brand equity within skin care a qualitative study of

Brand Equity within Skin Care – A Qualitative Study of Consumer Attitudes and Preferences towards Green Skin Care Brands

Master’s Thesis 30 credits Department of Business Studies Uppsala University Spring Semester of 2020

Date of Submission: 2020-06-03

Andrej Mionic Maria Lindgärde Supervisor: Jukka Hohenthal

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to all the respondents for taking their time to be

a part of this study and for providing valuable insights. We would also like to thank our

fellow students for their constructive and insightful feedback during the seminars. A

special thanks to our supervisor Jukka Hohenthal for his guidance throughout the

process. His inputs helped us improve the quality of our thesis.

Andrej Mionic & Maria Lindgärde

Uppsala, June 2020

Abstract The green trend has exploded on the skin care market, as it is the fastest growing sector

in the world market compared to other green cosmetic products. However, previous

literature has primarily focused on cosmetics rather than skin care, which is why this

study uses an exploratory and qualitative approach to study the attitudes Swedish

consumers have towards skin care brands. The study aims to test the applicability of

Keller’s (2001) Customer-Based Brand Equity (CBBE) model pyramid in a growing

brand segment, to understand which aspects of green skin care brands consumers find to

be important. Furthermore, this study provides managerial implications to help brands

develop marketing strategies on how to strengthen the consumer-brand relationship. The

findings indicate that there are opportunities for green skin care brands to increase their

brand equity with the help of Keller’s brand building blocks. However, the findings

suggest that green skin care brands need to focus on strengthening how consumers

perceive the price and performance of green skin care products in order to establish a

strong brand. Ultimately, the study presents a revised CBBE model that highlights the

established subdimensions of green skin care brands and those that are in need of

improvement.

Keywords: Branding, green branding, brand equity, customer-based brand equity,

consumer behavior, skin care

Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Problem Formulation ............................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Purpose and Research Question ........................................................................................... 4

1.4 Definitions .................................................................................................................................... 4

2 Literature review ................................................................................................................. 5

2.1 The Concept of Brand Equity ................................................................................................. 5

2.2 Customer-Based Brand Equity and its Dimensions....................................................... 6

2.3 Measurements of CBBE ............................................................................................................ 8

2.4 The Customer-Based Brand Equity Pyramid ................................................................... 9 2.4.1 Brand Identity - Salience ................................................................................................................................... 10 2.4.2 Brand Meaning – Performance and Imagery ........................................................................................... 11 2.4.3 Brand Responses - Consumer Judgments and Feelings ..................................................................... 15 2.4.4 Brand Relationships - Brand Resonance ................................................................................................... 17

2.5 Summary of the Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 18

3 Method .................................................................................................................................. 20

3.1 Research Design and Approach ......................................................................................... 20

3.2 Research Strategy ................................................................................................................... 20

3.3 Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 21 3.3.1 Semi-structured Interviews ............................................................................................................................. 21 3.3.2 Finding and Selecting Respondents ............................................................................................................. 21 3.3.3 Interview Guides ................................................................................................................................................... 23 3.3.4 Conducting the Interviews ............................................................................................................................... 26

3.4 Operationalization .................................................................................................................. 27

3.5 Data Analysis............................................................................................................................. 29

4 Empirical Findings ............................................................................................................ 30

4.1 Green Associations ................................................................................................................. 30 4.1.1 Green Brand Associations ................................................................................................................................. 30 4.1.2 Green Consumer Associations ........................................................................................................................ 31

4.2 Feelings towards Skin Care Brands .................................................................................. 32

4.3 Performance and Quality ..................................................................................................... 33 4.3.1 Consumers Perception of Own vs. Green Brands .................................................................................. 33 4.3.2 Importance of Price and Design ..................................................................................................................... 35

4.4 Credibility .................................................................................................................................. 36 4.4.1 Trust Towards Skin Care Brands .................................................................................................................. 36 4.4.2 Importance of Place of Purchase ................................................................................................................... 38

4.4.3 Building Credibility in Green Brands .......................................................................................................... 38

4.4 Community and Engagement .............................................................................................. 39

4.5 Loyalty Towards Brands ....................................................................................................... 40

5 Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 43

5.1 Brand Identity - Salience ...................................................................................................... 43

5.2 Brand Meaning – Brand Performance and Brand Imagery ..................................... 44 5.2.1 Brand Performance .............................................................................................................................................. 44 5.2.2 Brand Imagery ........................................................................................................................................................ 47

5.3 Brand Responses - Consumer Judgments and Consumer Feelings ...................... 48 5.3.1 Brand Judgments................................................................................................................................................... 48 5.3.2 Brand Feelings ........................................................................................................................................................ 51

5.4 Brand Relationships - Brand Resonance ........................................................................ 51

6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 55

6.1 Managerial Implications ....................................................................................................... 56

6.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research .................................................... 57

References ............................................................................................................................... 59

Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 64

Appendix 1 - Consumer Interview Guide ............................................................................... 64

Appendix 2 - Brand Manager Interview Guide .................................................................... 65

Appendix 3 - Salespeople Interview guide ............................................................................ 66

Appendix 4 - Free Association Task ........................................................................................ 67

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1 Introduction

1.1 Background The concern for the environment is a social trend that continues to grow and that has

changed the current market landscape (Keller, 2008; Aaker & McLoughlin, 2010) as

consumers are better informed about the harmful effects that products, manufacturing,

and their packaging can have on the environment (Batth, 2018). This knowledge has

motivated consumers to purchase green products (Chin, Jiang, Mufidah, Persada &

Noer, 2018) and has led to an increase in the number of consumers who are less willing

to buy brands that are harmful to the environment and that lack environmental

credentials (Aaker & McLoughlin, 2010). More consumers are demanding green

products, which are products that are better for the environment than their non-

sustainable counterparts (Smith & Brower, 2012) in terms of generating a lower

environmental impact of the development, manufacture, use, and disposal of products

(Hsu, Chang & Yansritakul, 2017). This green trend is especially evident in the skin

care market as it is the fastest growing sector in the worldwide market compared to

other green cosmetic products (Chin et al., 2018).

The rapid growth of the skin care industry has led marketers to question how they can

boost the sales of skin care products, by using brand equity to drive customers’ purchase

intention (Lee, Goh & Mohd Noor, 2019). To successfully increase sales and adapt to

the fast changing environment of green consumerism, managers need to be aware that

consumers are arguably the ones setting the strategic brand directions as they have the

motivation, ability, and opportunity to impact brand strategies (Keller, 2020). Brands

for this reason exist for consumers, and to be successful, they need to differ and offer

consumers a unique value. In other words, marketers need to strengthen their brand

equity, which according to Keller (1998), can be defined as the unique preference to

marketing efforts that a product attains due to its brand identification, in comparison

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with the preference the same product would have if it did not possess that brand

identification. Since consumers value products and brands for different reasons (Escalas

& Bettman, 2009), they are consequently demanding brand offerings that suit their

individual preferences and that can be distinguished from others (Keller, 2020). In

regard to the skin care industry, consumers’ preferences must be identified and

understood in order to design products that will satisfy their needs (Lee et al., 2019).

Thus, marketers need to understand how brand equity can generate the intention to

make a purchase in order to formulate relevant strategies that can improve brand

performance (Lee et al., 2019). Building a strong brand with significant brand equity

can provide possible benefits to a firm, including greater customer loyalty and less

vulnerability to competitive marketing actions (Keller, 2001). Accordingly, companies

that choose to implement environmentally friendly initiatives can increase consumer

purchasing intention towards green products (Chin et al., 2018). In Sweden, the country

purposively selected for this study, a sustainable lifestyle is no longer only a trend

(Differ, 2018), it has become a crucial determining factor on a consumer’s purchasing

decision, as more than a third of consumers decide to purchase a different product if

they do not perceive it as green (Differ, 2018). According to a research conducted in

2018 by NOC (Natural Organic Cosmetics) Sweden and Business Sweden, the segment

of green skin care products grew by 22 percent in 2017 (Mynewsdesk, 2018). More

consumers are wanting beauty products that contain less chemicals (Silvia &

Hendrayati, 2020). Thus, marketers need to be aware that green branding can impact

their brand equity.

1.2 Problem Formulation

Previous research has dominantly focused on better understanding the behavior of green

consumers (Vowles & Chang, 2018; Chin et al., 2018). However, as Vowles and Chang

(2018) argue, the challenge for marketing researchers lies in understanding the

relationship between perceived environmental concerns and consumers’ willingness to

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purchase green products. This challenge is more palpable within the skin care market as

little research has been done on how skin care brands can increase their brand equity

and become more attractive towards consumers. Researchers have indicated that there is

a discrepancy between what consumers are saying and their behavior towards green

products (Cronin, Smith, Gleim, Ramirez & Martinez, 2010). Consumers tend to have

pro-green attitudes but despite this, frequently purchase non-green alternatives (Olson,

2013). To better understand this relationship, marketers can develop appropriate

marketing strategies that will augment brand equity (Vowles & Chang, 2018).

Moreover, previous literature has focused on cosmetics such as Kaswengi, Diallo,

Akrout and Valette-Florence’s (2020) study on aspects that impact customers choice of

high-equity cosmetic brands, or Usman, Rida, Madiha and Mohsin’s (2012) research on

brand loyalty in the industry of cosmetics. While previous research has had less focus

on skin care despite its popularity in the market (Lee et al., 2019). Despite the

significance of brand equity in marketing theory and literature, limited empirical

research has been done on how marketers can build brand equity in the context of skin

care, specifically, green skin care. The aim of this paper is to address this gap by

studying the behavior and attitudes Swedish skin care consumers have towards green

skin care.

To understand which aspects of green brands are important for consumers, the thesis

aims to test the applicability of Keller’s (2001) Customer Based Brand Equity (CBBE)

model to help build and measure strong skin care brands in the context of green

consumer behavior. The CBBE model is used, as its basic premise is that the power of a

brand resides in the minds of customers (Keller, 2001, 2009), which corresponds to the

aim of this study. Theoretically, this study attempts to apply existing brand equity

literature to an unexplored context in the hopes of contributing with theoretical

knowledge on how Keller’s (2001) CBBE model can be applied to skin care. It also

aims to contribute to further research on brand equity within green skin care. Moreover,

the paper will provide managerial implications to help brands develop appropriate

marketing strategies on how to strengthen the existing consumer-brand relationship.

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1.3 Purpose and Research Question The purpose of this thesis is to gain insights into which green skin care attributes

Swedish consumers, between the ages of 20-30, regard to be important when purchasing

skin care brands. This will be explored by studying the preferences and attitudes

consumers have towards green and non-green skin care brands, to see if and why

consumers prefer one segment to the other. Additionally, the study intends to see how

green brands can strengthen their position on the skin care market and explore whether

being green impacts brand equity. The thesis will therefore address the following

question:

What aspects of green skin care brands are important for consumers and how do

these aspects impact brand equity?

1.4 Definitions Skin Care – All practices related to enhancing the skin’s appearance and relieving skin

conditions (Chin et al., 2018).

Green Skin Care - Green skin care products care for the skin using naturally derived

ingredients, and the term green refers to terms such as sustainable, eco-friendly or

environmentally friendly (Hsu et al., 2017). Green skin care products are often non-

toxic, made from recycled materials, use minimal packaging, and have a lower

environmental impact compared to conventional products (Hsu et al., 2017).

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2 Literature review

The chapter begins with presenting literature explaining the concept of brand equity and

Customer-Based Brand Equity (CBBE). Special attention is then given to the theoretical

framework of this study, namely the CBBE pyramid developed by Keller (2001). The

pyramid consists of six brand building blocks, which will be explained thoroughly. The

section will end in a theoretical summary and an illustration of a more detailed CBBE

pyramid, which will be used for the analysis.

2.1 The Concept of Brand Equity The concept of brand equity is an important construct in both marketing theory and

practice and thus, there are many studies on the subject (Datta, Ailawadi & Van Heerde,

2017; Leone, Rao, Keller, Luo, McAlister & Srivastava, 2006). Several definitions of

brand equity have been proposed and they vary depending on the context of which the

phenomenon is studied in (Keller, 1993). Two of the most used definitions of brand

equity are those of Keller (1998) and Aaker (1991). Keller (1998) describes brand

equity as the unique preference and response to marketing efforts that a product attains

due to its brand identification, in comparison with the preference and response the same

product would have if it did not possess that brand identification. Whereas, Aaker

(1991, p.15) defines brand equity as “a set of assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its

name and symbol, that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or

service to a firm and/or that firm’s customers.”

Many scholars have argued for the importance of brand equity, as it has been described

as the overall utility, which customers create for the brand in comparison to its

competitors (Boo, Busser & Baloglu, 2009; Vásquez, del Río & Iglesias, 2002). Boo et

al. (2009) add that brand equity can be used to see the general assessment consumers

have towards brands. Furthermore, Pappu, Quester, and Cooksey (2005) argue that a

high level of brand equity can positively affect customers purchase intentions and

preferences. Pappu et al. (2005) also imply that further knowledge is needed on how

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actions such as sales promotions, price strategies, and advertising affect the sustainment

and extension of brand equity. Despite the various dimensions of brand equity, the

models of brand equity share simple and essential foundations (Leone et al., 2006). One

of them being that the power of brands is in the consumers’ minds and what they have

learned, experienced and felt about it over time. Secondly, brand equity can be seen as

the added value of a product in the minds and actions of consumers.

Although brand equity might seem as a complex phenomenon to grasp, Keller (1993)

states that a reason for studying brand equity is for strategic reasons and to be able to

improve marketing productivity. Due to increased competition, higher costs, and

decreased demand in various markets, firms can find themselves in situations where

they need a better understanding of consumer behavior. This understanding should aid

in making better strategic decisions regarding for instance, product positioning and

target market definition. Datta et al. (2017) argue that firms invest time and effort to

build their brand equity and when they succeed, they gain the benefits of that

investment in terms of product and financial market results. This can influence their

brand equity, which in return can establish brand extensions.

In recent years, brand equity has been studied in an environmental or green context. For

instance, Moise, Gil-Saura, Šerić, and Ruiz Molina’s (2019) study on sustainability

implementations adapted by hotels and its relationship to brand equity, or Chen’s (2010)

research on the drivers of green brand equity, where it is argued that a green brand

image, positively impacts green brand equity. However, research on the brand equity of

skin care in a green context remains to be unexplored.

2.2 Customer-Based Brand Equity and its Dimensions

Christodoulides and de Chernatony (2010) state that there are difficulties in measuring

brand equity since it is such a complex phenomenon. However, Datta et al. (2017)

imply that there are two main measurement approaches of brand equity. One

measurement is what consumers think and feel about a brand, known as customer-based

brand equity (CBBE), and the other one is sales-based brand equity (SBBE). Datta et al.

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(2017) state that the two most recognized models of CBBE are Keller’s (1993), later

adapted to the CBBE pyramid (Keller, 2001), and Aaker’s (1996) Brand Equity Ten.

The former will be explained and used thoroughly in this research.

Keller (2008) states that satisfied customers are vital as it generally means success for a

firm, which is why the concept of CBBE is important. Keller (1993, p.8) defines CBBE

as “the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to marketing of the

brand.” Keller and Lehmann (2006); Datta et al. (2017) and Chatzipanagiotou,

Christodoulides and Veloutsou (2019) all recognize CBBE as a complex construct

consisting of various dimensions. Additionally, Christodoulides and de Chernatony

(2010) argue that there is no general agreement on the dimensions of CBBE, which

could be due to the lack of a universally accepted definition of the concept.

Chatzipanagiotou et al. (2019) and Anselmsson et al. (2007) explain that the majority of

empirical studies on CBBE use Aaker’s (1991) concept, where the dimensions of CBBE

consist of brand awareness, brand associations, brand loyalty, and perceived quality.

Keller (1993) however, divides brand equity into brand knowledge, brand awareness,

and brand image. Anselmsson et al. (2007) argue that both Keller and Aaker highlight

the same aspects as they both emphasize brand awareness as a necessity to having a

strong brand. Table 1 provides an overview of examples of CBBE dimensions.

Table 1. Examples of different dimensions of CBBE used in literature.

Author(s) CBBE Dimensions

Aaker (1991), Yoo and Donthu (2001)

Brand awareness, brand associations, brand loyalty, perceived quality

Keller (1993) Brand knowledge – brand awareness (recall & recognition), brand image (brand associations)

Keller (2001) CBBE pyramid

Brand identity, brand meaning (associations), brand responses, brand relationships

Park and Srinivasan (1994)

Brand associations and attribute-based components of brand equity and non-attribute-based components

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The absence of an agreement on CBBE in terms of operationalization and

conceptualization, as well as how it affects consumer behavior, has, according to

Chatzipanagiotou et al. (2019), resulted in unanswered questions on how to build and

manage strong brands. Furthermore, they argue that the majority of CBBE models are

linear and do not illustrate the complexities nor the benefits of brand equity in regard to

the behavioral outcomes of key consumers. In addition, Chatzipanagiotou et al. (2019)

argue that the complex models of CBBE often lack empirical support.

2.3 Measurements of CBBE

According to Keller (1993), CBBE can be measured either directly or indirectly.

However, he argues that these two types of approaches complement each other and

should be used simultaneously. The indirect approach measures brand knowledge, in

terms of brand image and awareness in order to evaluate sources of CBBE. The direct

approach measures how brand knowledge affects how consumers respond to different

parts of a company's marketing efforts. However, Christodoulides and de Chernatony

(2010) argue that Keller (1993) and Aaker (1991) have successfully conceptualized

brand equity, but they have not implemented a scale for how to measure it. This,

according to Christodoulides and de Chernatony (2010), has created several

methodologies to help quantify brand equity with the help of complicated statistics,

which can be difficult for marketing practitioners to understand. Moreover, brand equity

can also be studied using qualitative methods (Keller, 2008). These methods are used to

identify sources of brand equity in terms of brand awareness, attitudes, and attachments.

An approach to this is allowing individuals to conduct free ways to do association tasks,

where they are asked what comes to mind when thinking of a specific brand. Other

approaches to this method are through observing consumers or through comparison

tasks where a consumer is allowed to compare a brand, to its competitors, people, and

activities.

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2.4 The Customer-Based Brand Equity Pyramid

Keller (2001) argues that building strong brands improves the financial state of firms

and is of high priority for organizations. Hence, Keller developed a CBBE model in

order to help marketers build brands. The model consists of six brand building blocks,

which form into a pyramid (Keller, 2009). Chatzipanagiotou et al. (2019) state that this

model was the first to incorporate brand building blocks in the process of CBBE.

Although the authors recognize the benefits of this model, Chatzipanagiotou et al.

(2019) state that there is an absence of empirical validation, as well as uncertainties on

how to climb to the different brand building blocks to achieve brand equity. In relation

to this critique, this model has purposively been chosen as it deemed to suit the purpose

of this study, as Keller (2001) argues that this model gives a new dimension to what

brand equity is and how it is built, measured, and managed in an optimal way. The

model shown in figure 1, implies that there are four different steps in the creation of a

strong brand:

1. Establishing the fitting brand identity.

2. Creating the right brand meaning using strong, favorable, and unique brand

associations.

3. Eliciting positive and accessible brand responses.

4. Creating brand relationships with customers, characterized with active and

intense loyalty.

Figure 1. Customer-Based Brand Equity Pyramid (Keller, 2001).

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Each step is connected to fundamental questions consumers want to know about a

brand:

1. Who are you? (Brand Identity)

2. What are you? (Brand Meaning)

3. What about you? What do I think or feel about you? (Brand Responses)

4. What about you and me? What kind of associations and how much of a

connection would I like to have with you? (Brand Relationships)

Keller (2001, 2009) compares these steps to a ladder, where each step needs to be

established to be able to move forward and reach the next step. For instance, if the brand

identity is not set, then brand meaning cannot be established. To achieve these steps, six

brand-building blocks must be established in the following order; brand salience, brand

performance, brand imagery, brand judgments, brand feelings and finally, brand

resonance. Significant brand equity can only be attained if brands reach the top of the

pyramid.

2.4.1 Brand Identity - Salience

The first block at the bottom of the pyramid is brand salience. In order to create the

proper brand identity, brand salience must be created (Keller, 2001). Salience is

connected to customer awareness of a brand, for instance, how easily the brand is

recognized and recalled in different situations (Keller, 2009). Keller (2001) explains

that brand awareness also includes connecting the brand to specific associations in one’s

memory. Building brand awareness involves making sure that consumers understand the

product category brands are competing in.

Salience is the foundational building block when building brand equity and Keller

(2001) argues that it offers three crucial functions. First, salience affects the strength of

brand associations that create the brand image and provide the brand meaning. Second,

a high level of brand salience in terms of category identification and needs satisfied is

important during purchase opportunities. Salience has a positive influence on the

likelihood that a brand will be part of the consideration set. Keller (2001) describes this

as the brand being a part of a group of brands that receive thorough consideration in a

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purchasing situation. Third, brand salience is of importance in consumption settings if

customers have low involvement with a product category, for example if they do not

care about the product, brand salience can be the sole aspect they consider when making

their choice.

Furthermore, Keller (2001) explains two dimensions of brand awareness; depth and

breadth. Depth means how easy it is for consumers to recognize or recall a brand, while

breadth is connected to the range of purchase and in which consumption situations a

brand comes to mind. Hence, a brand that has a high level of salience has both depth

and breadth of brand awareness. This means that consumers make enough purchases

while always thinking of the brand in different settings in which it can be purchased or

used. A problem for certain brands and products is that they can be forgotten in specific

usage situations. However, by increasing the salience of brands in such settings, the

volume of sales can be increased.

2.4.2 Brand Meaning – Performance and Imagery

Moving on to the next step, Keller (2001) argues that in order to establish brand

meaning, a brand image must be created, in other words, what is it that characterizes the

brand. Keller (2001) divides brand meaning into two categories of brand associations

present in the mind of consumers; performance and imagery. The brand associations are

either direct or indirect. Direct associations are developed from a consumer’s

experiences and contact with a brand, indirect associations arise from information

regarding the brand, such as advertising or word-of-mouth. Brand Performance To develop loyalty and brand resonance, the experience consumers have with a product

needs to fulfill their expectations (Keller, 2001). Brand performance explains how the

product tries to satisfy the functional needs of a consumer (Keller, 2009). It is linked to

brand properties in terms of product or service characteristics, as well as how well the

brand is rated in terms of quality, satisfaction, economic, aesthetic, and utilitarian needs

of the customers in the particular product category (Keller, 2001). In Keller’s CBBE

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model, five elements are explained as underlying the brand performance. Each of the

five elements can be a tool to differentiate the brand.

1. The first element consists of primary characteristics as well as secondary

features. It implies that consumers frequently have beliefs regarding the

different levels at which the characteristics of a product operate, for

example very high, high, medium or low. Consumers may have thoughts

about unique or patented features, which can work as a supplement to the

primary characteristics.

2. Product reliability, durability, and serviceability make up the second

element. Reliability is how consistent the performance of the product is

during time, as well as from purchase to purchase. Durability is

connected to the product’s economic life, while serviceability is referred

to as how easy it is to service a product when it needs to be repaired.

3. Service effectiveness, efficiency, and empathy refer to the performance

related associations customers have with the service interactions of a

brand. Service effectiveness is how a brand fulfills the service

requirements of customers. Efficiency is connected to how fast and

responsive the services are. Empathy is whether the service provider has

the consumers interest in mind, and also how trusting and caring they

are.

4. Style and design are related to more aesthetic associations, the product’s

shape, color, and material for instance. The performance of the product

can be linked to things such as how it looks, feels, or its odor.

5. The last element, price, are the associations consumers receive from a

brands pricing policy. A brand’s pricing strategy can impact how a

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consumer categorizes the price of a brand (as low, medium, or high) as

well as how flexible the price is perceived to be (how often it is

discounted).

Brand Imagery

Brand imagery is connected to the product’s extrinsic and intangible properties (Keller,

2009). This includes how the brand meets the consumer’s psychological and social

needs. Keller (2001) focuses on four different categories within brand imagery:

1. User profiles - is a type of association that refers to the type of individual

that uses a brand. For instance, consumers might have a mental image of

actual or idealized users. These associations of the ideal user can be built

on demographic factors such as gender, income, age, or psychographic

factors. User imagery can also be perceptions of a group of individuals,

which can create associations that the brand in question is popular.

2. Purchase and usage situations - are associations that are connected to the

conditions of which a brand can be used. It can for instance be which

type of channel the brand is purchased in (e.g. specialty store or online).

Associations regarding usage situations can be connected to a specific

place or a to specific type of activity the brand is used for.

3. Personality and values - brands can acquire personality traits and values

similar to humans. Brand personality is related to more descriptive usage

imagery and includes rich and contextual information. There are five

dimensions of brand personality:

1. Sincerity – authentic, cheerful

2. Excitement – creative, daring

3. Competence – intelligent, reliable

4. Sophistication – captivating, privileged

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5. Ruggedness – tough, adventurous

4. History, heritage, and experience - brands can have associations

connected to their past. Such associations can be personal experiences,

past behaviors as well as experiences of friends and family.

To conclude, Keller (2001) argues that the brand associations that develop brand

meaning and image can be distinguished into three important elements. Starting with

strength, which is how strongly the brand is identified with a brand association.

Secondly, there is favorability, which is how important or valuable the brand association

is to customers. Lastly, uniqueness, which looks at how distinctively the brand is

identified with the brand association. If all these elements are successfully managed,

positive brand responses can be constructed. Although it is a challenge for marketing

practitioners, brand equity requires strong, favorable, and unique brand associations

towards a brand. These brand associations can function as points of parity and points of

difference.

Points of Parity and Difference

Keller (2008, 2009) mentions the importance of points of parity (POP) and points of

difference (POD). He argues that they are the branding objective for the brand meaning

stage of the pyramid and that marketers need to establish an appropriate reference for

positioning their brand. If brands want to achieve the proper positioning; the correct

difference and points of parity associations need to be made. In addition, Keller (2001)

claims that the strongest brand positioning frequently includes some type of

performance advantage. Keller (2008) further explains that PODs are the benefits

consumers associate with a brand and they consist of attributes that differ from their

competitors. Moreover, choices made by consumers are often based on how unique they

perceive the brand to be. POPs on the other hand, are attributes that a brand shares with

other brands. Brands achieve POP on a specific attribute when consumers believe a

brand is sufficient on that particular dimension. Establishing points of parity and points

of difference is difficult for markets to achieve as attributes that make up these

associations are often negatively correlated (Keller, 2008). For example, it is

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challenging to persuade consumers to believe that a brand is of high quality if, at the

same time, marketers convince them that the brand is inexpensive. Nevertheless,

according to the customer-based brand equity model, resonance is most likely reached

when brands have established points-of-parity and points-of-difference (Keller, 2009).

2.4.3 Brand Responses - Consumer Judgments and Feelings

Brand responses is the next step in the pyramid, which is how consumers respond to a

brand in terms of its marketing activities (Keller, 2001). This includes what the

consumers think or feel about a certain brand. Brand responses are divided into brand

judgments and brand feelings.

Brand Judgments

Brand judgments is based on how customers gather different performance and imagery

associations of a brand and create their own personal opinions and evaluations about it

(Keller, 2009). Keller (2001) distinguishes four different types of brand judgments that

are important when creating a strong brand. The first one, which is the most important,

is brand quality. Attitudes towards the quality of a brand are vital as they include

perceptions of satisfaction and value. Brand credibility comes in second, it implies that

consumers have judgments that transcend brand quality concerns and that consider

problems related to an organization or a company. Keller (2001) divides brand

credibility into three dimensions:

1. Brand expertise (innovative, competent, market leader)

2. Brand trustworthiness (sensitive to the interest of consumers,

dependable)

3. Brand likability (interesting, fun, worth spending time on)

The third type of brand judgment is brand consideration, which is the probability that a

consumer will include a brand into their already existing pool of brands. Brand

consideration is dependent on how relevant and meaningful the brand is perceived by

consumers. Furthermore, Keller (2001) claims that brand consideration is vital when

building brand equity because a brand can be seen as high quality, but if it is not

considered in different situations, consumers will not embrace it. In addition,

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consideration is dependent on a brand image that has developed strong and favorable

brand associations. The last type of brand judgment is brand superiority, the extent to

which consumers perceive the brand as unique and superior to other brands. Brand

superiority can build intense and active relationships with consumers and is dependent

on the amount of unique brand associations that create the brand image.

Brand Feelings

Keller (2009) describes brand feelings as the emotional responses and reactions that

consumers have towards a brand. For example, what effect the brand has on consumers’

feelings about themselves and their relationships with other individuals (Keller, 2001).

Such feelings can be characterized by mildness, insensitivity, negativity, or positivity.

Keller (2001) distinguishes six different types of brand building feelings:

1. Warmth: feelings referred to a sense of peace and calmness. Consumers

may feel sentimental, affectionate, and warm hearted towards the brand.

2. Fun: consumers may feel playful, joyful, amused, and cheerful.

3. Excitement: whether consumers get energy from the brand and if they

feel they are experiencing something unique.

4. Security: when a brand provides the consumer with feelings of comfort,

safety, and self-assurance, it eliminates the consumer’s worries.

5. Social approval: the brand makes consumers feel that others have

positive reactions towards them in terms of behavior and appearance.

Social approval can be created if other individuals recognize consumers

who use the brand.

6. Self-respect: occurs if a brand makes a consumer feel better about

themselves. It can be an accomplishment, fulfillment, or pride.

To summarize, what matters is how positive the brand responses are perceived by

consumers (Keller, 2001). The responses must easily appear into consumers’ minds

when thinking of the brand. Brand judgments and feelings can have positive impact on

consumer behavior, but to do so, the consumers must think of positive responses when

encountering the brand.

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2.4.4 Brand Relationships - Brand Resonance

The top of the pyramid, brand resonance, pays attention to the ultimate relationship and

level of identification that a consumer has with a brand (Keller, 2001). This relationship

is built on intense psychological bonds that consumers have with a brand as well as the

level of activity generated by this loyalty (i.e. repeated purchases, attending various

events, seeking information about brands). Keller (2001) uses four different categories

to explain brand resonance:

1. Behavioral loyalty - described as repeated purchases and the amount of

purchases.

2. Attitudinal attachment - a strong personal attachment must be present in

order to develop brand resonance. A positive attitude is not sufficient

since consumers should view the brand as something special in a bigger

setting. An example of attitudinal attachment is when an individual

claims that they love a brand.

3. Sense of community - brands can be meaningful in a greater context by

creating a sense of community. Consumers feel connected to other

individuals using the brand and can identify with them.

4. Active engagement - the strongest statement of brand loyalty, is when

consumers spend additional energy, money, and time on the brand than

just buying or consuming the brand. For instance, individuals can join

clubs connected to the brand, communicate with other users of the brand,

or visit websites. Strong attitudinal attachments can lead to active

engagement with a brand.

Keller (2001) distinguishes between two forms of brand relationships, intensity and

activity. Intensity refers to the strength of brand community and attitudinal attachment,

for instance how deep the loyalty is towards the brand. Whereas, activity is connected to

how often the consumer is using or buying a brand, and how often they engage in

additional activities that are not linked to the actual purchase or consumption.

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2.5 Summary of the Theoretical Framework

The customer-based brand equity pyramid provides a dimension on what brand equity is

and how it can optimally be built, measured, and managed (Keller, 2001). In order to do

this, four different steps need to be completed in the following order: establishing brand

identity, brand meaning, eliciting positive and accessible brand responses, and creating

customer relationships identified by intense loyalty. Each step is connected to questions

that consumers ask about brands: “who are you?” (brand identity), “what are you?”

(brand meaning), “what about you? what do I think or feel about you?” (brand

responses), and “what about you and me? what kind of association and how much of a

connection would I like to have with you?” (brand relationships). Each step needs to be

completed before one can move forward in creating a strong brand (Keller, 2001, 2009).

In addition to the above, six brand building blocks need to be completed to achieve

these steps: brand salience, performance, imagery, judgments, feelings, and resonance.

Brand salience is the foundational block, which affects the strength of brand

associations, thus creating brand image and brand meaning. Brand performance is

needed to explain how the product satisfies the needs of consumers, and brand imagery

helps to understand consumers’ abstract thoughts. Consumers have individual

evaluations and opinions about a brand, which affect their emotional responses and

reactions towards brands. All this leads to the final step, brand resonance, where the

ultimate relationship the consumer has with the brand can be reached through a

combination of all the previous steps.

The goal of many organizations is building a strong brand with significant brand equity.

However, this is challenging, as marketers need to ensure that consumers have the right

type of experiences with products (Keller, 2001). Thus, it is interesting to see how the

customer-based brand equity model can be applied to Swedish skin care consumers that

find themselves in a blooming green skin care market. The model provides useful

insights for marketers to set strategic brand directions (Keller, 2001), and to gain

insights into which green skin care attributes Swedish consumers find to be important.

This is done in hopes of exploring whether being green impacts brand equity. Figure 2

will be used as it examines each of the building blocks in detail.

19

Figure 2. Subdimensions of the brand building blocks (Keller, 2001).

20

3 Method

3.1 Research Design and Approach

The aim of this study is to explore preferences and attitudes of skin care consumers in

Sweden, with the aim of gaining insights into whether being green impacts brand

equity. Due to there being inadequate research about this phenomenon, an exploratory

research approach is suitable as it aids in clarifying a problem where there are

uncertainties about the precise nature of the problem (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill,

2012). This approach allows new insights on the topic to be discovered (Saunders et al.,

2012). In addition, a deductive approach will be used as it allows for a clear theoretical

framework to be tested and adopted through the data collection (Saunders et.al., 2012).

Previous literature on how to build customer-based brand equity within skin care is

scarce, and this study will therefore test the applicability of Keller’s (2001) CBBE

theoretical framework in this context. This approach helps to test existing theory on

brand equity to organize and direct the study’s data analysis (Saunders et al., 2012).

3.2 Research Strategy

A qualitative research strategy was selected for this study, to develop a greater and

richer understanding (Bryman & Bell, 2017) of the preferences and attitudes of skin

care consumers, as well as the impact various dimensions can have on the brand equity

of skin care. A qualitative research helps researchers interpret and understand the

subjective and socially constructed meanings expressed about the phenomenon being

studied (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, this strategy helps interpret the associations

consumers make towards skin care brands and why they regard them as strong,

favorable, and unique (Keller, 2008). This relatively unstructured measurement

approach allows for a range of possible consumer responses and an opportunity to study

consumer perceptions (Keller, 2008). Since this method of conducting in-depth insights

only uses smaller samples, it is important to be aware that the results cannot be

generalized to broader populations or beyond the context of this research (Keller, 2008;

Bryman & Bell, 2017). However, the findings can generalize the theory (Bryman &

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Bell, 2017) and lay the ground for future research on how to build and explore the

relationship between brand equity and the skin care market.

3.3 Data Collection

3.3.1 Semi-structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were used for this study, to help answer questions regarding

how, what, and why (Saunders et al., 2012) skin care consumers behave in a certain

way. This method is useful as it provides important background and contextual material

that can be used to interpret the way consumers purchase skin care, as it allowed

respondents to explain their answers (Saunders et al., 2012). Semi-structured in-depth

interviews were conducted with consumers and a brand manager, while shorter semi-

structured interviews were conducted with salespeople.

3.3.2 Finding and Selecting Respondents

The consumer respondents of the study were a result of purposive sampling, meaning

that the respondents were chosen on the basis that they could help to answer the

research question (Bryman & Bell, 2017). To be able to have an opinion and to reflect

on brands in this category, respondents were chosen on the criteria that they purchased

and used skin care products on a regular basis. Furthermore, the study chose to focus on

respondents who were between the age of 20-30 years old, as they are arguably of

particular interest in this era of green consumerism, in terms of having healthier and

more sustainable lifestyles (Batth, 2018). Initially, social media was used to establish

contact with potential respondents who voluntarily chose to be a part of the study. These

individuals were then asked if they could think of other potential respondents that could

be interviewed. Thus, the sample method for this study is a combination of purposive

sampling and snowball sampling. (Bryman & Bell, 2017; Saunders et al., 2012).

The study consisted of seventeen interviews; thirteen respondents were skin care

consumers, one brand manager, and three salespeople (see table 2 for additional

information). Interviews were conducted until saturation was reached and no additional

themes were found (Saunders et al., 2012). Furthermore, the consumer respondents

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were asked to share demographic information such as their gender, age, profession,

education, and income to see if these features impacted the attitudes consumers had

towards skin care (see table 2).

Table 2. Overview of the Respondents.

Name Age Gender Occupation Income (SEK)

Highest Completed Education

Respondent 1 23 F Accounting assistant 30 000 University

Respondent 2 23 F Marketing Intern 18 000 University

Respondent 3 24 M Banker 31 500 University

Respondent 4 26 F Student + salesperson 20 860 Upper secondary school

Respondent 5 25 F Social media specialist 28 000 University

Respondent 6 23 F Student 10 860 Upper secondary school

Respondent 7 21 F Student 10 860 Upper secondary school

Respondent 8 27 M Dealer Operator 29 000 University

Respondent 9 24 M Student 3 300 University

Respondent 10 28 F Marketing Coordinator 25 000 University

Respondent 11 25 F Student 10 860 University

Respondent 12 26 F Student + Stewardess 27 000 Upper secondary school

Respondent 13 24 M Student 10 860 University

Brand Manager 30 F Brand Manager X University

Salesperson 1 56 F Salesperson X X



23

Since this research focuses on the consumer perspective, the first 13 respondents are

skin care consumers (illustrated above in table 2). However, to gain a deeper

understanding of the behavior of skin care consumers, respondents with more

professional knowledge were interviewed; a brand manager and three salespeople.

These respondents were solely used to complement the study’s research and data

collection, as the focus of this study remains on the behavior of skin care consumers.

The brand manager was unique in the sense that she is currently working with green

skin care products. The purpose of interviewing her was to achieve a professional

understanding of how skin green care consumers behave. She was also chosen through

purposive sampling.

Moreover, three interviews were conducted with salespeople from skin care stores.

Since salespeople observe their customers and know what questions and concerns they

have, they become an important asset in understanding the consumer behavior of their

customers. The interviews with the salespeople were not scheduled and were therefore

selected based on their availability and willingness to respond to our questions at the

time of our visit. Thus, they were haphazardly chosen through convenience sampling

(Saunders et al., 2012).

3.3.3 Interview Guides

To ensure respondents answered relevant questions, an interview guide with a list of

specific themes was used to direct the interviews (Bryman & Bell, 2017; Saunders et al.,

2012). Three different interview guides were created as data collection instruments (see

appendix 1, 2, and 3) with the purpose of attaining better answers and insights on the

consumers thoughts based on Keller’s (2001) CBBE model. Separate interview guides

were made for the skin care consumers, the brand manager, and the salespeople. To

avoid narrow range of information from respondents, most questions were open-minded

and less specific (Keller, 2008; Bryman & Bell, 2017). However, a few questions were

more specific and closed to gain more precise information that confirmed facts or

opinions made by the respondents (Saunders et al., 2012). Potential follow-up questions

were asked to allow consumers to further explain their reasoning (Bryman & Bell,

2017). The interview guides corresponded to the themes underpinning the study

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(Lochrie, Curran & O’Gorman, 2015) to ensure relevant information was collected and

to help identify relationships between the interviews (Saunders et al., 2012).

Consumer Interview Guide

The first interview guide was created to understand the consumer behavior of skin care

consumers. To help the respondents have the right mindset during the interview, they

were all given a free association task (see Appendix 1), in which they were asked what

comes to mind when they think of specific skin care brands (Keller, 2008). This method

allowed respondents to freely express themselves while helping the study identify

sources of brand equity regarding for instance, brand awareness and attitudes.

Respondents were shown four images of different skin care brands of which two of the

brands were green and the other two were non-green. The brands were purposively

chosen on the premise that they were either green, well-known, or considered both

genders. There were noticeable differences between the brands to make it easier for the

consumers to identify which were green and which were not. For example, the green

brands had claims such as natural, organic and vegan. The free association tasks

provided an indication of the relative strength, favorability and uniqueness of brand

associations (Keller, 2008). The task also aimed to see if green branding affected how

consumers perceived skin care products.

The second part of the interview consisted of six different concepts of Keller’s

customer-based brand equity model. The first concept that consumers were asked about

was salience and brand identity to understand how deep and broad their brand

awareness was towards the brands they used and towards green skin care brands.

Respondents were then asked about the performance of the brands they use and how

they perceive the performance of green skin care brands. The following questions were

about imagery and allowed consumers to answer questions about skin care consumer

profiles, purchase and usage situations, personality and experiences. The next building

block in the interview guide was built on judgments, and respondents were asked about

quality, credibility, consideration, and superiority. Following this, the next set of

questions were about feelings consumers felt towards the brands they used. Lastly,

questions were asked about the last building block, resonance, in which the questions

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were about loyalty, attachment, community, and engagement. Each block consisted of

questions regarding the skin care brands the respondents used and questions about the

respondents’ perception of green skin care brands. In order not to prime the

respondents, questions regarding green brands were not asked immediately, if the

consumer did not mention green brands, then questions related to such aspects were

asked.

Brand Manager Interview Guide

The second interview guide, created for the brand manager, framed questions that would

help understand green consumers from a branding perspective (see appendix 2). The

interview guide was intended to allow the brand manager to share her experiences

within green branding and the skin care market. The first set of questions allowed her to

explain her experiences within green branding and branding in general. The next set of

questions prompted the respondent to explain how to build a strong brand and included

some of Keller’s (2001) subdimensions of brand building blocks. Questions about green

consumers were also asked with a focus on understanding how they differ from non-

green consumers and understanding their intentions when purchasing green skin care.

To conclude, specific questions regarding the respondent’s role in the company were

asked.

Salespeople Interview Guide

A third interview guide was made for the salespeople (see appendix 3) working in skin

care stores. The questions were based on their everyday encounters and observations

with skin care consumers. The questions sought to develop an understanding of typical

questions salespeople receive about skin care products. The respondents were asked

what type of skin care products consumers ask for and what their concerns are. The

following questions were about green skin care brands and the increase of green

consumerism, and if the salespeople had made any observations regarding this. The

questions attempted to understand how prominent the green trend has become by asking

questions related to whether certifications are important to these consumers and whether

the perception of green brands differed between men and women.

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3.3.4 Conducting the Interviews

Due to the outbreak of Covid-19, interviews with the brand manager and consumers

were conducted through video call on Skype or Facetime. This was a limitation during

the free association task, as respondents were not given the opportunity to have the

products in front of them, instead they were sent images to study from a screen. Having

the products in front of them could have affected how the brands were perceived. In

addition, respondents were provided with information about the study to establish

credibility and to allow them to withdraw their participation if they wished (Saunders

et.al. 2012). Furthermore, all respondents, including the salespeople were assured

anonymity. Respondents also agreed to being contacted again if any unclarities or

further questions were to arise.

The brand manager was provided with a clear explanation of the purpose of the research

and what type of information was sought before the interview. The interview guide was

sent to the brand manager three days before the interview to provide the opportunity for

her to look through the questions and prepare, which could strengthen the credibility,

validity, and reliability (Saunders et al., 2012). For the interviews with the consumers,

the interview guide was not sent to them in order to avoid priming their answers. They

only received information that they were to be asked questions about their preferences

and attitudes towards skin care brands. Notes were taken during the interviews with the

brand manager and the consumers, to write down follow-up questions and interesting

remarks. The interviews were recorded upon consent and lasted between 35-52 minutes.

They were then transcribed shortly after to avoid creating a pile of recordings to

transcribe (Saunders et al., 2012), as well as having the interview fresh in memory to

minimize misinterpretations.

Salespeople were interviewed face-to-face and each interview lasted about 5 minutes.

Since the salespeople were interviewed at work, peak hours were avoided to ensure that

the respondents had time to answer the questions in a calm environment. However, a

limitation was that respondents might have felt stressed answering questions in a work

setting. Their answers were not recorded as they were not aware that they would be

interviewed prior to our visit and did therefore not have time to reflect if they would like

27

to be recorded. Moreover, the audio-recorder could risk that the respondents felt

uncomfortable and this could affect their answers (Bryman & Bell, 2017). Therefore,

notes were taken during and after the interview as the probability of acquiring important

information was still high (Bryman & Bell, 2017). To increase the reliability, the

interviews were spaced apart from each other to allow time for immediate notes to be

taken after each interview. The interviews were conducted by both researchers, one

asked questions and the other took notes. After the interview was conducted, the notes

were rewritten into coherent sentences. Three different stores were visited to ensure that

the sampling of salespeople allowed for greater variety. The interviews took place in

Åhléns, a large department store in Stockholm and in two Kicks stores, a cosmetic store

chain also situated in Stockholm.

3.4 Operationalization The purpose of the operationalization was to divide the research question into

objectives, to show which steps were taken to answer the research question (Saunders et

al., 2012). It aims to clarify how the study intended to measure concepts that were

investigated (Bryman & Bell, 2017). Keller’s (2001) customer-based brand equity

model was broken down into four concepts to measure the different brand building

blocks: salience, performance, imagery, judgments, feelings, and resonance. These

concepts were then used to develop questions based on the theoretical framework in

order to collect relevant information through semi-structured interviews. Since the

thesis aims to test the CBBE model in the context of skin care, the questions were

inspired by Keller’s (2001) candidate measures of the brand building blocks. However,

the questions were adjusted and formed to help gather relevant information specific to

the research question. Table 3 illustrates the operationalization of theoretical

framework.

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Table 3. Operationalization of theoretical framework.

CBBE Concept (Keller, 2001) Examples of Questions

Brand Salience Salience is connected to customer awareness of a brand, for instance how often and easy is the brand brought to mind in different situations and circumstances.

● Consumer interview guide:

What brands within skin care can you think of?

● Brand manager interview guide:

In your opinion, how can consumers become more aware of the brands that they purchase?

Brand Performance Brand performance explains how the product tries to satisfy the functional needs of a consumer.


Why do you buy the skin care products that you use?


How do consumers perceive brands differently based on whether they are green on non-green brands?

Brand Imagery Brand imagery is connected to intangible parts of the brand, the consumers’ abstract thoughts.


What does the ideal or typical consumer of the brands you use, look like?


What is a green consumer according to you? Have you noticed any particular behavior when it comes to green consumers?

Brand Judgments Brand judgments focuses on consumers’ individual evaluations and opinions towards the brand. It includes how the consumer gathers different performance and imagery associations for the brand and creates various opinions.


How likely would you be to recommend your skin care brands to others?


Do you think there is a difference in how consumers perceive the quality of green brands compared to their non-green alternatives?

Brand Feelings Brand feelings are the emotional responses and reactions that consumers have towards a brand.


Which of these feelings - warmth, fun, excitement, security, social approval and self-respect, do the brands you use make you feel?


How do consumers perceive brands differently based on whether they are green or non-green brands?

Brand Resonance Brand resonance is defined in terms of intense psychological bonds that consumers have with a brand as well as the level of activity generated by this loyalty.


Do you identify yourself with people who use the brand?


Would you say that the level of engagement differs with consumers who are from green communities?

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3.5 Data Analysis Once all the interviews were transcribed, the material was thoroughly read in order to

expose patterns. Different aspects were identified and structured according to what the

respondents valued in both their own and green skin care brands. The data was coded

thereafter. Hence, thematic analysis was used, which can be described as the process of

identifying themes from the data collection by searching for similarities and differences

that arise (Bryman & Bell, 2017). This approach was beneficial as directly connecting

the respondents’ answers to Keller’s brand building blocks posed some difficulties, as

some answers were not solely specific to one block; they could relate to several blocks.

Hence, the following themes were established; green associations, feelings towards skin

care brands, performance and quality, credibility, community and engagement, and

loyalty towards brands. These aspects are similar to those included in the CBBE

pyramid but helped connecting the empirical data to the theoretical framework more

clearly. The following quote illustrates the coding process for the credibility aspect:

“(...) their products are everywhere as well, Rusta, ICA and so on, then it feels like they

aren’t as good(...) It feels like products that are sold at Rusta aren’t as credible.”

(Respondent 12). The quote has been coded as the aspect of credibility since it is a

statement about how the respondent regards credibility in relation to the place of

purchase.

Moreover, the aspects mentioned above laid the foundation for the empirical findings.

After the empirical data was presented, the aspects in the empirical data were compared

to the theoretical framework and were analyzed using the appropriate brand block of

Keller’s (2001) CBBE model. For instance, if a respondent talked about a brand’s

credibility, it would be analyzed using the Consumer Judgments block since credibility

is a subdimension of this block. When analyzing the data, a new CBBE model was

developed based on the findings. The model consisted of the most important aspects for

building strong green skin care brands whilst indicating which aspects respondents felt

needed to be improved.

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4 Empirical Findings

This chapter presents the empirical findings obtained from the interviews. The findings

were based on the respondent’s preferences and attitudes towards green and non-green

skin care brands. Their answers generated six central aspects; green associations,

feelings towards skin care brands, performance and quality, credibility, community and

engagement, and loyalty towards brands. To conclude, the chapter presents a summary

of the findings.

4.1 Green Associations

4.1.1 Green Brand Associations

The majority of the respondents had heard of green skin care brands prior to the

interview. However, they struggled to come up with any names of such brands during

the interviews. Respondent 6 provided an opinion that eight of the respondents shared

when asked to think of any green brands: “I know that they exist, but I can’t think of any

specific brands at the moment.” Moreover, all thirteen respondents mentioned that

positive associations arise when they think of green skin care. They liked that green

brands offer alternative products for those interested in more eco-friendly brands. Most

respondents claimed that green brands were more beneficial for both the environment

and the skin, compared to non-green brands, as they are gentler and more natural.

Respondent 13 explained that green products are produced in ways, which minimize

harm to the environment as the production aims to decrease waste. Respondent 9 shared

this opinion: “Green brands check that products are produced organically and in an

eco-friendly way, that the factory conditions are good and that the ingredients are

organic and perhaps locally produced.”

Respondents also had positive associations towards skin care with natural ingredients. A

few respondents perceived natural products as skin care with less chemicals, less acids

and no parabens. Two respondents argued that they have a preconception that natural

products are not as effective since, unlike their competitors, they do not contain as

potent and active ingredients. Moreover, several respondents felt they needed proof and

supported claims that green products are better for the environment than non-green

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brands. This was also discussed with the brand manager, who with several years of

green branding experience, concluded that clear communication is important in guiding

and helping consumers.

“One (marketers) shouldn’t be afraid to use science in their marketing, as this is

something that usually works very well. So be as clear as possible, don’t throw

out a bunch of claims that you are green and so forth if you don’t have any

evidence…(...). So, my recommendation is definitely to be as clear as possible

and to not confuse the consumer.” (Brand Manager)

Despite that respondents had positive associations towards green and natural skin care,

their answers did illustrate that there was a slight confusion about the definitions of

these terms, even though they were explained in the beginning of the interview. This

was also mentioned by one of the salespeople who argued that customers struggle to

understand the differences between natural products and eco-friendly products.

According to her, customers struggle to understand that products that contain natural

minerals are not necessarily eco-friendly. One respondent mentioned that it is difficult

to make associations when one does not know what ingredients are inside a green

product. Moreover, the brand manager explained that organic, eco-friendly, and locally

produced products are still a relatively new phenomenon within the skin care industry.

When people think of green in terms of food, they associate it with being organic and

locally produced, but in terms of skin care, there is no strict definition of what a green

product is. She mentioned that products could sufficiently be perceived as green if they

have a certification or contain natural ingredients. In addition, she stated that consumers

are confused about which brands are green and which are not.

4.1.2 Green Consumer Associations

A majority of the respondents perceived green consumers to be environmentally

conscious. They mentioned that green consumers often make green choices in other

aspects of their lives that are not related to skin care. Two respondents explained that

green consumers are often more knowledgeable about the benefits of making greener

32

choices. While respondents 3 and 6 argued that consumers make green choices because

they feel better knowing that they are helping the environment. Some believed that

typical green skin care consumers were between 20 to 30 years of age and were mostly

women who could afford products that are more expensive. Other respondents

visualized the consumers to be middle-aged women as they were more likely to afford

such products and four respondents associated green brands with vegan consumers. A

few respondents also mentioned that green consumers are careful with the type of

products they use on their skin, and therefore choose green brands, as they are gentler.

4.2 Feelings towards Skin Care Brands The respondents were asked to explain the feelings they felt towards both their own skin

care brands as well as their green counterparts to identify potential differences. They

were asked if they felt any of the following: warmth, fun, excitement, security, social

approval, and self-respect in relation to the brands. Even if many had not tried green

products, they reflected hypothetically about what feelings would arise when using

green skin care. More respondents were in favor of their own brands as an additional

four respondents expressed a sense of security towards their own brands than what they

did towards green ones. The respondents mentioned that they felt safe knowing the

performance of their brands and that they felt comfortable knowing they did not need to

look for alternatives. A respondent who uses green brands mentioned that she felt safe

using her brand, as she was well informed about it. Respondent 13 mentioned that the

simple design of his products made him feel safe since there is no unnecessary text or

hidden agenda on the products. Moreover, he added, “I feel safe knowing that green

brands are made of natural ingredients, and that brands write what the products

contain because then they most likely don’t have anything to hide. It feels safe when

they are transparent.”

For green brands, a sense of social approval was the most prominent feeling. According

to the respondents, the environmentally friendly trend has made it more socially

accepted to use green brands. A respondent who uses green skin care felt that it was

socially approved by her friends to use vegan products. However, many respondents

also felt social approval towards their own brands. They explained that the level of

33

social approval increases when many other consumers use the same products. Two

respondents felt that it is socially accepted to have healthy skin as this is approved by

society. Furthermore, seven respondents felt a sense of security towards green brands as

they felt they are transparent about the content of their products and that they are good

for society and the environment. The brand manager also stated that green consumers

want products that provide them with a feeling of safety. If a product is certified or

natural, consumers believe they are good for the environment and for themselves, rather

than causing harm to the skin or environment. She also stated that companies who

inform consumers about their ingredients increase their credibility and establish a

stronger relationship with consumers.

Five respondents mentioned that feelings of self-respect would augment if they were to

use green skin care as they would be contributing to something positive. One respondent

mentioned feelings of fun and warmth as he enjoyed making an environmental

difference. Another one expressed that it would be exciting to try green skin care to find

out how well they perform. Moreover, four respondents used brands that made them

feel self-respected as well, which was explained by respondent 3: “(...) I use things

which are good for me, I feel that I am taking care of my body, my skin, my hands

during winter.” Another respondent felt self-respect since he purchases products from

companies he respects and that are socially accepted. Only one respondent felt that it

was fun and exciting to use their skin care brands. She mentioned that she has recently

started using a new brand and that it made her excited to see the results on her face.

4.3 Performance and Quality

4.3.1 Consumers Perception of Own vs. Green Brands

When respondents were asked why they purchase their specific skin care brands, price

and quality were some recurring answers. Respondents wanted products that satisfied

their needs, for instance, moisturizing the skin, providing a gentle formula for sensitive

skin, being fragrance-free, or containing anti-wrinkling properties. Many of the

respondents looked at the quality of the products in relation to its price. Respondent 2

mentioned that her products were cheap and did what they promised, which meant that

34

she did not have to purchase other products. Another respondent mentioned that she

liked her brands since they helped with her skin issues and she therefore felt a strong

attachment to it. Furthermore, three respondents expressed that their products lacked

something. Respondent 11 stated that she would switch brands if she found a product

that delivered a “wow experience,” left her face moisturized, not shiny, and that suited

nicely underneath her make-up. Respondent 10 also lacked the “wow- feeling” and

wished her products contained sun protection factor. Moreover, respondent 1 stated she

occasionally switches brands because she experienced that her products work well at

first, only to decline in performance over time.

When it came to green brands, there were mixed opinions on whether they could

perform as well as non-green alternatives. Respondent 2 felt that the skin sometimes

needs stronger chemicals and ingredients. Respondent 1, who uses a green brand, and

respondent 3 who has tried green products, compared their performance to veganism

and vegetarianism.

“I think you associate (green brands) with being vegan or vegetarian, you think

that the food is not as good or tasty, or at least I still feel that way with skin

care, that they are not as good as the other products, you would prefer having

stronger products and then you believe that the other part of the market (green

segment) can’t deliver that in the same way.” (Respondent 1)

Many respondents were hesitant to switch to green brands due to the doubtful

perception of their performance and their higher price. Many stated that they needed to

be assured that green brands function just as well since it would then be easier to switch,

as far as it was not too expensive. However, the environmental aspect made respondents

more willing to switch to green brands. Respondent 4 explained that she uses her green

brand because it is natural, suits her face, and she knows that the quality of the brand is

good since they carefully select their resellers. In addition, she liked that the brand is

good for her and the environment. She and two additional respondents believed that the

performance of green brands was equal to non-green brands. Respondent 11 mentioned

this was because they contained less chemicals and fragrances. Respondent 4 added that

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cheaper green brands are usually not as strong so one needs to use more of the product.

However, she mentioned that consumers need to find the right brand and that the

performance is not necessarily worse since the ingredients are better for the skin. Few

respondents felt that green brands were more unique than non-green alternatives due to

its growing trend. Others argued that they are unique since they are as still a minority on

the market, they contain natural ingredients, and they have a better purpose and

production.

4.3.2 Importance of Price and Design

Price was a barrier for some respondents, most of whom were students and felt that they

lacked the economy to buy green skin care brands. Although, they stated that they

would be willing to do so when they start working. However, there was no evidence

indicating that the respondents with a higher income purchased more green brands than

the students. Four respondents were currently using green brands, two students, one

employee, and an additional student with a part-time job. Some respondents did not

want skin care brands that were too cheap since they believed they lacked in quality.

One respondent argued that it was worth using products that are more expensive since

they helped with her skin problems. In terms of the price barrier, the brand manager

drew a parallel between skin care and the food industry. She explained that organic food

was more expensive at first, but over time, prices started to even out. She believed the

same trend will happen with skin care as brands are starting to provide high quality

green products to the same price as other brands.

The majority of the respondents did not prioritize the design of the products when

purchasing skin care. However, three of the female respondents reasoned differently.

Respondent 7 said if she was in a store and had to choose between five different brands,

all promising to fulfill her needs, she would evaluate them based on price and

packaging. A feminine design consisting of neutral colors would positively affect her

choice. Respondent 10 said that design and packaging are the first impressions, but the

ultimate decision would be determined by the price. When respondent 12 explained how

her brands differed from its competitors, she stated that their design and marketing were

more innovative and had a more exciting appearance.

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4.4 Credibility

4.4.1 Trust Towards Skin Care Brands

The majority of the respondents trust the skin care brands they use. Many of them used

established brands as they were regarded to be more trustworthy. Nivea was a brand that

four respondents used and since the brand is well-known, the respondents had a high

level of trust towards it, respondent 1 mentioned:“(...) one has heard of it one’s entire

life so it is easy to rely on these products and know that they have good things in them,

even if I haven’t done much research about it, I believe that they’re good.” Another

respondent mentioned that it is easier to use a brand such as Nivea if you have grown up

with the brand. Moreover, one respondent trusted Nivea since he had personal

connections with the company. He argued that this allowed him to have a face behind

the brand and he could associate it to something positive, which increased the brand’s

credibility.

Respondents also mentioned that they trusted their brands because they provided their

skin with good results, which led the respondents to continue purchasing the products.

One respondent trusted his brand since it had its roots in pharmacy, which made him

feel that there was more research and testing in the development process. Respondent 12

stated that she trusts her brand since they specify the ingredients on the products and

since the founder of the brand looks very young. Respondent 4 expressed that she trusts

her brand since they have carefully chosen their resellers and provided them with expert

training: “when you visit their website and buy their products, you receive a brochure

where you read about the ingredients, how the products are made and so forth, they are

very transparent.” However, three of the respondents did not trust their brands. One

claimed that it is difficult to trust skin care brands since they all promise a majority of

things and she is uncertain that they differ in performance. The other two respondents

mentioned that it is difficult to trust their brands when they have not done any research,

as respondent 2 mentioned: “I have never researched or looked into it. Probably if I do,

then I won't be very happy with maybe the production process or the ingredients in the

products.”

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When trust was discussed in relation to green brands, four respondents believed green

brands were more credible than their non-green competitors. They stated that green

brands need to meet certain requirements, such as containing natural ingredients, not

tested on animals, and being vegan, since it increases their credibility. Respondents

perceived the use of certifications on skin care to be positive. However, only respondent

4 found it to be crucial when purchasing skin care as she only uses products that are 100

percent vegan. Three respondents did not find certifications to be important for

themselves but argued that it is good for those who are interested, as it would increase

brand credibility. Respondents also mentioned that it felt better knowing that products

were locally produced since it would decrease the transportation distance and it felt

safer knowing where the products were made.

However, most respondents did not consider the origin of the products, the ingredients,

the production, or transportation process to be important. They argued that this was due

to lack of interest and knowledge. However, respondent 13 mentioned that it felt better

knowing that authorities have regulated and approved green brands. He mentioned it

would be difficult to trust a brand that did not have any environmental claims on their

products. However, seven respondents felt that green brands were not more credible

than their competitors, but that they were more unique in how they chose to market their

products in terms of claims and packaging. Respondent 8 reasoned that it was more

difficult to trust a green brand since they are not as common: “if I had seen a brand

which I recognized and which isn’t natural, and if I had seen a brand that is natural and

green next to it, I would have chosen the one I recognized since I know what to expect.”

The brand manager explained that when she works with green branding, she ensures

that the products keep their promises and that they are conveyed in a correct manner,

which is not too controversial. Respondent 6 argued that green brands are not

necessarily better than their non-green competitors since they both can have sustainable

production processes. This was further elaborated by respondent 4: “brands that are

transparent in explaining their production process are more credible whether they are

green or not.” Respondent 3 also struggled to tell if green brands are more credible

since he believes credibility is built on how well brands perform.

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4.4.2 Importance of Place of Purchase

A majority of the respondents felt that place of purchase affected brand credibility. Two

respondents mentioned that they are less likely to purchase skin care from grocery

stores such as ICA, Willys and Coop. According to them, products at such stores are

cheaper, which makes them less trustworthy. Respondent 11 mentioned: “I am being

prejudiced but it feels like, we know how their (grocery stores) other stuff are, if you buy

Garant meat you know you will get lower quality. That’s their thing; slightly lower

quality to a much better price. I think it is the same with skin care.” However,

respondents who purchased their skin care products from pharmacies made positive

connotations. Six respondents felt more trust towards brands sold at pharmacies and

respondent 2 felt that it was safer to purchase stronger skin care products from such

places. The respondents felt that products sold at pharmacies are more regulated.

Another respondent preferred to buy his products from Kicks since he felt that their

salespeople are good at recommending products based on his needs. However, two of

the salespeople mentioned that it is difficult to recommend green products when

customers ask for products that have more powerful and active ingredients since

customers are convinced that natural ingredients do not have those properties.

4.4.3 Building Credibility in Green Brands

Some respondents mentioned how brands can improve their marketing in hopes of

making them stronger and more credible. Respondent 2 stated that green brands would

be more credible if they were recommended by dermatologists who claim that the

products are not only better for the environment, but also for the skin. The brand

manager explained that it is pivotal that marketing is based on truthful claims to reduce

misinterpretations from consumers. According to her, having a long-term approach,

being honest and transparent are important aspects in marketing. If there is something,

which is not good with a product, it is better to openly state so in a funny, yet honest

manner. She added that consumers need to be guaranteed that brands keep their

promises; otherwise, they will not last on the market.

A majority of the respondents explained that they are using their current brands due to

recommendations from friends, families, influencers, dermatologists, salespeople, or

39

blogs. Three respondents said that they sometimes read product reviews to help their

purchasing decision. For some, recommendations were a way of avoiding doing

research on their own. Ten respondents could recommend their skin care brands to

others, because the products either performed well or were priceworthy. Only three

respondents stated they would not recommend their products since they did not provide

significant results.

Respondent 3 liked that his brand often handed out samples when purchasing their

products. He and another respondent believed this could help green brands become

more credible as consumers are able to test the products. Two respondents

recommended that green brands should market themselves towards a younger target

group, for instance, respondent 7 mentioned that she found her brand through

influencers. Respondent 1 believed that social media and collaborations with influencers

are vital to increase engagement within the green market. Respondent 11 mentioned that

she would like to see more advertisements of green brands. Moreover, respondents

mentioned that they were more likely to try a green skin care brand if someone they

knew and trusted or someone with a similar skin condition recommended them.

4.4 Community and Engagement Respondents were asked if they could identify with consumers using their own brands

and with consumers using green brands. Respondent 1 could identify with users of her

brand:

“(...) for example Therese Lindgren’s brand, you buy it because you are part of

that group in a way. I would not go and buy an anti-wrinkle cream from Nivea

for instance or another brand that only market themselves towards older women.

I tend to buy what I believe belongs to my age group.”

When describing the typical consumer of their brands, six respondents agreed that their

descriptions correlated to how they perceived themselves. For example, respondent 5

described the typical consumer as a young woman between 20 to 30 years of age with

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an average income. Respondent 6 stated that she found her skin care brand through a

blogger she follows and identifies herself with since she respects her values.

Respondent 13 said he could relate to those using his brand as he felt he was part of the

brands target group, consumers who have a minor interest in skin care and prefer

affordable products. Two of the respondents felt that they could identify with other

users since they had friends and family who used the same brands. However, many

respondents could not identify themselves with other users. Respondent 3 used a brand

that was not targeted towards him but due to his product preferences, he did not mind

that he was not the idealized user profile. Similarly, respondent 4, who uses green

brands, could not identify herself with other green consumers as they could be more

extreme, but she was proud of being a green consumer. Respondent 9 and 11, who used

popular skin brands, claimed they could not identify themselves with such large groups

of consumers.

Respondents were also asked if they believed they could identify with consumers within

a green community. Four of them, 5, 6, 7, and 13 could identify themselves with green

consumers since they cared for the environment and thought consumers using green

brands did so to. Respondent 13 argued that his generation was taught to live more

sustainably and to take care of the environment. Respondent 7 felt that she had a green

lifestyle since she practiced yoga and was a vegetarian. Respondent 6 could identify

with green consumers, as she believed that green products are smart, and she was

impressed with consumers who used green products. Nevertheless, respondent 2 could

not identify herself with consumers of the green community, as she does not use such

products. She argued that green consumers do more research, try to avoid chemicals,

and try to be sustainable. She added that she is in favor of this in other aspects of her

life, but not when it comes to skin care.

4.5 Loyalty Towards Brands Ten respondents were happy with their skin care brands but this did not guarantee their

loyalty towards them. Five of the satisfied respondents could consider changing brands

if they found better products, as respondent 11 stated: “I always buy the same products,

time after time, but if I were to find something which works better, I would immediately

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change.” A few respondents were completely satisfied and loyal, as they could not

consider changing brands. Two respondents only used one brand since they were

satisfied with the results and they liked that their brands offered different skin product

lines. Some mentioned that they did not have the time or energy to research new

products and therefore chose to stay loyal to their brands. One respondent claimed to

use the same brand since he is lazy and not because he is loyal. Respondent 5 had tried

to change brands a few times but always returned to Neutrogena: “They offer and do

what I want, and it works well. I have tested many and always return to what my skin is

used to since I have realized that it provides the best results.” Four respondents

purchased different brands each time they bought skin care, for instance, respondent 1

mentioned that her face tolerates most products, which meant that she did not reflect

much about her purchases. Table 4 below summarizes the empirical findings.

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Table 4. Summary of the empirical findings. Important aspects mentioned Representative extract Green associations Green brand associations Green consumer associations

Positive, good for environment, gentle, natural, less chemicals, not as effective, less powerful ingredients, confusion Environmentally conscious, knowledgeable, mostly women, can afford expensive products

“I know they exist, but I can’t think of any specific brands at the moment” “Green consumers often make green choices in other aspects of their lives”

Feelings towards skin care brands

Green

Own

Social approval most prominent, transparency increased sense of security Mostly felt security, social approval and self-respect

“The environmentally friendly trend has made it more socially accepted to use green brands” “They felt safe knowing the performance of their brands”

Performance and quality Consumer perception

Green

Own

Importance of price and design

Mixed feelings in performance, expensive, poorer quality Satisfy needs, quality in relation to price, lack something Price barrier towards green, cheap brands have poor quality, design is not prioritized but could be a determining factor

“They needed to be assured that green brands function just as well” “She would switch brands if she found a product that delivered a wow experience” “Price was a barrier for some respondents, most of whom were students”

Credibility Trust towards skin care

Green

Own

Importance of place of purchase

More credible, meet requirements, locally produced, better regulated Trustworthy, established brands, good results, uncertainty if performance differs across brands, lack of research Place affects credibility, grocery stores have a poorer quality, pharmacy positively impact credibility

“Perceived the use of certifications on skin care to be positive” “One has heard of it one’s entire life, so it is easy to rely on these products” “Products at such stores are cheaper which makes them less trustworthy”

Building credibility in green brands

Recommended by others, product reviews, truthful claims, transparency, free samples, advertisements

“A majority of the respondents explained that they are using their current brands due to recommendations”

Community and engagement

Green

Own

Only some could identify, care for environment, sustainable generation, difficult to identify when not using green brands Correlated to how they perceive themselves, only some could identify, difficult to identify with large groups

“Could identify with green consumers since they cared for the environment” “Six respondents agreed that their descriptions correlated to how they perceived themselves”

Loyalty towards brands

Switch if found better brands, some completely satisfied, convenience, purchased different brands each time, laziness

“Respondents were happy with their skin care brands but this did not guarantee their loyalty towards them”

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5 Analysis This chapter analyzes the empirical findings through the application of Keller’s CBBE

model. Each step of the pyramid will be discussed by analyzing the six brand-building

blocks in this particular order: brand salience, brand performance, brand imagery, brand

judgments, brand feelings and finally, brand resonance. The analysis aims to see how

the model can be applied to green skin care brands in hopes of reaching the top of the

pyramid.

5.1 Brand Identity - Salience Overall, the strength of green skin care associations was high, but specific brand

associations were low, which is problematic since according to Keller (2001), brand

awareness is a prerequisite to building strong brands. The findings indicate that green

skin care brands are not easily brought to mind for consumers. However, the majority of

respondents had heard of green skin care brands and had positive associations towards

them.

Respondents struggling to recall green skin care brands can lead to a lack of brand

salience (Keller, 2001, 2009) for the green skin care segment. This is related to the two

dimensions of brand awareness, depth, and breadth (Keller, 2001). The findings showed

a lack of breadth since consumers rarely thought of green skin care brands when

shopping. This can be argued to be a consequence of lack of awareness; moreover,

many respondents felt that green brands were not visible in stores, which is a barrier for

the breadth dimension. This indicates that some consumers do not have green skin care

brands in their consideration set when purchasing skin care. Respondents had a low

consideration set towards green brands since they preferred to repurchase their usual

brands, as they knew how well they performed. Green brands were often not thought of

in usage situations, as respondents did not think of them when shopping. Keller (2001)

describes this as a problem since it means that brands are forgotten about in certain

usage situations. However, most respondents were aware of the specific needs green

brands want to satisfy, such as offering products that are eco-friendly. Keller (2001)

argues that this awareness is important since it helps customers know which needs the

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brands aim to satisfy and allows them to know the product category brands are

competing in.

Overall, respondents had a low involvement with the green skin care category.

However, a few respondents also had low involvement towards their own skin brands,

but the brand salience of these brands managed to be high. According to Keller (2001),

consumers that have a low involvement with a product category may be greatly affected

by brand salience when making their choice. Nivea was an example of this, respondents

made the choice to use the brand since it was easily recalled and a market leader and not

because they had a high skin care involvement. Hence, the findings are in line with

Keller’s model that brand salience is an important first step for brand equity. This is

evident as respondents’ associations and awareness of green brands were significantly

weaker compared to other brands in the skin care segment. This also illustrates that the

overall utility the consumers created towards their own brands was higher compared to

green skin care brands (Boo, Busser & Baloglu, 2009).

5.2 Brand Meaning – Brand Performance and Brand Imagery

5.2.1 Brand Performance

From the collected data, it was clear that a primary need of skin care brands, whether

they are green or not, is that they satisfy the user’s functional needs. Moreover, the

findings indicated that direct and indirect associations towards green skin care brands

were less prominent than their competitors. Respondents had a low level of direct

associations with green skin care brands, however, they regarded indirect interactions

such as recommendations to be crucial when choosing brands. Indirect associations can

therefore be vital for strengthening associations towards green skin care brands. Thus,

the growing trend of green brands and the level of social approval connected to green

products, allow more opportunities for brand managers to increase their word-of-mouth

and strengthen their brand awareness.

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The environmental aspects of green brands and how gentle the products are towards the

skin, were regarded positively. These green features can be described as unique and

secondary features (Keller, 2001) that complement the primary characteristics. The

unique features also contributed to negative responses as respondents felt that this

related to lower performance of primary functions. Respondents felt that they had to

make a sacrifice when choosing green skin care as they believed that they needed to

choose between a brand that performs well or one that has pro-environmental attributes.

According to the findings, there was no in-between. This perception can be linked

Leone’s et al. (2006) statement that brand equity is dependent on what consumers have

previously experienced with a brand, as many respondents chose not to buy these based

on what they had heard, experienced, and felt in terms of their performance. However, a

more extreme green consumer might not perceive this as a problem as they would

perhaps focus on the green attributes rather than the level of performance. Regardless,

this poses a problem of how green skin care brands are perceived in terms of

performance.

The findings cohere to Keller’s (2001) second element of product reliability, durability,

and serviceability, in terms of what the respondents wanted from their products.

Respondents argued that reliability was important in the sense that they wanted products

of high quality and high product longevity. Lack of reliability made the respondents

switch brands and therefore negatively impacted loyalty. This poses an issue for how

green brands can compete with non-green brands in these aspects since they contain

natural ingredients, which are often less durable than the ingredients in non-green

brands. Serviceability was not an important aspect within skin care in terms of this

study, as none of the respondents discussed it. Third, is the element of service

effectiveness, efficiency, and empathy. The findings supported Keller’s (2001) model as

consumers trust recommendations from dermatologists and salespeople when buying

skin care. These types of indirect interactions seemed to positively impact consumer’s

perception of the brand. Associating the brands with good service and expertise often

lead to repeated purchases.

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When building a strong skin care brand, the findings indicated that product design was

not a crucial aspect. However, respondents drew connections between design and

performance and felt that first impressions of the packaging, could lead to purchase of

the products if it shared other attributes with competitors, for instance ingredients or

function. Moreover, based on their thoughts from the free association task (see appendix

4), many respondents unconsciously commented on the performance when looking at

the design. On picture 3, respondents mentioned that the brand had nice colors and that

the design felt more credible and serious. Despite that they had not seen this brand

previously, they perceived it to perform well by looking at the packages. Design can

therefore affect a consumer’s purchase decision and the findings suggest that green skin

care brands could benefit from using natural colors and having a more serious and

professional look to attract consumers and to convey their “greenness.”

The last performance element, price, illustrated a fine line between negative and

positive associations. Cheap brands were perceived to lack in quality. On the other

hand, the perception that green brands were more expensive created a barrier for most

respondents to purchase such brands. This could depend on who the consumer is, as the

respondents of this study were between 20-30 years old and many were students. Price

could therefore be a stronger determining factor for the respondents than for an

individual with a different financial situation. The findings indicated that respondents

still studying expressed wishes to buy green brands, but chose not to, due to their

perception of it being expensive. Moreover, many of the respondents with a higher

income still purchased non-green alternatives or their usual brands. This indicates that

the price aspect of green brands is a barrier for consumers, regardless of their

purchasing power. This also suggests that price is a crucial element for the performance

block of green skin care brands.

Furthermore, the data illustrated that brands were often valued in terms of their price in

relation to its quality. In Keller’s (2001) pyramid, these two aspects are divided into

different blocks. However, the findings suggest that price and quality could be placed in

47

relation to each other and therefore be included in the same block. Although, as quality

is still mainly related to what respondents think and feel about a brand, it is better suited

in the consumer judgment block. The findings also confirmed that price is heavily

connected to the performance block as respondents had several associations towards

brands in relation to price.

5.2.2 Brand Imagery

An element of brand imagery is user profiles, (Keller, 2001). Respondents felt

positively towards green brands and their users and found it easier to have a mental

image of green consumers than of non-green consumers. This could be due to green

consumers making up a smaller segment of the skin care market and that they might

purchase green products in other categories as well. Regardless, this makes it easier for

green brands to develop their user profile associations since they already have an

established foundation. Moreover, many of the respondents were, in some respects,

describing themselves when illustrating the ideal green user profile, as the respondents

were within the age group mentioned, and they were educated as they either had a

university degree or they were currently studying at university. Green brands should be

aware of this and focus on targeting this specific age group by ensuring consumers that

their brands meet their psychological and social needs, which, according to Keller

(2001), increases brand meaning. The findings show that there are associations of

purchase and usage situations (Keller, 2001) based on where the product is bought, and

it can be of significant importance since brands sold at grocery stores are associated

with negative performance and quality. The data indicated that the place of purchase is

perhaps the most important aspect of brand imagery for skin care brands, as it can

determine whether a product is bought or not.

The element of brand personality was visible in the study. Most respondents described

their brands in a manner that matched Keller’s (2001) brand personality dimension of

“competence.” The importance of reliability in skin care brands was prominent as

respondents wanted products that satisfied their needs and that felt good on their skin.

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Furthermore, in the free association tasks, respondents mentioned words such as boring

and standardized when describing the well-known brand Nivea. These negative

descriptions are the opposite of the brand personality of “excitement” and negatively

affected how respondents perceived the performance of the brand. Nevertheless, the

findings indicated that reliability was important for skin care and that sincerity is the

personality trait that green skin care brands should aim for, since claiming that your

brand is green is not enough. These claims need to be supported by truthful facts, which

both the brand manager and the respondents raised.

Keller’s (2001) elements of history and heritage were not important aspects since most

respondents did not value the origin of the brand nor were they interested to read about

the history of the brands. An explanation for this can be that the respondents were not

extreme green consumers, for those individuals, origin might be more important.

Instead, the respondents mentioned that it was a bonus if their products were produced

sustainably, which can also be seen as an additional feature that is unique. Nevertheless,

experiences the respondents or their loved ones had with a brand were meaningful, as

positive experiences in a store, or recommendations from a trusted person, often led to

repeated purchases. In addition, many respondents mentioned that they could consider

switching to green brands if people they trusted recommended them.

5.3 Brand Responses - Consumer Judgments and Consumer Feelings

5.3.1 Brand Judgments

According to Keller (2001), brand quality is the most important type of brand judgment

when creating a strong brand, which was supported by our findings. Brand quality

affected how consumers reasoned about skin care and was spoken of in terms of how

well a product satisfied the respondent’s needs. Most respondents purchased their

brands based on quality, and thought green brands had poorer quality, which created a

barrier for purchasing them. This implies that green brands struggled to achieve points

of parity in regard to quality, since respondents did not find them to be sufficient in this

49

particular aspect (Keller, 2008). However, since the brand manager mentioned that

green skin care brands offer high quality products to the same price as their non-green

competitors, consumers intention to purchase green skin care can increase. Quality was

also related to place of purchase, as cheaper brands found at grocery stores were

associated with poorer quality. Since the place of purchase is an important aspect, skin

care brands should sell their products at places the respondents associated with

credibility, such as pharmacies, or established skin care shops, to strengthen their brand.

According to the data, brand credibility is the second most important aspect of brand

judgment for skin care consumers. Brand expertise affected how respondents perceived

skin care brands as many associated established brands within the skin care market with

trustworthiness. According to the findings, it is difficult to separate these three

dimensions as Keller (2001) does. Rather they can be seen as a whole, creating a

foundation for the credibility of brands. Again, place of purchase was an important

aspect as brands sold at pharmacies were regarded to be more credible and competent,

which therefore increased the level of brand expertise. There was a clear connection

between the place of purchase and brand trustworthiness. In addition, green skin care

brands were perceived as easier to trust since they must meet certain requirements to be

green. This according to the brand manager is an important aspect for brands to convey

in their marketing. Brands need to show that they are sensitive to the interests of

consumers (Keller, 2001) and the findings imply that this needs to be done by providing

products that deliver what they promise in a trustworthy manner.

Brand likability also affected the credibility respondents had towards a brand, although

not to the same extent as brand expertise and trustworthiness. The likability of the

brands was connected to the results the products delivered, rather than Keller’s (2001)

description of likability, which is being interesting, fun, and worth spending time on. A

plausible explanation was that most respondents primarily valued the brands based on

quality and its relation to price. Hence, Keller’s description of likability does not apply

to the study’s skin care consumers.

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Moving on to the third type of brand judgment, brand consideration, as mentioned,

respondents had low brand consideration towards green brands when looking for

products that adhere to their unique and specific needs. To improve brand consideration,

Keller (2001) argues that brands should focus on developing strong and favorable brand

associations. However, our findings suggest that the associations towards green brands

are positive and advantageous, as consumers perceive them to be meaningful in term of

sustainability. A few respondents felt that their own non-green brands were missing

something, this according to Keller, could mean that consumers do not find them to be

meaningful. The findings support Keller’s (2001) claim that consideration is vital when

building brand equity, as respondents perceive green brands to have a lower quality and

therefore do not consider them in purchase situations.

The final type of brand judgment is brand superiority. Uniqueness, an aspect of brand

superiority, was not a significant factor for the respondents. However, the main point of

difference for green brands was that they are environmentally friendly and use

certifications. This was advantageous as respondents were willing to switch to green

brands for this purpose. A problem, however, is that green claims did not result in more

credibility. To build intense and active relationships with consumers with the help of

brand superiority (Keller, 2001), respondents wanted proof that green brands are better

for the environment. According to the data, green claims are not sufficient, as they were

not regarded to be a performance advantage, which is important to have when

successfully positioning a brand (Keller, 2001).

Green brands need to prove that their products perform and function as well as their

counterparts, as green claims do not overcome the negative performance associated with

these products. This opinion was also discussed with the brand manager who mentioned

that brands should use science in their marketing. After all, brand superiority is

dependent on the amount of strong and unique brand associations that create the brand

image (Keller, 2001), and this could be done through marketing activities and clear

communication, which are helpful in guiding the consumers and building brand equity.

Furthermore, the findings indicated that a green brand image was effective, as it showed

consideration to the environment, which could imply, similar to Chen’s (2010) research,

that a green brand image positively affects brand equity.

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5.3.2 Brand Feelings

Brand feelings can have a positive impact on consumer behavior (Keller, 2001), which

is why it is important to understand which feelings consumers regard to be the most

important when purchasing skin care. According to the findings, more respondents felt

social approval towards green brands than non-green brands. However, fewer

respondents felt the same level of security towards green brands since they had not tried

such brands. Most respondents who felt safe using their brands explained that it was due

to their performance satisfaction. Brands could therefore elicit feelings of security if

they managed to convince consumers to test their products. Many respondents felt they

wanted to know how well green brands performed before purchasing them. This could

potentially help consumers to erase worries they have towards green brands (Keller,

2001) and brands should emphasize that their products are safe since it was the most

important feeling when respondents expressed how they felt towards their own brands.

Self-respect was a feeling that consumers felt towards green and non-green brands.

They felt that green brands helped them feel better about themselves since they would

be contributing to something positive. The findings imply that green brands could

possess an advantage over non-green brands by focusing on this, as non-green brands

might not contribute to society in the same way. Respondents also felt self-respect

towards their own brands but for a different reason. They felt that they were respecting

themselves since they were taking care of their skin. If green skin care brands could

convince consumers that their brands can perform just as well, they would be able to

augment the feeling of self-respect, as consumers would feel they are taking care of

themselves and contributing to something positive. A few of Keller’s (2001) feelings

such as warmth, fun, and excitement lacked relevance in this market, according to this

research, as the respondents did not mention them.

5.4 Brand Relationships - Brand Resonance

At the top of the pyramid is brand resonance (Keller, 2001). The relationships between

respondents and brands in this study did not correspond to Keller’s description of brand

resonance. Keller describes relationships of brand resonance as consumers having

strong bonds with their brands and being loyal, however, even if respondents were loyal

52

and only bought the same brand, they did not necessarily possess a strong bond with

their brands. Instead, the findings showed that behavioral loyalty was often a result of

lack of active engagement. Some respondents mentioned that they were loyal because of

lack of time or energy to look up alternative brands, or they turned to recommendations

to avoid doing research on their own. Another example of behavioral loyalty was that

respondents repurchased their brands due to their advantageous results.

The findings implied that it is challenging for skin care brands to create strong personal

attachments with consumers, which Keller (2001) states as a necessity to develop brand

resonance. Strong attachments towards a brand can be a result of viewing it in a greater

context (Keller, 2001). This was exemplified by a respondent using green brands, who

had a strong attachment towards her brand, partly due to it being good for the

environment. Respondents also had strong attachments towards their brands since their

performance helped with their skin issues. Furthermore, it can be challenging for

consumers to become attached to skin care if they do not value such products. However,

there are opportunities for green skin care brands to build on feelings towards caring for

the environment, thus developing attachments in a greater context.

The above relates to the element sense of community, as it is connected to brands being

meaningful in a large context (Keller, 2001). Respondents explained that this was a

reason for them using their brands. Some could identify with an influencer community

and a sense of belonging to that consumer group, others could identify with individuals

purchasing green brands even if they did not purchase these products themselves,

because they valued the opinions of green consumers. Some respondents mentioned that

influencers could be used by green brands to increase awareness and to strengthen green

skin care communities. This implies that the environmental aspects of green brands can

be important in creating brand resonance and attracting initial contact with consumers

who are not using such brands. However, the findings suggest that sense of community

for green skin care might not solely belong to the brand resonance block. As

identification with others and their opinions could be a starting point for consumers

purchasing green skin care brands since it increases their awareness. However, sense of

53

community can be argued to be an important part of brand resonance and for building

on already existing consumer-brand relationships, as most consumers used the same

brands as people they knew. The findings showed that it is easier to identify with a

brand that has similar users to oneself.

Furthermore, the results indicate that brands might not necessarily need to follow the

steps in the order Keller (2001, 2009) mentions to achieve brand equity. However, the

findings support what has been previously stated by Chatzipanagiotou et al. (2019) that

it is still unclear how to climb the “ladder” of brand building blocks. In addition,

Chatzipanagiotou et al. (2019) argue that the CBBE model does not answer how to

manage strong brands. Our analysis does not support this, as it provides suggestions on

how green skin care brands can increase their brand equity. Nevertheless, the brand

building blocks are important as each block contributes to brand equity. Accordingly, it

is difficult for skin care brands to build brand resonance in all aspects since it requires

that consumers are engaged, attached, and loyal towards their brands. The

subdimensions of identification and engagement with other consumers are difficult for

skin care brands to achieve. The findings suggest that engagement was relatively low

and a plausible reason for this is that the product category of skin care is personal, in

terms of consumers often wanting products that suit their individual preferences.

Respondents struggled to identify themselves with others and this could be due to them

having their own concerns and needs, which people in their surroundings did not share.

When looking closer at Keller’s (2001) steps to building a strong brand, green skin care

brands only achieved two of the four steps. The second step, brand meaning, was

established as respondents had strong, favorable, and unique associations towards green

brands. The third step of eliciting positive brand responses was also established as

consumers mentioned feelings of social approval and self-respect. However, how the

consumers responded to the brands in terms of judgments was not as strong since green

skin care brands were perceived to lack in quality and consideration in purchase

situations. This indicated that these factors negatively affected the brand equity of green

skin care and the general assessment towards the brands (Boo et al., 2009). This in turn

54

had a negative effect on the respondents purchase intentions and preferences (Pappu et

al., 2005). Furthermore, green skin care brands need to improve the first and the last

steps of building a strong brand. Firstly, establishing brand identity by strengthening

their brand awareness. To complete the fourth step of creating brand relationships with

consumers, the findings indicate that green skin care brands should try to build

relationships with consumers who already purchase green brands in other product

categories, as they are more prone to green consumption and can identify with those

who value sustainability.

55

6 Conclusion

The aim of this study was to acquire insights into which skin care attributes Swedish

consumers value when purchasing skin care. This was done by studying their

preferences and attitudes towards green and non-green skin care brands to see if

whether being green impacts brand equity. The findings indicate that Keller’s (2001,

2009) CBBE model can be used to study brands in the context of skin care and that

being green impacts the brand equity of skin care brands. The findings also highlighted

that green skin care brands are not established in consumers’ minds to the same extent

as their non-green competitors whose products have stronger and more favorable brand

associations. In short, the findings suggest that the most important aspects of skin care

brands are how well the products perform and function. The findings also indicated that

consumers’ concerns of green brands not performing as well and being more expensive

made it difficult for green brands to increase their brand equity. Moreover, indirect

interactions such as word-of-mouth is suggested to be a significant source of brand

equity. Consumers often rely on recommendations from other individuals and it was the

most frequent reason as to why the respondents used a specific brand.

Furthermore, as mentioned in the literature review, the model still has uncertainties on

how to climb the ladder in hopes of reaching brand resonance, as well as how

practitioners and academics can know when a step is completed. The findings show that

the different brand building blocks for green skin care brands are not necessarily

completed in the same sequence as Keller (2001, 2009) describes. Rather, each block

consists of important elements that need to be completed on their own, in order to create

an overall strong brand. For instance, many of the consumers could identify with users

of green skin care brands since they shared a common concern for the environment in

other aspects of their purchase behaviors. This shows a potential for green skin care

brands to grow, as there is an interest for such products. In addition, the use of green

brands is clearly connected with social approval, which might strengthen brand salience.

However, the willingness to care for the environment rarely correlates to the willingness

to purchase green skin care products. Moreover, this study argues that Keller’s (2001)

CBBE pyramid has empirical validity since most of his brand building aspects were

visible in the consumers’ descriptions of why they preferred their brands over others. As

56

some of the brand building blocks and their subdimensions differ in importance and

relevance for green skin care brands, a revised model was developed. It illustrates the

important aspects for green skin care brands according to the findings, where elements

written in red indicate dimensions that need to be improved.

Figure 3. Adapted CBBE Pyramid for Green Skin Care Brands.

6.1 Managerial Implications

The study suggests that the brand awareness of green skin care brands is weak. Since

consumers mentioned they would consider switching to green skin care brands if they

performed as well as their non-green competitors, marketers should build strong

performance-based associations that reassure consumers that their brands perform well.

Moreover, recommendations are a vital aspect of brand equity for skin care brands. The

use of influencers has shown to be one way of introducing green skin care brands to the

study’s consumers who were between 20-30 years old, since it promotes word-of-mouth

if consumers recommend their products to people in their surroundings. Another

implication for managers to consider is choosing an appropriate place of purchase for

57

skin care brands. For example, brands sold at pharmacies were regarded to be more

credible and trustworthy. Moreover, consumers felt that the degree of self-respect would

increase if they used green brands as they felt they were contributing to something

positive. Thus, augmenting such feelings can be an advantage for brands, as non-green

brands do not necessarily have the same environmental focus.

Although our findings cannot be generalized to other populations, this study and the

revised CBBE model can provide brand managers with guidance on which aspects of

skin care brands are important to consider when managing a skin care brand, and which

aspects can be improved. It demonstrates the barriers consumers have towards testing

green skin care products and what brands need to focus on to improve the elements of

price, function, quality, consideration, security, and attachment. This in turn, could help

green skin care brands compete with more established non-green brands on the market

and develop strategies that strengthen the relationship with consumers.

6.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research A limitation with the study is that it focuses on an entire market, which means it does

not provide specific brands with a step-by-step guide on how to increase their customer-

based brand equity. Another limitation is that this study builds solely on Keller’s (2001)

CBBE pyramid as a theoretical framework. Communication was an important aspect in

the study and the results indicated that green brands should clearly demonstrate their

green claims in order to guide them in their purchasing decision. Hence, a possibility for

further research is to see how communication theories can help green skin care brands

build brand equity and increase the interaction with consumers. Moreover, another

limitation is the inability to generalize the findings of this study to other non-skin

related settings as the paper solely focuses on the skin care industry. Thus, future

research could explore how being green impacts the brand equity of products within

other industries to see if the results differ. This could increase the understanding of

CBBE and brand equity.

58

Another suggestion for future research is studying the importance of place of purchase

and how it can affect how consumers perceive the credibility and quality of green skin

care brands. Moreover, the study indicates that green skin care products are perceived as

expensive and the respondents in this study are relatively young, are students, or have

recently entered the labor market. As such, it would be interesting to focus on

individuals with greater purchasing power to see if their attitudes towards green skin

care brands differ. In addition, it would also be interesting to compare purchasing

behavior among different age groups. As the green skin care segment is relatively new

and growing, many of the respondents had not tried or did not use green skin care

products. Further studies could solely concentrate on understanding how to build brand

equity of green skin care brands by studying the behavior of green consumers.

Nevertheless, the purpose of this study was to generate a deeper understanding of the

attitudes typical skin care consumers have. Respondents were therefore not chosen

based on whether they were green consumers.

59

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Appendix

Appendix 1 - Consumer Interview Guide

● Salience - Brand Identity

○ What brands within skin care can you think of?

■ Are these products that you use? ■ Have you heard of any green skin care brands? (Provide them

with a definition of green skin care).

● Performance - Brand Meaning

○ Why do you buy the skin care products that you use?

■ How does it compare with competitors? ■ Why or why not do you use natural skin care products?

● Imagery - Brand Meaning

○ What does the ideal or typical consumer of the brands you use, look like?

■ What, according to you, does the typical consumer of green brands look like?

● Judgments - Brand Responses

○ How well do the brands fully satisfy your product needs?

■ How likely would you be to recommend your skin care brands to others?

■ Could you consider including more green skin care brands into your skin care routine? Why or why not?

● Feelings - Brand Responses

○ Which of these feelings - warmth, fun, excitement, security, social approval and self-respect, do the brands you use make you feel?

■ Which of these feelings do you believe green brands would give you? Why?

● Resonance - Brand Relationships

○ Do you consider yourself loyal to your skin care brands? Is there any brand in specific you are more loyal towards and why?

■ Do you identify yourself with people who use the brand? ■ Could you identify yourself with consumers of a green

community? Why or why not?

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Appendix 2 - Brand Manager Interview Guide Experiences within branding

● How many years have you worked with branding?

● What are your experiences with branding in general and also green branding?

● What would you say makes green branding different than regular branding

strategies?

Green consumers

● What is a green consumer according to you? Have you noticed any particular

behavior when it comes to green consumers?

● In your opinion, how can consumers become more aware of the brands that they

purchase? How can their knowledge about a brand be increased?

● Would you say that the level of engagement differs with consumers who are

from green communities?

Building a strong brand

● What do you believe is important when building a strong (green) brand?

● Do you have any suggestions on how brands can provide positive brand

associations and develop a strong image?

● How do consumers perceive brands differently based on whether they are green

on non-green brands?

● Do you think there is a difference in how consumers perceive the quality of

green brands compared to their non-green alternatives?

● Would you say it is more difficult to brand green products? Why or why not?

66

Appendix 3 - Salespeople Interview guide

● What type of skin care products is your typical consumer looking for?

● What specific questions do you receive from consumers?

● Do many consumers ask for green brands? Why or why not?

● Do consumers search for specific skin care certifications on products?

● Have you noticed any differences between men and women when purchasing

skin care products? How?

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Appendix 4 - Free Association Task The following brands were shown to the respondents. They were then asked what

associations come to mind when they see these brands.

Picture 1 Picture 2

Picture 3 Picture 4

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Free Association Task Summary The table below includes the most relevant associations made by the consumer

respondents. The numbers within the brackets illustrate how many respondents made

that specific association.

Picture 1 (Bulldog- green brand)

Picture 2 (Clinique-not green)

Picture 3 (Estelle & Thild -

green brand)

Picture 4 (Nivea - not green)

Target Group For men (11), hipster users, feels masculine (2)

Not men, feminine, for women (3), products for all ages

Women (2) Family with children

Price Cheaper, budget, more expensive version of Änglamarks products

Expensive (6), exclusive, luxurious (3),

Expensive (3), Exclusive, looks cheaper (1)

Mid-level price (2), budget version, cheap (3), good price

Design Basic, simple, green and brown colors, natural, strange with a picture of a dog, masculine design, brand has stronger colors, clean

Stylish, bright colors, rounder design so they feel softer

Packaging looks organic, cute, light colors, looks simple, feminine, looks nice (2), classy, girly (2)

Simple, boring, natural, standardized colors on products

Brand Perception

Natural (2), not many ingredients, think of beards (2), organic, sold at pharmacy, good brand

Good products, large range of products, an influencer would post these, smells good, pharmaceutical, popular

Trustworthy, Organic (4), more medicine behind the brand, thinks of pharmacy (2), serious, flowery scents, vegan (2), environmentally- friendly, kind brand, natural

Good brand (2), well-known (3), not as good since it is cheaper, thinks of babies, classic, commercial brand, mass production, does not consider environment, adolescence, standard products

Performance Good for the skin, smells strong, maybe not the best

Strong products, strong scents, strong ingredients, moisturizes (2)

Mild ingredients Gentle towards skin, does the necessary job, thick products, good, fresh, for dry skin, quick fix

Recognition Buys to boyfriend, find at Åhlens, uses the products, common product

Uses sometimes, never tried, find at tax-free at airports

Never seen (4) Uses this product, everyone knows of it, find them at ICA, have tried almost everything, find at any store (2)

brand equity within skin care a qualitative study of

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