BRITAIN / UNITED KINGDOM“This fortress built by Nature for herself,

Against infection and the hand of war,

This happy breed of men, this little world,

This precious stone set in the the silver sea,

Which serves it in the office of a wall,

Or as a moat defensive to a house,

Against the envy of less happier lands;

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.”

Richard III (William Shakespeare)

British Political Culture

• Noblesse Oblige & Social Class– Important tradition in British politics is noblesse

oblige, duty of the upper classes to take responsibility for the welfare of the lower classes (Modern: willingness to accept welfare state, although Thatcherism sought to abandon this tradition in favor of free market capitalism and small government).

– Social Class is still an issue, although modern political parties are not supported exclusively on class lines, but tradition still affects education, language, where people live, etc.

British Political/Civic Culture• Gradualism, which is strengthened and in turn

strengthens TRADITIONS• Trust• Deference to authority & competence• Pragmatism• Tolerance for different points of view• Acceptance of the rules of the game• Heavy democratic participation, vote• Harmony

– Increased violence in Northern Island, decreasing support for labor unions & class solidarity, politics of protest, Thatcherism, etc. challenge these traditional values.

British Political Parties• Began to form during the 18th century• Their organization & function shaped the

development of many other party systems (including the US)

• 19th century firm two-party system with roots in the electorate

• “Whig” & “Tory” (1600s on…)• Whigs--Liberal Party, Tories--Conservative Party• Labour Party--early 20th cent, response to

Industrial Revolution, new voters w/ new demands

Modern Political Parties

• Labour & Conservative, but other parties also represented in Parliament

• Strong Third Parties, affect election results but because of SMPD system, don’t claim as many seats as reflected by their percentage of popular vote

• Liberal Democratic Party, nationalist parties (e.g. Plaid Cymru, Scottish National Party, Democratic Unionist Party, Sinn Fein, etc.)

The Labour Party• Largest party on left, began in 1906 as an alliance of

unions & socialist groups• Labor unions provide most party funds, but Blair

broadened party membership & support• “CLAUSE 4” labour issue, called for nationalization of

“commanding heights” of British industry.• Party grew more moderate, evident in removal of

clause from Labour Party Constitution in early 1990s, after Neal Kinnock became party leader in early 80s, and continued under John Smith (93-94) and Tony Blair (1994-2007) Gordon Brown (2007-2010) Ed Milliband (2010-?)

Labour Party (cont)• 1992 was the year that marked the change in the

party, Kinnock resigns and John Smith, moderate Scotsman who the party hoped would solidify support from Scottish nationalist groups promoted. Dies in 1994.

• Tony Blair, young leader, didn’t come from union ranks, Oxford educated, barrister-turned-politician, hoped to bring more intellectuals and middle class people into party

• “Third Way” (redefined as a moderate party, centrist alternative to extreme views of 70s, 80s)

Labour Party Constituency

• Working class, now lines are more blurred because society and the parties have changed

• Urban and industrial dwellers• Industrial cities of north (Liverpool,

Manchester, Newcastle, Yorkshire)• Central London• People from Scotland and Wales

Conservative Party• Party of the right, prospered b/c traditionally they

were pragmatic, not ideological party• Dominant party in Britain from WWII-1997, majority

in Parliament for all but 16 years during that time.• Noblesse Oblige, power centered in London.

Usually seen as elitists, MPs choose party leadership, no formal rules, but now leadership has to submit to annual leadership elections. Thatcher in 1990 forced to resign after strong challenge in election. Senior party members chosen by party leader form the cabinet.

Conservative Party (cont) • During 1980s, took sharp right turn under Margaret

Thatcher, supported market controlled economy, privatization, fewer social welfare programs, etc.

• Moved back to center under Prime Minister John Major (1990-1997)

• Since 1997, weakened by deep divisions:– Traditional Wing (one nation Tories) value noblesse oblige,

want country ruled by elite that takes everybody’s interest into account, generally support Britain’s membership in EU

– Thatcherite Wing, strict conservatives, small government, full free market, Euroskeptics, threat to British sovereignty

Conservative Leaders• William Pitt (1780s- early1800s) Whig leader• Benjamin Disraeli (1860s & Reform Act)• Winston Churchill (1940–45, 1951–55) • Edward Heath in early 70s• Margaret Thatcher (1979–90)• John Major (1990-1997)• Ian Duncan Smith & Michael Howard (2000-

2005)• David Cameron (2005-present)

Conservative Constituency

• Middle & Upper classes • Recent years, working classes attracted

to Conservative platform to cut taxes, keep immigrants out, etc.

• Win mostly in England, especially in rural and suburban areas.

• Rural v. Urban values, they are more traditional

Liberal Democratic Party• Liberals & Social Democrats, form alliance in ‘83 & ‘87

elections, ‘89 become Liberal Democrats• Strong middle party, compromise the politics of two major

parties ing the 80s.• 1983 won impressive 26% of pop vote, but only got 23 seats

(3.5% MPs)• Campaign for proportional representation and for Bill of

Rights modeled after first 10 amendments of US Constitution• Decline in 90s as both parties move to center• Former leader, Paddy Ashdown, very popular, strong stands on

environment, health & education, etc.• Benefited from disillusionment with Blair over Iraq War. Still

underrepresented in Parliament…

Other Parties• Plaid Cymru (Wales)• Scottish National Party• Shut out the Conservative Party in their regions

in last 3 elections, but Labour is strong in regions• Blair created regional assemblies (12 of 60 in

Welsh Assembly, 27 of 129 in Scottish Assembly).

• Northern Ireland (Sinn Fein--political arm of IRA--and Democratic Unionist Party, led by Protestant clergymen.

British Elections• Only national officials British voters elect are

Members of Parliament (MPs)• Prime Minister is an MP from a single district of

majority party• Elections must be held every five years, but prime

minister can call them earlier• Officially, elections occur after Crown dissolves

Parliament, happens b/c PM requests it. • Power to call elections is very important, PM calls

them when he/she thinks majority party has a good shot at winning

British Elections (Cont)

• Like US, “winner take all” (single member plurality system, no runoffs, doesn’t require majority--First past the post

• MPs don’t have to live in districts they represent, each party decides who runs where. Neophytes go to losing districts, party leaders run from safe districts

British Elections (cont)

• Winner take all system exaggerates size of victory of largest party

• 2005 elections, Labour got 35.3% of vote, 356/646 seats

• Reduces influence of minor parties• 1998 Good Friday Agreement, N Ireland

regional govt, all parties have proportional representation

• Mayor of London now voted on directly for the first time

US vs. British Elections

USA BRITAINParties less powerful Party determines who runs

where

Members must live in districts

Members usually don’t live in districts

Party leaders run from respective districts

Party leaders run in “Safe Districts”

Individual votes for 4 officials on national level

Individual only votes for one official on the national level

Between 30-60% of eligible voters, vote

70-80% of eligible voters, vote often

First-past-the-post, single member districts; virtually no minor parties get representation

First-past-the-post, single member districts;some representation from minority parties, less than with PR

Interest Groups• Most influential interest groups linked to class and

industrial interests• 1945-1970s, business interests and trade unions

competed for influence over policy-making process• Trade Unions Congress (TUC) lots of clout, govt

consulted on important decisions, no comparable single group for business interests

• Ex: 1976, govt negotiated with TUC and coalition of business (CBI) to limit TUC’s wage demands in exchange for 3% reduction in income tax rates

• Thatcher slams door on TUC• 1990s interest groups have regained power, business and unions

Institutions of British Govt

• Three branches and a bureaucracy• Legislature divided in 2 houses, they invented

this, everyone copies it• Parliamentary system, not presidential • Executive fused with Legislative• PM & Cabinet are leaders of parliament• Separation of powers doesn’t exist• Judicial branch doesn’t have power of judicial

review, don’t interpret “Constitution of the Crown”

The Cabinet• Cabinet = Prime Minister & Ministers (each heads major

bureaucracy of govt)• Party leaders from parliament chosen by PM• Collective Cabinet, center of policy-making in Brit political

system, coll responsibility ensures continuity of govt by unifying cabinet

• Cabinet doesn’t vote, all members publicly support PM’s decision, take “collective responsibility” for making policy, unity of cabinet essential for stability of govt

• Foreign Office, Home Office, Chancellor of the Exchequer, etc.

• Important role in constraining the chief executive, checking his/her power

Prime Minister

• “First among equals”• Apex of unitary government, centralized in

London based govt• MP, leader of majority party• Speaks legitimately for all MPs• Chooses cabinet members & subordinate posts• Makes decisions w/ cabinet• Capaings for and represents the party in

parliament

Comparative Executives

Prime Minister (UK) President of US

Serves only as long as he/she is leader of majority party

Elected for 4 yr terms by electoral college based on popular vote (2term)

Elected as MP Elected as president

Excellent chance of getting programs past Parliament

Excellent chance of ending up in gridlock w/ Congress

Cabinet members always MPs, leaders of majority party

Cabinet members rarely come from Congress

Cabinet members not experts in policy areas; rely on bureaucracy for expertise

Some expertise in policy area, one criteria for their appointment, head vast bureaucracies

Parliament

• House of Commons based on assumption that one party will get majority of seats, other will be the “loyal opposition”

• Britain has multi-party system at polls, two-party system in House of Commons

House of Commons• 2 long benches facing one another with table

between by tradition 2 swords lengths wide• PM sits on front bench of majority side in the middle• Across from PM sits leader of opposition, facing the

majority party• Cabinet members sit on front rows of majority side• “Shadow cabinet” faces them on opposition• Backbenchers, less influential MPs, etc .• MPs from other political parties sit on opposition

side, at the end, far away from table

Debate• Debate is usually quite spirited, especially once a week

during “Question Time”• Hour when PM and cabinet must defend themselves against

attack from the opposition and sometimes members of their own party

• Speaker of the House presides over debates• Supposed to be objective, not a member of majority party,

allow all to speak, don’t let it get out of hand, gavel MPs down if too rowdy

• Debate is where MPs can get attn from others to become future leaders

• Opposition is “check” on majority party, have no checks and balances

Party Discipline

• Majority party = government, party discipline is important, don’t want a govt crisis b/c it lacks legitimacy

• Don’t want to lose a “vote of confidence” on key issue, if not supported, the cabinet by tradition resigns immediately and elections for new MPs held ASAP. Usually this doesn’t happen, people work it out within party or all lose their job

• Ex: 2005 Labour’s Higher Education Bill raised university fees, barely passed…

• Policy making power of house is limited, many policies ratified by Cabinet, don’t go through Parliament

Parliament has substantial powers because MPs…

• Debate and refine potential legislation

• Are the only ones who may become party leaders & ultimately head the govt

• Scrutinize the administration of laws

• Keep communication lines open between voters and ministers

House of Lords

• Only hereditary parliamentary house in existence today• House of Commons established supremacy during 17th cent, authority

of Lords declined• Lords have power to delay legislation, debate technicalities of

proposed bills• Add amendments to legislations but Commons can delete changes w/

majority vote• Five LAW LORDS, Britain’s highest court of appeals, but they don’t

have judicial review• Until 1999, 50% of Lords were hereditary peers, rest were life peers,

appointed to nonhereditary positions as a result of distinguished service to Britain

• 1999- only 92 hereditary seats, 567 life peers, plans for new upper house 550 appointed members, no hereditary posts

• Lords have very little policy-making power in British govt

BUREAUCRACY• Britain has hundreds of thousands of civil servants who

administer laws and deliver public services• Most do clerical work & other routine work of large

bureaucracy• A few hundred higher civil servants directly advise ministers

and oversee work of their departments, coordinate policies cabinet members set w/ their actual implementation

• Stable & powerful force in the political system• Top level bureaucrats, career in govt service, experts in area• Great deal of input into policy-making, especially since

minister not usually expert in area• Almost never run for public office, usually not active in party

politics, they are the constant…

The Judiciary• English ideas about justice shaped other modern

democracies (trial by jury goes back to Henry II in 13th cent)

• Modern judiciary very limited powers• Parliamentary Sovereignty (Parliament’s decisions

are final) limits the development of judicial review.• British courts can only determine whether govt

decisions violate common law or previous acts of Parliament, even the, defer to authority of Parliament, don’t impose their rulings on Parliament, PM or cabinet.

Judiciary (cont)• No distinction between original and appellate jurisdiction

(District Courts hear cases, can be appealed to High Courts, appealed to highest court…Law Lords (but they have limited authority)

• Constitutional Reform Act of 2005 provides for a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to take over law lords

• Judges have reputation of being independent, impartial, neutral. Few were MPs, not active in party politics

• Appointed on “good behavior”, attended public schools & Oxbridge, expected to retire at 75, prestigious position

Judiciary & EU

• Britain’s membership in EU gives judges a new responsibility, more important in future

• Britain is bound by EU treaties and laws, judges’ responsibility to interpret laws and determine whether EU laws conflict w/ parliamentary statutes…

• The way possible conflicts between supranational and national laws are settled by British judges could have substantial impact on policy-making process