstances o the event were ar more austere.


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lie: verything is transient; nothing is permanent in this world

. . . Knowing that, can fnd delight in nothing . . . ow can a

man, who knows that death is quite inevitable, still eel greed in

his heart, enjoy the world o senses and not weep in this great

danger?

RENOUNCING A LIFE OF PLEASURE

Once more Siddhartha asked hanna to take him into the city.

This time he saw the last o the Four Sights that changed his lie.

This was a wandering holy man, an ascetic, with no possessions.

The man had shaved his head, wore only a ragged yellow robe,

and carried a walking sta. Siddhartha stopped his chariot and

questioned the man. The ascetic told the prince, am . . . terrifed

by birth and death and thereore have adopted a homeless lie towin salvation . . . search or the most blessed state in which su-

ering, old age, and death are unknown.

That very night Siddhartha resolved to renounce the lie o

pleasure in the palace. e silently kissed his sleeping wie as-

odhara and his young son and ordered

hanna to drive him out o the city. Leg-

end claims that celestial beings held up the

hooves o the horses so that their clatter

would not wake the guards. t the edgeo a orest Siddhartha took o his jeweled

sword, cut o his hair and beard, and dis-

carded his princely garments. e put on

the yellow robe o a holy man and told

hanna to take his possessions back to his

ather.

THE GREAT RETIREMENT

Siddhartha wandered through north-

eastern ndia seeking out holy men, who

taught him ancient ndian techniques o

meditation. owever his main quest was

to fnd the answer to the problem o su-

KARMA

When a soul is reborn it may enter a

body in a higher or lower state o

existence than its previous one. The new

body may be that o a king, a beggar, or

even an animal or insect. The determining

actor o a souls new existence is the qual-

ity o lie led by the individual soul in its

previous existence. This is called the law o

karma. Simply put, karma consists o the

individuals thoughts, words, and deeds in

his or her previous existences. I the karma

has been good, the soul will be reborn ina higher orm. Conversely, i the karma

has been bad, the soul is punished (pays a

karmic price) by being reborn in a lower

orm.



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24 BUDDHISM

ering. e wanted to know why people suered and how this su-

ering could end.

Siddhartha studied the ancient teachings o ndia. e was

most inuenced by the concept o samsara. Samsara is a belie

that ater death a persons innermost essence, or soul, transmi-

grates into a new bodyit is born again. nother name or thisprocess is reincarnation. very action, thought, and deed has an

eect in this lie and the next lie. This is the law o karma. the

quality o one lie has been good it will lead to a better rebirth.

FOUR CASTES

The law o karma also had social implications. ndian society

was strictly divided into our castes, or classes. t the top were

the rahminspriests and religious teachers. The second casteincluded the warriors and rulers. t was within this caste that

Siddhartha was born. The third and ourth castes were the mer-

chants and workers (laborers, cratsmen, armers, and so on). t

the very bottom were people who were literally outcastes, below

the our castes, whose station in lie made them impure.

n a single lietime it was impossible to rise within the caste

system. y law and tradition the members o each caste were

strictly separated rom the others. People o dierent castes did

not marry, eat together, or have physical contact with one anoth-er. a person violated the caste rules he or she had to undergo

rituals o purifcation. The only way to move up was to accumu-

late good karma and be reborn into a higher caste.

MOKSHARELEASE

Some believed that samsarathis process o lie, death, and

rebirthwas an endless chain o existence. t would continue

orever, rom lie to lie. round the time o Siddharthas lie,

however, new teachingslater set down in scriptures called the

Upanishadswere being developed. The Upanishadic teachers

developed the idea omoksha, or release. y leading a highly spiri-

tual lie (or several lives) a soul could be reunited with rahman,

the Ultimate eality. The cycle o samsara would be broken.


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A depiction o Siddhartha

when his body wasted away

during the six years he spent

asting, beore he realized

that the path to wisdom did

not lie in extremes.

SIDDHARTHAS SELF-DENIAL

ttracted by this idea, Siddhartha adopted a lie o extreme sel-

denial and penances, meditating constantly. e settled on the

bank o the airanjana iver, determined to orce himsel into



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26 BUDDHISM

A pilgrim meditating at

Bodhgaya in northern India.

In the shrine at Bodhgaya is

a tree believed to grow on

the site o the original Bodhi

tree under which Buddha

gained enlightenment.

the state o mind that would lead to moksha. For six years, throughrain and wind, hot and cold weather, he stayed there, eating and

drinking only enough to stay alive. is body became emaciated

and his ormer physical strength let him. is holiness was so

evident that fve other holy men joined him, hoping to learn rom

his example.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

One day, the uddhist tradition holds, Siddhartha realized that

his years o penance had only weakened his body. n such a state

o physical exhaustion he could not meditate properly. e stood

up and stepped into the river to bathe. owever he was so weak

that he could not raise himsel out o the water. The uddhist


29/148

scriptures say that the trees on the riverbank bent their branches

down so that he could reach them.

t that moment a milkmaid named andabala came into

sight. She oered Siddhartha a bowl o milk and rice and he

accepted it grateully. When the fve holy men who had been his

pupils saw this they let, because they thought he had abandonedhis quest to achieve true holiness, or moksha.

ereshed by the meal, Siddhartha sat down under a bo, or fg,

tree (known to uddhists as the odhi tree, the tree o enlighten-

ment) and resolved that he would not arise until he had ound the

answer he had sought or so long.

The uddhist scriptures say that Mara, an evil god who con-

stantly tempted people with desire, saw that Siddhartha was near

his goal. Mara sent his three sons and three daughters to temptSiddhartha. They tormented him with thirst, lust, and discon-

tent, oering all sorts o pleasures to distract him and stop him

achieving his aims.

owever Siddhartha was not swayed by them. e entered a

state o deep meditation, in which he recalled all his previous

rebirths. e gained knowledge o the cycle o births and deaths

and the certainty that he had cast o the

ignorance and passion o the sel that

bound him to the world. t last he hadattained enlightenment.

s tradition has it, the uddha could

then have cast o his body and his exis-

tence. nstead, however, he made a great

act o sel-sacrifce. aving discovered the

way to end his own suering, he turned

back, determined to share his enlighten-

ment with others so that all living souls

could end the cycles o their own rebirth

and suering. e thus set an example o

compassion and wisdom or sel-knowl-

edge or others that would be a hallmark

o his ollowers.

THE ENLIGHTENED ONE

The Buddhas enlightenment under

the Bodhi tree was the beginning o

the history o Buddhism as a religion. Sid-

dhartha became the Buddha, the enlight-

ened one. His own desire and suering

were over and, as the Buddha, he attained

nirvana. In the Buddhas words, There is a

sphere which is neither earth, nor water,

nor fre, nor air . . . which is neither thisworld nor the other world, neither sun nor

moon. I deny that it is coming or going,

enduring death or birth. It is only the end

o suering.



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28 BUDDHISM

A Buddhist tanka painted by Tibetan monks. A tanka illustrates stories about the Buddha and events in his lie, some o which

can be seen in the arc around the head o the Buddha. Tankas are also used as a ocus or meditation.


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SETTING IN MOTION THEWHEEL OF DOCTRINE

uddha went to the city o Sarnath, where

he ound the fve ascetics who had desert-

ed him earlier. They were sitting in a deer

park. Seeing him approach, they decidednot to greet him by the respectul title they

had used to address him beore. owever

when he appeared beore them, they saw

signs on his body and head that indicated

he had risen to a higher state o holiness.

The uddha began to teach them what

he had discovered. e took a handul

o rice grains and drew a wheel on theground. This represented the wheel o

lie that went on or existence ater exis-

tence. (The symbol o the wheel is oten

used to stand or uddhist teaching.) This

preaching was called his eer Park Ser-

mon, or Setting in Motion the Wheel o

octrine.

THE MIDDLE WAYSiddhartha Gautama revealed that he had

become the uddha. e described the lie

o pleasure that he had frst known and

then the lie o severe asceticism that he

had practiced. either o these was the

true path to nirvana. nstead the uddha

advised the Middle Way, which avoids

both extremes. To satisy the necessities

o lie is not evil, the uddha said. To

keep the body in good health is a duty,

or otherwise we shall not be able to trim

the lamp o wisdom, and keep our mind

strong and clear.

THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

The Eightold Path is a series o eight

stages that lead to the end o desire.

O these the frst stages are attainable in

everyday lie; the later ones require more

eort and concentration. Like many o

Buddhas teachings they appear simple at

frst but take on subtle and intricate mean-

ing when studied closely.

The Eightold Path is:

1. Right opinion

2. Right intentions

3. Right speech

4. Right conduct5. Right livelihood

6. Right eort

7. Right mindulness

8. Right concentration

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

The Four Noble Truths are:

1. Suering consists o disease, old age,

and death; o separation rom those we

love; o craving what we cannot obtain;and o hating what we cannot avoid.

2. All suering is caused by desire and the

attempt to satisy our desires.

3. Thereore, suering can be overcome by

ceasing to desire.

4. The way to end desire is to ollow the

Eightold Path.



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30 BUDDHISM

The uddha explained the Four oble Truths and the ightold

Path that were the heart o his teaching. The Four oble Truths

were the uddhas analysis o the cause o suering. The ight-

old Path was the solution. Together they ormed the dharma, or

the doctrine o uddhism.

STAGES OF THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

The frst stage, right opinion, concerns understanding the Four

Truths. Then, through right intentions, a person decides to set

his or her lie on the correct path. ight speech consists o not

lying, not criticizing others unjustly, and not using harsh lan-

guage or gossiping. ight conduct means abstaining rom killing,

stealing, cruelty, or lustul activities. To ollow right livelihood a

person must earn a living in a way that does not harm any liv-ing thing. To practice right eort a person must conquer all evil

thoughts and strive to arouse and maintain only good thoughts.

ight mindulness has a special meaning in uddhism, in which

a person becomes intensely aware o all the states o his or her

body, eeling, and mind. That leads to the fnal stage, right con-

centration, which is deep meditation that leads to a higher stage

o consciousness. person who practices right concentration

will come to the enlightenment that Siddhartha attained.

BUDDHAS TRAVELS AND TEACHINGS

The fve ascetics immediately recognized that the uddha had

ound the correct way. They became his frst disciples. For the

next 45 years he traveled through northeastern ndia, preaching

the dharma and answering the questions

o those who wished to learn it.

n his teachings the uddha retained

many elements o the religious teachings

o ndia o his time, including the con-

cepts o samsara and karma. owever, the

uddhist dharma diered rom them in

certain important respects. The uddha

challenged the authority o the rahmins,


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the highest caste in ndian society. e opposed the animal sacri-

fces to the various gods, which only rahmin priests could per-

orm. n contrast the uddha told his ollowers not to kill any

living creature. n addition the uddha did not accept the rah-

mins special role as interpreters o religious truth. nstead the

uddha stressed that anyone, regardless o caste, who ollowedthe ightold Path could achieve nirvana.

SKANDHAS

The uddha also questioned the idea o the atman, or soulthe

individual consciousness that was reborn again and again. e

denied that there was any personal, eternal soul or permanent

sel. nstead the uddha compared the individual to a cart. cart

was made up o dierent elementswheels, body, yoke. Sepa-rately they were not a cart. Only when they were together did

they orm a cart. n the same way, uddha taught, an individual is

composed o fve elements called skandhas, which were constant-

ly in a state o change. The skandhas were orm and matter, sensa-

tions, ideas, emotions, and consciousness. What was reborn over

and over were groups o ever-changing skandhas, inuenced by

karma. Thus, the skandhas reborn were not exactly the same as

the skandhas that had died.

The uddha declared that by ollowing his ightold Path peo-ple would lose their alse idea o sel and achieve nirvana. When

a person reached nirvana the cart would dissolve. ter that a

person would no longer accumulate bad karma, even i his lie

continued.

PARABLES AND STORIES

s or the concept o rahman itsel, which we might liken to a

supreme being, the uddha reused to consider whether such a

universal soul existed. Once, when a religious scholar pressed the

uddha to debate the existence o rahman, he replied that the

scholar was like a man who fnds himsel in a burning house. The

scholar wanted to fnd out who set the fre or how it started, when

he should be thinking frst o getting out o the house. The indu



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32 BUDDHISM

goal omokshaor union o the soul withrahmanwas replaced in uddhism by

the goal o achieving nirvana.

The simplicity o the uddhas teach-

ing, its emphasis on personal action, and

the uddhas opposition to the caste sys-tem soon won him many ollowers. Like

other religious teachers, uddha oten

used stories or parables to explain his doc-

trine. n the Parable o the Mustard Seed

the uddha taught the lesson o acing and

accepting suering.

BHIKKHUS

eginning with the fve disciples he

spoke to in the eer Park, certain people

embraced the uddhas teachings so com-

pletely that they accompanied him every-

where. e set rules o conduct or them,

thus organizing the sangha, which became

a community o monks (later nuns as well).

The members o the sangha are known as

bhikkhus. The sangha served two unctions. First, the monks werecharged with preserving and teaching the dharma. Second, the

sangha enabled bhikkhus to concentrate on the goal o nirvana.

Only people who spent time in meditation could achieve the last

two steps o the ightold Path.

The uddha made another break with tradition when he was

persuaded by his closest disciple nanda to permitted women to

join the sangha. The frst uddhist nun was the uddhas aunt,

who had raised him.

THE FIVE PRECEPTS

The uddha recognized that not everyone could give up his or

her everyday lie to become part o the sangha. e also accepted

the laityollowers (upasaka) who believed his teachings but did


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not ollow the strict rule o the sangha. People in everyday lie

could achieve merit by practicing good works and building good

karma. n a uture rebirth they would be able to dedicate them-

selves as monks or nuns to seek nirvana. The uddha encouraged

the laity to ollow as perect a lie as they could. s a guide to

everyday behavior the uddha prescribed Five Precepts, or rules:

1. To rerain rom taking lie.

2. To rerain rom taking what is not given.

3. To rerain rom sexual misconduct.

4. To rerain rom alse speech.

5. To rerain rom intoxicating things that cloud the mind.

THE PARINIRVANA

uring the uddhas travels he returned to his birthplace in Kap-

ilavastu. is ather, Shuddhodana, was mortifed to see his son

begging or ood. o one in our amily, said the king, has ever

lived by begging. owever the uddha kissed his athers oot

and said, ou belong to a noble line o kings. ut belong to the

lineage o uddhas, and thousands o those have lived on alms.

Shuddhodana remembered and acted

upon the prophecy at Siddharthas con-

ception and became reconciled with hisson. The uddhas wie asodhara and son

ahula both joined the sangha, as did his

cousin nanda, who became the uddhas

most aithul attendant during the later

years o his lie.

THE END OF THE JOURNEY

When the uddha was about 80 a black-

smith named uanda gave him a meal that

caused him to become ill. The uddha

orced himsel to walk on to the village o

Kushinagara, where at last he lay down to

rest in a grove o shala trees. s a crowd o

SIMPLE POSSESSIONS

Early Buddhist monks and nuns ol-

lowed the Buddhas example o wan-

dering rom place to place spreading his

teaching. They were allowed to possess

only an alms bowl, a razor, a needle, a

strainer, a sta, a toothpick, and a robe.

(The strainer was to remove insects that

ell into their drinks, so they would not be

consumed and killed.)

During Indias long, hot rainy season, themembers o the sangha settled in viharas,

or resting places. These were the begin-

nings o the great monasteries that are

today ound in many parts o Asia.



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34 BUDDHISM

A 23-oot-high granite

statue o Ananda, Buddhas

cousin and one o his major

disciples, at Polonnaruwa in

Sri Lanka. This statue is one

o a series o our carved into

the natural rock in the 12th

century.


37/148

ollowers gathered around him, he lay on his right side. Though

it was not the season or blooming, the trees sprouted blossoms

and showered them upon him. The scene has oten been the

inspiration or uddhist artists.

BUDDHAS FINAL WORDSuddha told nanda, am old and my journey is near its end.

My body is like a worn-out cart held together only by the help o

leather straps. Three times he asked the people gathered around

him i they had any more questions about his teaching. veryone

remained silent.

The uddha spoke his fnal words: verything that has been

created is subject to decay and death. verything is transitory.

Work out your own salvation with diligence.ter passing through several states o meditation the uddha

diedor, as uddhists say, he reached hisparinirvana, the cessa-tion o perception and sensation.

uring his long lietime the uddha never traveled arther

than 250 miles rom Sarnath, the city where his teaching minis-

try began. owever, he had set in motion a religious movement

that would spread throughout the world and still remains a vital

orce 2,500 years ater his death.



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36 BUDDHISM

THE SPREAD OF

BUDDHISM

CHAPTER 3

Portrait o a Burmese novice monk in traditional robes. In

Buddhist countries young boys oten join a monastery or

several months or several years. In countries such as Thailand

and Myanmar (ormerly Burma) boys usually spend time in

monasteries during the three months o the rainy season.

The uddha urged his ollowers, Go orth or the gain o themany, or the welare o many, in compassion or the world.

Preach the glorious doctrine; proclaim the lie o holiness. y

the time o his death more than 500 monks lived in monasteries

in the area where the uddha had preached. Today this region

orms the ndian state o ihar, whose name comes romvihara,meaning uddhist monastery. From here uddhism began to

spread westward through northern ndia.

bout 200 years ater the death o the uddha political

developments encouraged the spread o the dharma. handra-gupta Maurya conquered much o northern ndia and created

a strong, centralized empire. When handraguptas grandson

soka became emperor around 270 B.C.E., the stage was set or

uddhism to move beyond the boundaries o ndia. The story o

King sokas conversion is central to the historical progress o

uddhism.


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The Spread o Buddhism


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38 BUDDHISM

ASOKA

soka was an ambitious man. Through conquest he expanded

the Mauryan mpire, absorbing central ndia as well as parts o

many o the countries on modern ndias northern border. e

waged his fercest campaign against the Kalingas, who lived in

todays Orissa, in east central ndia. The struggle was so bloodythat more than 100,000 Kalingas were slaughtered.

is experience o walking across the battlefeld and seeing

the carnage brought about a spiritual transormation in so-

ka. e became a ollower o uddhism and set up a stone pillar

expressing remorse or his deeds: ter the conquest o Kalinga,

the eloved o the Gods (soka) began to ollow ighteousness

(dharma), to love ighteousness, and to give instruction in igh-

teousness. ow the eloved o the Gods regrets the conquest oKalinga, or when an independent country is conquered people

are killed, they die or are deported, and that the eloved o the

Gods fnds very painul and grievous.

A MODEL BUDDHIST RULER

sokas conversion was no empty gesture, and thereater he car-

ried out policies designed to beneft his subjects. long the roads

throughout his empire he ordered shel-

ters built or travelers and banyan treesplanted to provide shade or the ootsore

and weary. soka banned animal sacri-

fces and became a vegetarian himsel.

e abolished many cruel punishments

or criminals. ospitals were ounded to

serve both animals and humans. is gov-

ernment undertook the fnancial support

o uddhist monasteries. sokas actions

made him the model uddhist ruler. Later

uddhist kings throughout sia would

emulate his example.

s a permanent record o his reign

soka erected pillars throughout his

ASOKAS EDICTS

On a pillar that still stands in Delhi,

King Asoka ordered his philoso-

phy inscribed in stone: In religion is the

chie excellence. Religion consists in good

works, mercy, charity, purity, and chastity.

It consists in benevolence to the poor and

to the a icted, kindness to animals, to

birds and to all creatures. Let all pay atten-

tion to this edict and let it endure or ages

to come. He who acts in conormity with

it shall attain to eternal happiness. This

indeed is a noble statement o the ethics

o Buddhism.


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Exquisitely carved with

Buddhist symbols and

Jataka stories (which

describe the previous lives o

the Buddha), this 18-oot-

(5.5-meter-) high gateway

to the largest dome stupa in

the world is in Sanchi, India.

The stupa is believed to have

been originally constructed

at the request o King Asoka.

empire. nscribed in the language o its people, a orm o the Pali

language, they proclaimed his achievements and ideals. mong

these ideals was tolerance o all religions.

BUDDHIST MISSIONARIES

Wishing to carry the wisdom o the uddha to the world, so-ka sent out missionaries in all directions. This historical event

began the spread o the religion beyond its homeland. Some o



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40 BUDDHISM

sokas missionaries went as ar west as Syria, gypt, and the

Greek world; others traveled south and north. soka began the

process o making uddhism a religion that would have ollow-

ers throughout sia.

uddhism spread along two major routesone to the north

across the landmass o sia and the other to the south acrossland and sea to southeastern sia.

SRI LANKA

y tradition sokas son Mahinda was a bhikkhu, or monk. is

ather entrusted him with carrying the dharma to eylon.

Known today as Sri Lanka, eylon is a beautiul island o the tip

o southern ndia. When Mahinda arrived he was courteously

received by the king, Tissa, at his capital at nuradhapura. Theking was impressed by the uddhist teachings and converted in

247 B.C.E. nthusiastic crowds gathered to hear Mahinda preach

the dharma. Soothsayers predicted, These bhikkhus will be lords

upon this island.

CREATING BUDDHIST ROOTS

King Tissa invited other uddhist missionaries and donated a

park or a vihara. This monastery, the Mahavihara, became the

center o uddhism on the island. n his enthusiasm King Tissaasked Mahinda whether the devotion shown by his people meant

that uddhism had struck deep roots in his country. Mahinda

answered, ot yet, our Majesty. t has certainly sprung roots

but they have not yet grown deep into the soil. Only when a sima(a monastery with the authority to ordain new monks) has been

established and when a son born in Sri Lanka o Sri Lankan par-

ents becomes a monk in Sri Lanka, only then will it be true to say

that the roots o the dharma are deeply embedded here. Within

a short time these conditions were met.

BODHI TREE AND PRECIOUS RELICS

Mahindas sister, Sanghamitta, a uddhist nun, soon ollowed her

brother to Sri Lanka. uddhist tradition says that beore she let


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ndia she picked a slip o the sacred odhi tree under which Sid-

dhartha Gautama had reached enlightenment. This was planted

at a monastery in nuradhapura. Today an enormous tree on

this site is claimed to be the same one. Later saplings rom this

tree were planted throughout the island, providing a linkage

through nature with the origins o uddhism. Over time Sri Lan-ka received other precious relics o the uddha. These included

the uddhas begging bowl, his tooth, and a collarbone.

From the beginning uddhism was incorporated as the state

religion o Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan kings and nobles practiced

uddhism and were patrons o uddhist culture. uddhisms

close relationship with the ruling class has given it a longer con-

tinuous existence there than in any other country in the world.

ecause the religion virtually died out within ndia, Sri Lankassangha takes pride in preserving the early orm o the monastic

uddhist discipline.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

The region known as Southeast sia stretches rom Myanmar

(ormerly urma) to ndonesia. istorically it has been inu-

enced to a great degree by ndiaso much so that it is oten called

Greater ndia. ndian merchants and monks brought not only

religion but also their civilizationwriting, arts, and methodso ruling. uddhism and induism oten coexisted in the same

areas, along with the preexisting belie in animism, the belie that

spirits inhabit all things.

BURMA

uddhism came to the country known today as Myanmar beore

the urmese people did. When sokas missionaries arrived the

land was inhabited by the Mon people. y the ninth century, when

ethnic urmese moved into the land rom the mountains to the

north, the Mons were practicing both induism and uddhism.

The urmese gradually established their own kingdom.

great urmese ruler, King nawrahta (r. 104477), was convert-

ed to uddhism in 1056 by a monk rom the neighboring Mon



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42 BUDDHISM

Monks and pilgrims at Shwedagon Pagoda built on Singuttara Hill in Rangoon (now Yangon),

Myanmar. The pagoda, built o brick and covered entirely in gold, houses precious Buddhist

relics and is believed to date back more than 2,000 years.

kingdom o Thaton. nawrahta sent an envoy to Thaton to ask

or scriptures o the religion but was turned down. n a very un-

uddhist manner, nawrahta invaded Thaton and carried its

king and library back to his capital at Pagan. nawrahtas con-

version was a turning point or uddhism in urma, beginning a

religious tradition that has remained strong to this day. The ur-mese people have a proverb: To be urmese is to be uddhist.


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THAILAND

n the 11th century the Thai people migrated rom southern hi-

na into todays Thailand. t that time the region was under the

authority o the Khmer king. Thai ruler, ama Khamheng (ca.

12751317), reed the country rom the Khmer power. Kham-

heng became an ardent uddhist and made uddhism the statereligion. Khamhengs grandson invited monks rom Sri Lanka, by

then amous or their learning, to come to Thailand to strengthen

the purity o the Thai sangha. From that time on Thailand has

been a staunchly uddhist country whose kings have linked their

power to the religion.

CAMBODIA

The Khmer people o ambodia were also inuenced by ndiancivilization. From the beginning o the sixth century Khmer kings

ruled a large area rom their capital at ngkor. They devoted much

o their wealth to the construction o magnifcent buildings, the

most amous o which is the temple called ngkor Wat, which

was used by both indus and uddhists. induism remained the

stronger o the two religions until King Jayavarman Paramesvara

came to the throne in 1327. e embraced uddhism, and the

ambodians have ollowed his example ever since.

LAOS AND INDONESIA

King Jayavarman had his daughter marry a king named Fa gum,

who had merged several small states into the country o Laos.

Jayavarman urged Fa gum to protect uddhism and to rule his

kingdom according to the religions principles. e sent his son-

in-law a statue o the uddha that came rom Sri Lanka. alled

the Luang Prabang, the statue was set up in Fa gums capital,

which was renamed in its honor. uddhism has remained the

predominant religion o Laos.

Many large seaaring empires were established in the islands

that today make up the nation o ndonesia. ere too induism

and uddhism coexisted; but in the eighth century uddhism

was adopted by the Sailendra ruling dynasty o the island o Java.



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44 BUDDHISM

Under the Sailendras sponsorship, mammoth uddhist temple-

monastery complexes were built. mong themstill standing

todayis the largest uddhist monument in the world, orobo-

dur. t the end o the 13th century slam arrived on the island.

Over time it became the predominant religion, although a ew

uddhists remain.

ALONG THE SILK ROAD

orthwest o the ndian heartland lies an area that was some-

times called Gandhara, or actria. Today it includes northwest

ndia, northern Pakistan, ghanistan, and parts o entral sia.

n ancient times this region was a major crossroads between

ast and West. ere the cultures o ndia, Persia, and the Greco-

oman West all mingled. lexander the Great invaded and con-quered the region in 326 B.C.E. When lexander let, some o his

generals remained as governors. The region included the western

section o the Silk oad, the ancient trail that led through ear-

some deserts and mountains to serve as the land link between

hina and the West.

THE BACTRIAN EMPIRE

ter sokas death the Mauryan mpire declined. n the chaos

o that time the kingdom o actria arose between the Oxus iv-er and the indu Kush Mountains. actria was ruled by Greek

descendants o lexander the Greats soldiers.

King Milinda (also known as King Menander), who ruled ac-

tria about 155 B.C.E., was aicted with a sense o spiritual sick-

ness. e searched vainly or some kind o cure. uddhist monk

named agasena arrived in the kingdom and brought the rem-

edy. agasena explained uddhist dharma to Milinda and gained

a convert. The record o agasenas arguments, called onversa-

tions with Milinda, became part o the uddhist sacred writings.

Milinda became an ardent patron o uddhism. is coinage

in later years holds a picture o a wheel, a uddhist symbol or

dharma. s an old man he reputedly handed over his kingdom to

his son and became a member o the sangha.


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Standing more than 75

eet (23 meters) high, thisseated Buddha is carved

into the side o a mountain

at Bingling Si Temple near

Lanzhou, Gansu Province

in China. Lanzhou lay

along the Silk Road, whose

name derives rom the

importance o Chinese silk

as merchandise carried by

the camel caravans passed

along it. Ideas as well as

goods were exchanged

along the road. The Silk

Road became the major

route or the northern

spread o Buddhism.

nvaders overran the actrian mpire and control o the terri-

tory changed hands many times. round the middle o the frst

century o the common era, ferce warriors related to the uns

established the Kushan mpire. The Kushans controlled a ar

larger territory than Milinda had. King Kanishka, who ruled in

the frst and second centuries, was a ferce warrior. uling romhis capital Purushapura (todays Peshawar), Kanishka extended

his kingdom east to Kathgar, arkand, and Khotanall oases on



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46 BUDDHISM

the Silk oad. Much like soka, however, the king experienced a

religious crisis and converted to uddhism.

Kanishka became a great patron o the religion. e had sacred

uddhist writings inscribed on copper plates and displayed in his

capital. (Today they survive only in hinese translations.) From

monasteries established during his reign (such as amiyan intodays ghanistan), monks anned out through entral sia.

They converted kings and regional leaders, translated scriptures

into the native languages, and brought the art o writing to the

area. The oases o entral sia became centers o uddhism,

and the arts ourished. n the eighth century, however, Muslim

warriors conquered entral sia. Over time uddhism was sup-

planted by slam. owever by then uddhist bhikkhus had already

gone arther east on the Silk oad, spreading their religion tohina and other lands.

CHINA

n the frst century o the common era, according to hinese leg-

end Mingdi, a an emperor o hina, had a dream: huge fg-

ure, radiant as the sun, appeared to the emperor. The next day he

ordered agents to go west to fnd the source o his vision. ter

much wandering on the Silk oad the agents came upon two

bhikkhus with a white horse, a picture o the uddha, and holyuddhist writings. The bhikkhus agreed to return with the agentsto Luoyang, hinas capital. There the emperor recognized the

fgure o the uddha rom his dream. e asked the monks to

translate their scriptures into hinese, and they set to work in a

building that became known as the White orse Temple. (Today

there is still a White orse Temple on that site.)

A THIRD TRUTH

uring the an dynasty (202 B.C.E.220 C.E.) hina was one o

the great civilizations o the world. t had already developed two

philosophies that guided its culture. oth had been ounded by

men who lived at approximately the same time as the uddha

onucius and Laozi. onucius, the ounder o onucianism,


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described the proper relationships between people, which i ol-

lowed would bring harmony to society and government. Laozi,

on the other hand, believed that harmony was best gained by ol-

lowing the way (the ao) o nature. aoism and onucianism

were equally respected by the hinese, who had no difculty in

accepting separate truths that answered dierent needs or di-erent areas o lie. uddhism neither contradicted nor replaced

either o these philosophies. n time it was accepted by the hi-

nese as one o the Three Great Truths.

CHINESE PILGRIMS TO INDIA

ter the an dynasty was overthrown hina was disunited

or the next 350 years. uring this time o conict and turmoil

uddhisms message sank deep roots among the hinese people.Sanghas were ormed and ndian missionaries came to teach.

Translation bureaus were set up to render the uddhist religious

texts into hinese.

n the early-5th century C.E. a hinese monk called Faxian

made the hazardous journey rom hina to

ndia to bring back uddhist texts. bout

250 years later Xuanzang, whom the hi-

nese call the prince o pilgrims, made

his amous journey to ndia. Xuanzangentered ndia through the old kingdom o

actria. e visited the place in which Kan-

ishka, then still ferce and unconverted,

had held a hinese hostage. Treating his

captive with special respect, Kanishka had

erected a building to hold him. This dwell-

ing was now a monastery called Serika,

which was the actrians word or hina.

The ace o the hinese prisoner could still

be seen painted on the wall. Xuanzang, as

the frst hinese visitor to the monastery,

was greeted warmly by the monks, who

explained its history.

FAXIANS JOURNEY

Chinese monks themselves made the

trek to India to bring back precious

Buddhist texts. The journey was hazard-

ous; the monks had to cross deserts and

high mountains to reach their destination.

Faxian, who traveled or 15 years (399

414) on his mission, described the ter-

rors o the Gobi Desert: There are a great

many evil spirits and also hot winds; those

who encounter them perish to a man.

There are neither birds above nor beasts

below. Gazing on all sides as ar as the eyecan reach in order to mark the track, no

guidance is to be obtained save rom the

rotting bones o dead men, which point

the way.



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48 BUDDHISM

Ruins in Xinjiang Province in

southwest China. Xinjiang

lay along the Silk Road, the

name given to the trade

routes that linked China

with India and western Asia

and Europe.

XUANZANG REACHES THE GANGES

While Xuanzang was traveling on the Ganges iver he was cap-

tured by pirates who were looking or a victim to sacrifce to a

local deity. s they began to make their sacrifcial fre Xuanzang

went into deep meditation and a miracle occurred. Suddenly a

cyclone blew up and smashed the pirate ship on the shore. Thepirates were so terrifed that they released Xuanzang.

When Xuanzang arrived at the odhi tree where Siddhartha

had achieved enlightenment, he was overcome by emotion. e

wept as he thought o his own ailings. he had not been sinul in

a previous existence he might have lived in the perect days when

the uddha was alive. wonder, he thought, in what troubled

whirl o birth and death was caught when uddha achieved

enlightenment. RETURN TO CHINA

Xuanzang returned to hina in 645 and received a heros wel-

come in hangan, the capital o the Tang dynasty. e brought

back an enormous number o manuscripts and spent the rest o


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his lie translating and teaching. e has-

tened the development o hinese branch-

es o uddhism and became a genuine olk

hero himsel. is adventures on his jour-

ney became celebrated in art and olklore.

The great hinese novel Monkey describeshis pilgrimage in allegorical ashion. The

novels mixture o earthy humor and reli-

gious philosophy exemplifes the down-

to-earth quality o hinese uddhism. n

addition the writings o Xuanzang him-

sel provide a vivid picture o uddhism

in entral sia and ndia in the seventh

century.

THE TANG DYNASTY

The Tang dynasty (618927) was a period

o hinese cultural splendor and a high

point o uddhist inuence. uddhism

was then at the center o hinese religious

and intellectual lie. Most emperors

including the only emale Son o eaven, mpress Wuwere

patrons o the religion. Some rulers maintained state temples,where uddhist rituals were perormed or the well-being o the

country. The monasteries became the most important social-

service agencies o their time. The sangha maintained hospitals,

provided aid or the poor, and distributed ood in times o am-

ine. n the year 729 a census counted 126,100 monks and nuns.

NEW SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM

The hinese uddhists were now ready to go beyond translating

ndian texts. They began to write interpretations o the dharma

and to develop new schools o uddhism. The invention o print-

ing increased the availability o texts and helped to spread the

religion urther. The very frst printed books were collections o

uddhist scriptures.



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50 BUDDHISM

n the waning years o the Tang dynasty, however, uddhism

came under attack. Some onucian scholars criticized it as a

oreign import, polluting the true hinese ways. The uddhist

monasteries, which had grown in wealth and power, excited

envy. ecause so many men and women had chosen the lie o

the sangha, uddhism was accused o weakening the onucianideal o amily and the obligation to produce sons. n 845 the

emperor ordered the monasteries closed and all monks and nuns

to return to regular lie. lthough uddhism survived it went

into a decline over the next thousand years. t would never again

play as central a role in hinese lie. owever, hinese ideas con-

tinued to enrich newer interpretations o uddhist thought.

The hinese version o uddhism, which came rom ndia

beore 100 C.E. and was inuenced by onucianism and ao-ism, became important in ast sia during the 300s. t was this

version that eventually spread to Korea, Japan, and ietnam.

VIETNAM

hinese missionaries brought uddhism to the region o todays

northern ietnam, which was then a part o the hinese mpire.

(For this reason the ietnamese orm o

uddhism more closely resembles that o

hina, rather than that o its neighbors,Laos and ambodia.) Like the hinese, the

ietnamese blended uddhism with their

native religious practices. ach large village

had an image o the uddha, and members

o the sangha were deeply involved in vil-

lage aairs. The monks, with their knowl-

edge o medicine and philosophy, were

highly respected by the people and soon

attracted ollowers among the aristocracy.

The uddhist monks gained popular sup-

port by sharing the ietnamese struggle

against hinese domination and, much

later, against French colonial rule.

The Mogao Caves at

Dunhuang in Gansu

Province, China. The oasis

town o Dunhuang was an

important stopping point or

caravans traveling along the

Silk Road. From the ourth

century C.E. Buddhist monks

began building a monastic

center by carving cavesinto the mountainsides,

adorning them with

devotional statues and

paintings. This continued

over the next 600 years,

creating a rich and extensive

collection o Buddhist art.


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KOREA

The peninsula o Korea was requently under the sway o the hi-

nese mpire as well. y tradition a hinese monk named Shund-

ao (Sundo in Korean) brought uddhism to Korea in 372. t that

time there were three Korean kingdoms, and the northern two

rapidly accepted the religion. The southernmost, Silla, resisted,and the people there killed a missionary rom the north. ow-

ever this missionary, i hadon, predicted that his blood would

run as white as milk to demonstrate the truth o the uddhist

dharma. When this prophecy came true the Sillans also accepted

the religion. Korean uddhism experienced a golden age rom the

sixth to the 14th centuries, a time when its kings were patrons o

the religion.

JAPAN

n 552 a Korean king sent missionaries to the islands o Japan.

They carried to the Japanese court an image o the uddha and a

letter rom the king, praising the religion as the most excellent

o all teachings . . . . t brings endless and immeasurable blessings

and ruits, even the attainment o the supreme enlightenment . . .

the Treasures o the glorious religion will never cease to give ull

response to those who seek or it.

The letter started a debate in Japan. the oreign religion wereaccepted, would it oend the kami? Kami, the Japanese believed,were spirits that inhabited all nature. Simple shrines devoted

to the kami dotted the country. Japanese mythology traced the

ancestry o their emperor to the sun goddess, the most powerul

o all kami. t was only ater the introduction o uddhism that

these belies and practices were given a nameShinto, or the

Way o the Gods.

One noble amily adopted uddhism and built a temple or

worship. Unortunately, soon aterward a plague broke out, and

the new religion was blamed. The temple was ordered destroyed.

owever when the plague grew worse the uddhists petitioned

to rebuild their temple. The argument between the two sides

went on.



54/148

52 BUDDHISM

n 592 Prince Shotoku Taishi became the chie adviser to the

Japanese empress, Suiko. Shotoku, an ardent uddhist convert,

urged the empress to adopt the religion. Two years later ud-

dhism was proclaimed the state religion. Prince Shotoku began

to build a temple complex as a center o uddhist learning. This

was the start o the structure later known as the oruji, one oJapans greatest uddhist shrines.

TRANSFORMATION OF JAPAN

Japan sent envoys to hina to study uddhist scriptures and learn

more about the religion. The mission ound more than it had bar-

gained or. t brought back hinese ideas o culture and govern-

ment, along with onucianism and aoism as well. From that

beginning Japan began to adopt and adapt much that was valu-able in hinese culture, including uddhism.

Prince Shotoku and his successors began to transorm Japan.

n 710 a new capital was built at ara, a city modeled on hinas

capital, hangan. Many uddhist monasteries were built with-

in the city, and the emperor Shomu expressed his devotion to

uddhist dharma. n an imperial decree Shomu declared: Our

ervent desire is that, under the aegis o the Three Treasures (the

Three Jewels), the benefts o peace may be brought to all in heav-

en and on earth, even animals and plants sharing in its ruits, orall time to come.

owever, the uddhist monasteries became so powerul and

at times violent toward anyone who tried to stand up to them

that the imperial amily eventually had to move away to escape

the oppressive atmosphere that had developed. This led to the

ounding o the next capital city o Kyoto in 794.

SHINTO MEETS BUDDHISM

Shomus daughter, the empress Koken, took steps to unite ud-

dhism with Shinto. She arranged a ceremony or the Shinto god

o war, achiman. uddhist monks and nuns obediently prayed

to this godan unlikely one, since the uddha preached non-

violence. The monks placed a cap on a sacred cart supposed to


55/148

contain the spirit o achiman. n this ceremony both religions

were given equal status in Japan.

The introduction o uddhism was a spur to Japanese culture.

t provided an outlet or the Japanese love o beauty. uddhism,

as the achiman ceremony showed, was also a exible system

that could adapt to dierent ideals, because it stresses the insig-nifcance o things worldly. ndeed, not long ater its introduc-

tion uddhism in Japan would become the avored religion o the

samurai warrior class and would be reected in much o Japanese

culture.

TIBET

ow ormally part o hina, Tibet, the Land o Snows, is located

in a large plateau o the imalayas, oten called the oo o theWorld. ecause o its remote location Tibet has oten been iso-

lated rom the rest o the world. The Tibetan indigenous religion,

A bronze statue o Amida

Buddha in Kamakura, Japan.

The statue, which was cast

in 1252, is more than 38

eet (11.5 meters) high andthe second-largest Buddha

statue in Japan.



56/148

54 BUDDHISM

Flags covered with Buddhist

prayers surrounding a

temple on a mountaintop in

Tibet. The prayer ags have

been let by pilgrims; each

utter o the ag is regarded

as a repetition o the prayer

printed on it.

known as on, was a mixture o magic and animism. The on-

po, a type o shaman, or medicine man, recited mantras, sacred

ormulas or magical words used to exorcise evil spirits or to call

orth powerul orces. n early times on-pos presided over the

death rites o the Tibetan kings.

uddhism frst arrived in Tibet in the seventh century when aTibetan king married a hinese princess. She was a uddhist and

brought with her images or which the king built a temple. ow-

ever uddhism did not become strongly rooted until the arrival

o the ndian uddhist, Padmasambhava, a century later.

ccording to Tibetan tradition Padmasambhava, or Guru

inpoche, encountered a series o demons as he made his way

toward Tibet. The demons wanted to keep him rom ending their

hold on the country. Fortunately Padmasambhava possesseda knowledge o magic and overcame the demons. e did not

destroy them. nstead Padmasambhava orced them to submit to

the dharma and become the new protectors o the religion. The

legendary deeat o the demons explains uddhisms absorption


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o local religious traditions in Tibet. Padmasambhava established

the frst Tibetan uddhist monastery, Samye, completed in 779.

To this day Padmasambhava is a culture hero in Tibet, cele-

brated in dance and song. e brought not only the religion that

is universally practiced but also the Tibetan written language.

uddhism became the single most important orce in the lives othe Tibetan people. n the centuries that ollowed, an enormous

number o monasteries and temples were built. From Tibet, ud-

dhism spread arther north into Mongolia.

DECLINE IN INDIA

ronically, as uddhism spread throughout sia it was ading in

the land o its birth. induism was going through a period o

regeneration. ew schools won greater popular support. On hispilgrimage to ndia, Xuanzang noted that at enares, where the

uddha had preached his frst sermon, most o the people were

indus. n some areas the uddha was worshipped as a reincar-

nation o ishnu, one o the indu trinity o chie gods. Only in

the monasteries was uddhism a vital orce.

The fnal blow to ndian uddhism came when Muslims rom

ghanistan invaded northern ndia around the year 1200. They

sacked and burned many shrines and monasteries. The great uni-

versity at alanda was destroyed and the invaders ed its libraryto the ames or 10 days. The great era o uddhism within its

ounders homeland was over.

Today uddhist monks live at some o the amous sites o the

uddhas lie. They welcome pilgrims rom the many lands where

uddhism has taken root. Though the message o the uddha is

still honored by millions o people in sia, less than 2 percent o

the population adhere to this aith in ndia, the land o his birth.



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56 BUDDHISM

CHAPTER 4

THE VARIETIES

OF BUDDHISM

The uddha said, The dharma which have taught you willbe your teacher when have gone. Soon ater the uddhas

death his ollowers gathered in a council to agree on his teach-

ings. century later a second council was held. y this time di-

erent viewpoints about the dharma had started to appear among

the uddhists. s uddhism spread urther and the community

grew, two viewpoints took shape that have defned the dierent

orms o uddhism to this day.

One was a conservative approach that desired to hold as much

as possible to the doctrines and practices as originally ormulated.This approach was called the School o the lders, or Theravada.

The other group chose to interpret liberally the teachings and

practices o the uddha. y the beginning o the common era its

ollowers had given it the name Mahayana, which means great

vehicle. uddha had reerred to his teaching as a rat, a vehicle

that carried pilgrims across the river to the other shore. The

name Mahayana conveyed the idea that it would carry the whole

world to salvation. Mahayanans mockingly labeled the Thera-

vada School as the lesser vehicle, or inayana.

Buddhist monks belonging to the Theravada tradition meditating inside

the shrine room o Wat Phra Singh in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The temple, or

wat, was ounded in 1345, although little o the original building remains.


59/148

The Varieties o Buddhism


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58 BUDDHISM

MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

t the center o Mahayana uddhism is

the fgure o the bodhisattvaliterally,

a being o wisdom. bodhisattva is a

being who is very close to nirvana but

turns back beore reaching it to work orthe salvation o all beings. bodhisattva

will delay entry into nirvana until even the

smallest creature has reached the highest

goal. The uddha had been a bodhisattva

in his lives (or rebirths) beore he was born

as Siddhartha Gautama.

THE SIX VIRTUES

The bodhisattva is a savior. bodhisattva

gains merit or humankind by practicing

the Six irtues, or paramitas. virtue is

practiced to perection when it is carried

out with a mind ree rom sel-conscious-

ness, ulterior motives, or sel-praise.

The six virtues are:

1. The perection o giving (dana)2. The perection o morality(sila)3. The perection o patience (santi)4. The perection o courage (virya)

5. The perection o meditation

(dhyana)6. The perection o wisdom (prajna)

odhisattvas can be reborn as humans

or even animals. owever the most pow-

erul bodhisattvas are those in heaven.

The Mahayana School o uddhism devel-

oped the idea o a heaven peopled with

bodhisattvas who could be adored and


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Devotional statues on the

terrace o a temple in Hong

Kong, China.

petitioned with prayer. The heavens also include past buddhas

(enlightened ones) and a buddha o the utureMaitreya.

THE BODIES OF THE BUDDHA

The new development o the bodhisattva as an ideal raised a

question about the historical uddha. Why didnt he remaina bodhisattva instead o selfshly reaching nirvana and passing

rom existence? The Mahayana answer to this problem is ound

in a doctrine called the Three odies o the uddha.

The uddhas three bodies are the ody o ssence, the ody

o liss, and the Transormation ody. Living on earth as Sid-

The Varieties o Buddhism


62/148

60 BUDDHISM

dhartha Gautama, the uddha inhabited

the Transormation ody. owever his

Transormation ody was really an ema-

nation, or maniestation, o his ody o

liss. n the ody o liss he dwells in the

heavens eternally as what might be calleda supreme god. The ody o liss in turn

is an emanation o the ody o ssence,

which is the Ultimate uddha. The Ulti-

mate uddha underlies the entire universe

and is identifed with nirvana itsel. The

Ultimate uddha, or ody o ssence, is

much like the World Soul, or rahman, in

induism presented in a new orm.

A PANTHEON OF BEINGS

Mahayana theology developed the idea

that there were other odies o lissall

emanations o the single ody o ssence.

These odies o liss were identifed as

bodhisattvas and other buddhas who

had lived at various times in past history.

These fgures multiplied into a panthe-on o beings who dwelled in numerous

heavens, hells, and even other universes.

Mahayana uddhist thinkers envisioned

wonderul paradises and their counterpart

hells, where the wicked suered horrible

punishments. The only limit to new creations was the human

imagination.

The most beloved odies o liss were those concerned with

lie and suerings here on earth. The most important were the

uddha mitabha (mmeasurable adiance), who resided in the

heaven o the west. e was linked with the historical uddha Gau-

tama and the powerul and compassionate bodhisattva valok-

itesvara, whose name means the Lord Who Looks own.

BELOVED BODHISATTVAS

Some bodhisattvas have been more

important or beloved than others.

Among these are:

Maitreya, the earliest bodhisattva, around

whom a cult o devotion ormed. He an-

swers the prayers o worshippers. A com-

passionate and benevolent being, he

grants help to anyone who calls on him.

Avalokitesvara, who is rich in compassion

and love because he has purifed his vows

or countless eons. He can take any orm

that will help human beings. He grants re-wards and wishes to those who remember

him and recite his name. He is the patron o

Tibet; in China, where he was transormed

into the emale Guanyin, he is the most

popular o all bodhisattvas.

Manjushri (meaning sweet or gentle),

the symbol o wisdom and eloquence. He

is young and never grows old. Manjushri

usually appears in dreams, sometimes as an

orphan or a poor man. Whoever worships

him is protected by the power o Manjushri

and is certain to reach enlightenment.


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DOCTRINE OF EMPTINESS

Mahayana theology was buttressed by two primary philosophi-

cal schools. The frst school was the Madyamika, or octrine o

the Middle Position. t was developed by agarjuna, who lived

in the frst and second centuries o the common era. agarjuna

postulated that all that exists is emptiness, or the oid (sunyata).For this reason his theory is sometimes called the octrine o

mptiness. agarjuna admitted that or practical purposes the

everyday world existed. owever because it was composed o

transitory or impermanent phenomena, it had no absolute real-

ity. Since emptiness is the only phenomenon that never changes,

the oid is absolute reality. The oid, in act, is the same as nir-

vana and the ody o ssence o the uddha.

The Madyamika doctrine included avery optimistic corollary. lthough the

existence o emptiness could not be proved

by ordinary logic, it could be directly expe-

rienced in meditation. The emptiness, or

oid, was everywhere; indeed there was

no dierence between the ultimate oid

and the world o phenomena. umans

and all beings were already part o the

emptiness or oid. Potentially they wereall buddhas i they could only, through

meditation, recognize the oid and real-

ize the true nature o things.

The Madyamika doctrine was popular

in hina and Japan. ecause it emphasized

salvation in the real world, it appealed

to the practical spirit o the hinese and

Japanese. Since the real world and nirvana

were the same, Madyamika appealed to

the love o nature that was an important

value in both countries. ndeed portrayal

o the oid became especially important

in hinese and Japanese art. Moreover the

Statue o Guanyin, the

goddess o mercy and

compassion, in the courtyard

o a Chinese temple. The male

bodhisattva Avalokitesvara

was transormed in China into

this emale deity whose help is

sought in times o need.

buddhism, fourth edition

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