BRAIN

FUNCTION

THE BRAIN FUNCTION. Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Limbic System

Brain Stem

The human brain is ultimately responsible for all thought and movement that the body

produces. This allows humans to successfully interact with their environment, by

communicating with others and interacting with inanimate objects near their position. If the

brain is not functioning properly, the ability to move, generate accurate sensory information

or speak and understand language can be damaged as well.

The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center. The central nervous

system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system

(PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing

and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your

face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body.

Sensory nerves gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord,

which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and

fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your

body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar

to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain

consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The

midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum,

pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the

brainstem.

The Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are

responsible for most of the brain's function.. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left

hemisphere which are connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other. This

matter is made of nerve cells which carry signals between the organ and the nerve cells which

run through the body. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.

What do each of these lobes do?

Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement,

emotions, and problem solving

Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of

stimuli

Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing

Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli,

memory, and speech

Thalamus:The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the attention

span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the

sensations the body is feeling.

Hypothalamus:The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and

temperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the

body.

Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried

within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old.

This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Midbrain:The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum and

tectum. These parts of the brain help regulate body movement, vision and hearing. The

anterior portion of the midbrain contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that

transfer messages from the cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which allows voluntary

motor function to take place.

Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more

efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons

within it.

A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres.

The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions

slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity

and the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of

axons which connects these two hemispheres.

Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your

thumb. White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of

the brain and body.

The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the

cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently

evolved structure, and is associated with "higher" information processing by more fully

evolved animals (such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc).

The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two

hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with

regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. What do I

mean by this? In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to

humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However, reptiles do not have

neocortex. Go here for more discussion of the neocortex or go to the following web site for a

more detailed look at evolution of brain structures and intelligence: "Ask the Experts":

Evolution and Intelligence

Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for

basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that

this is the "simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles

(who appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem. Look at a good

example of thishere.

The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/brain

http://www.md-health.com/Parts-Of-The-Brain-And-Function.html

BRAIN

DEVELOPMENT.

HOW THE BRAIN DEVELOP

When babies are born, their brains are ready to learn. Even newborns can understand some things

about objects and their relationship to each other. The brain organizes what the child experiences

into groups. As a childcare provider, you give children chances to touch, taste, see, hear, and smell

all they can. This helps them to learn about the world around them. As children play with things,

they learn about them. For example, children will sit on objects or throw them just to see what will

happen. As children get older, they continue to explore the world around them in new ways. For

example, children may mix yellow and blue paint to learn that it makes green. Exploring and

trying things out is how children learn.

As children learn, their brains grow. This article describes how the brain grows over time. In

recent years, there has been a lot of “brain research.” There are some basic facts we have learned

about brain development in infancy. Many studies show that you as caregivers have been doing

many of the right things to support brain development. Many parents have been doing the right

things, too. The best ways to support brain development are (1) being caring and supportive, (2)

paying attention to children and giving them what they need, and (3) providing a rich learning

environment. .

The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain

development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! At birth, almost all the neurons that the

brain will ever have are present. However, the brain continues to grow for a few years after birth.

By the age of 2 years old, the brain is about 80% of the adult size.

You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it

will get when you are born?". The answer is in glial cells. Glia continues to divide and multiply.

Glia carries out many important functions for normal brain function including insulating nerve

cells with myelin. The neurons in the brain also make many new connections after birth.

Children are born with all of the brain cells they’re going to have

As babies grow, they learn many things, but they do not get new brain cells. They do not get new

muscles, either. The muscles in a baby’s arms and legs will develop as she gets older and matures.

In the same way, the nerve cells in the brain (called neurons) will also grow and develop. Muscles

must be used to become stronger. The same is true with the brain. Children need to use their brains

to learn to think.

When used, brain cells connect

Brain cells are not much good if they are not connected with each other. After birth, brain cells are

making connections all the time. These connections are called synapses (SIN app sez).

Connections are made when a child has experiences. Experiences make children think. When a

child thinks, brain cells are used. The connections (synapses) get stronger the more the child uses

them. These connections become a basis for how the child thinks.

The children in your care are always having experiences that help their brains to make strong

connections. You can learn about the connections that children’s brains are making. As you

explore the learning process, you will learn why some activities are important. Then you can help

parents with their children.

The stories of two chidren can explain the idea of the brain making connections. Isaac is 2 ½ years

old. He now lives in the United States and speaks English. But he was born in Mongolia. For the

first six months of his life he only heard Mongolian. Since he was adopted by a family in the

United States, he has heard only English. The brain cells that are used for understanding and

speaking English are used whenever he hears, speaks, or thinks in English. Like anyone else, when

Isaac was first learning English, he had to hear basic words over and over to help build the

connections in his brain. Now that he has some very strong “English-speaking” and “English-

understanding” connections, he doesn’t struggle to speak English. He can do it without effort,

because the connections are strong.

Giulia, on the other hand, lives in Italy. She is 16 years old and was born in Italy. She has an

Italian father and Korean mother. When she was young, she did not hear or speak English. Her

brain could have developed “English-speaking” connections, but it did not, because she was not in

an English-speaking environment. Instead, her brain made “Italian-speaking” connections. The

same process of connections is used for everything a child learns. That is why experiences are so

important.

Some connections break down

When connections are not used, they get weaker. Later, they disappear. For example, Giulia took

piano lessons for a few years, and then quit playing altogether. The synapses that were used to

play the piano became weak, because they were not used. The good news is these synapses can get

stronger if Guilia starts to practice the piano again. The more she practices the piano, the stronger

these connections become. But the more time that passes without practicing the piano, the harder it

will be to build up those connections.

The same is true with Isaac and his ability to learn Mongolian. For the first six months of his life

he heard Mongolian. But Isaac’s parents have spoken English with him since he came to the

United States. He does not hear Mongolian anymore, only English. So the “Mongolian”

connections are getting weaker and weaker. In the long run, the “Mongolian” connections will

almost disappear if he does not try to learn Mongolian.

Nature vs. nurture

Some brain development occurs just because it happens naturally. Almost every baby will do

things like other babies because of natural growth. But in other ways children will grow very

differently. This is because they have many different experiences.

Adults can count on nature taking care of some things. They do not need to teach children every

little skill. Most children will learn to talk without parents teaching them how to move their

mouths. Most children will learn to roll over without the parents doing anything. But children will

not learn to talk if no one talks to them. They will not learn to roll over if they are always in a seat

or being held.

Most experts agree that growth comes from both nature and nurture. It is interesting to look at how

nature and nurture work together. For a baby’s brain to make connections, she must be healthy and

have what she needs physically. If that happens, some changes will come naturally. But that is not

enough. She must also be in a place that gives her experiences. Nature and nurture together help

her make brain connections and make the connections strong.

The brain is divided into sections

The brain seems to use different brain areas for different jobs. There are not only areas for

language and music, but also for math, sight, emotions, and every other job the brain thinks about

and does. Within each of these areas, there are millions of neurons and synapses. The areas of the

brain can change a little, though. If a person has brain damage in one area, sometimes another area

can take over.

The areas of the brain develop at different times. That means that children can learn some things

best at particular times. A “window of opportunity” is the time when something is easiest to learn.

Windows of opportunity are sometimes called critical periods. The first three years of life are very

important times for basic learning. That is when the fastest growth is taking place.

Researchers have learned that there are many windows of opportunity in the first ten years of life.

This is because connections are being made in the brain then at the most rapid rates. All

researchers do not agree about what is meant by windows of opportunity. Most agree that there are

times when some things are easier to learn than at other times. But, it is hard to say exactly when

windows of opportunity occur. It is also hard to say exactly what things are learned within a

window of opportunity.

New pathways are always being made. Each day you and the children in your care are having

experiences. Those experiences are making connections in your brains. Researchers know that

connections are being made at an especially fast rate very early in life. Researchers have compared

the brains of one-year-olds with the brains of newborns and with adults. They found that a one-

year-old brain is more like the brain of an adult than the brain of a newborn. This shows how fast

the connections are made during the first year of life.

During the first years of life, the brain is ready to learn. Giulia, for example, not only learned

Italian, but she also learned a second language as a child. She learned Korean from her mother.

Learning a second language was not difficult for young Giulia. Her brain was ready to learn

languages. And since her mother provided a “Korean-speaking” environment, Giulia was able to

learn Korean. When children are older, they can still learn things, even things that may have been

easier to learn while they were younger. Older children must simply learn in different ways than

younger children. Some things, like language learning, will take longer for an older person than a

younger person. The process is not as natural for an older child as for a younger child.

When Giulia was 15 years old, she decided she wanted to learn English. She learned quickly that it

would not be as easy as learning Korean or Italian. She had to work very hard to start making

connections between brain cells. She had to practice a lot for the connections to become strong.

The more English experiences she had, the stronger the connections became. The stronger the

connections became, the less effort she had to put into thinking, writing, speaking, and reading in

English.

Other examples of brain development

To explain brain development, we have used examples of language learning. These brain

development concepts also apply to other things the brain thinks about and does. Other examples

of skills learned from infancy are how to get along with other people, how to know when you have

had enough to eat, and how to handle stress. Things that are learned later include reading, doing

math, dancing, typing, driving a car, cleaning the house, swimming, and job skills.

Many of the things we learn while we are very young help us to be able to learn when we are

older. For example, learning how to interact socially can help us to learn job skills later in life.

Learning rhymes and songs helps children when it is time for them to learn to read. The more

connections there are in the brain, the more successful children can be at developing skills over

time.

The brain and social development

This is an example that you as a caregiver can share with parents about brain development.

Children can be learning healthy ways to interact socially from the time they are small infants.

Mothers teach their children about “turn taking” in social interactions. Mothers talk to their babies.

And babies “talk” back. Babies talk by babbling and making other baby noises. Mothers should

allow their babies to finish “talking” before the mother talks again. When mothers let their babies

take their turn in the interaction, they are teaching their babies the first things they need to know

about social interactions. Babies can learn to “talk” when it’s their turn to talk, and to listen when

it’s their turn to listen. When these social interactions take place, connections, or synapses, in the

brain are being made.

Unfortunately, some mothers, and other people who interact with babies, do not allow babies to

have their turn. Some adults and children will just keep talking to the baby while the baby is trying

to take his turn. This can be seen when a baby tries to turn his head away from his mother, but his

mother keeps putting her face in front of her baby. Babies get upset and confused when this

happens. Other times, adults and children won’t listen to babies when they need attention. When

these confusing things happen, the synapses for “turn-taking” are not being connected properly.

“Turn-taking” needs to be learned for children and adults to take turns in social interactions. The

brain needs to make those connections. If the connections are not made when a child is young, the

connections will need to be made as the child grows older. Just like with learning a language, or

learning to play the piano, learning to take turns in social interactions becomes more natural the

more it is done. And it is easiest to learn early in life. The more experiences the brain has with

something, the stronger the connections, or synapses, in that part of the brain become.

In the first three years, a child’s brain has up to twice as many synapses as it will have in

adulthood.

Now that we’re a little more familiar with the fundamentals of the brain, let’s take a look at

brain development in children. Between conception and age three, a child’s brain undergoes

an impressive amount of change. At birth, it already has about all of the neurons it will ever

have. It doubles in size in the first year, and by age three it has reached 80 percent of its adult

volume.8,9,10

Even more importantly, synapses are formed at a faster rate during these years than at any

other time. In fact, the brain creates many more of them than it needs: at age two or three, the

brain has up to twice as many synapses as it will have in adulthood (Figure 3). These surplus

connections are gradually eliminated throughout childhood and adolescence, a process

sometimes referred to as blooming and pruning.11

The organization of a child’s brain is affected by early experiences.

Why would the brain create more synapses than it needs, only to discard the extras? The

answer lies in the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in brain development.

The early stages of development are strongly affected by genetic factors; for example, genes

direct newly formed neurons to their correct locations in the brain and play a role in how they

interact.12,13

However, although they arrange the basic wiring of the brain, genes do not design

the brain completely.14,15

Instead, genes allow the brain to fine-tune itself according to the input it receives from the

environment. A child’s senses report to the brain about her environment and experiences, and

this input stimulates neural activity. Speech sounds, for example, stimulate activity in

language-related brain regions. If the amount of input increases (if more speech is heard)

synapses between neurons in that area will be activated more often.

Repeated use strengthens a synapse. Synapses that are rarely used remain weak and are more

likely to be eliminated in the pruning process. Synapse strength contributes to the connectivity

and efficiency of the networks that support learning, memory, and other cognitive

abilities.16,17

Therefore, a child’s experiences not only determine what information enters her

brain, but also influence how her brain processes information.

Genes provide a blueprint for the brain, but a child’s environment and experiences

carry out the construction.

The excess of synapses produced by a child’s brain in the first three years makes the brain

especially responsive to external input. During this period, the brain can “capture” experience

more efficiently than it will be able to later, when the pruning of synapses is underway.11

The

brain’s ability to shape itself – called plasticity – lets humans adapt more readily and more

quickly than we could if genes alone determined our wiring.18

The process of blooming and

pruning, far from being wasteful, is actually an efficient way for the brain to achieve optimal

development.

From Conception to Age Three: An Outline of Early Brain Development

FIRST TRIMESTER

The development of the brain begins in the first few weeks after conception. Most of the

structural features of the brain appear during the embryonic period (about the first 8 weeks

after fertilization); these structures then continue to grow and develop during the fetal period

(the remainder of gestation).19,20

The first key event of brain development is the formation of the neural tube. About two weeks

after conception, the neural plate, a layer of specialized cells in the embryo, begins to slowly

fold over onto itself, eventually forming a tube-shaped structure. The tube gradually closes as

the edges of the plate fuse together; this process is usually complete by four weeks after

conception. The neural tube continues to change, eventually becoming the brain and spinal

cord.20,21

About seven weeks after conception the first neurons and synapses begin to develop in the

spinal cord. These early neural connections allow the fetus to make its first movements, which

can be detected by ultrasound and MRI even though in most cases the mother cannot feel

them. These movements, in turn, provide the brain with sensory input that spurs on its

development. More coordinated movements develop over the next several weeks.22

SECOND TRIMESTER

Early in the second trimester, gyri and sulci begin to appear on the brain’s surface; by the end

of this trimester, this process is almost complete. The cerebral cortex is growing in thickness

and complexity and synapse formation in this area is beginning.20,21,23

Myelin begins to appear on the axons of some neurons during the second trimester. This

process – called myelination – continues through adolescence. Myelination allows for faster

processing of information: for the brain to achieve the same level of efficiency without

myelination, the spinal cord would have to be three yards in diameter.14

THIRD TRIMESTER

The early weeks of the third trimester are a transitional period during which the cerebral

cortex begins to assume many duties formerly carried out by the more primitive brainstem.

For example, reflexes such as fetal breathing and responses to external stimuli become more

regular. The cerebral cortex also supports early learning which develops around this time.24,25

YEAR ONE

The remarkable abilities of newborn babies highlight the extent of prenatal brain

development. Newborns can recognize human faces, which they prefer over other objects, and

can even discriminate between happy and sad expressions. At birth, a baby knows her

mother’s voice and may be able to recognize the sounds of stories her mother read to her

while she was still in the womb.26,27

The brain continues to develop at an amazing rate throughout the first year. The cerebellum

triples in size, which appears to be related to the rapid development of motor skills that occurs

during this period. As the visual areas of the cortex grow, the infant’s initially dim and limited

sight develops into full binocular vision.28,29

At about three months, an infant’s power of recognition improves dramatically; this coincides

with significant growth in the hippocampus, the limbic structure related to recognition

memory. Language circuits in the frontal and temporal lobes become consolidated in the first

year, influenced strongly by the language an infant hears. For the first few months, a baby in

an English-speaking home can distinguish between the sounds of a foreign language. She

loses this ability by the end of her first year: the language she hears at home has wired her

brain for English.30,31

YEAR TWO

This year’s most dramatic changes involve the brain’s language areas, which are developing

more synapses and becoming more interconnected. These changes correspond to the sudden

spike in children’s language abilities – sometimes called the vocabulary explosion – that

typically occurs during this period. Often a child’s vocabulary will quadruple between his first

and second birthday.

During the second year, there is a major increase in the rate of myelination, which helps the

brain perform more complex tasks. Higher-order cognitive abilities like self-awareness are

developing: an infant is now more aware of his own emotions and intentions. When he sees

his reflection in a mirror, he now fully recognizes that it is his own. Soon he will begin using

his own name as well as personal pronouns like “I” and “me.”14,28

YEAR THREE

Synaptic density in the prefrontal cortex probably reaches its peak during the third year, up to

200 percent of its adult level. This region also continues to create and strengthen networks

with other areas. As a result, complex cognitive abilities are being improved and consolidated.

At this stage, for example, children are better able to use the past to interpret present events.

They also have more cognitive flexibility and a better understanding of cause and effect.14,32

The earliest messages that the brain receives have an enormous impact.

Early brain development is the foundation of human adaptability and resilience, but these

qualities come at a price. Because experiences have such a great potential to affect brain

development, children are especially vulnerable to persistent negative influences during this

period. On the other hand, these early years are a window of opportunity for parents,

caregivers, and communities: positive early experiences have a huge effect on children’s

chances for achievement, success, and happiness.

http://projectflexner.sites.medinfo.ufl.edu/how-we-learn/

https://www.extension.purdue.edu/providerparent/child%20growthdevelopment/braindev.htm

https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/dev.html

HOW BRAIN

WORK IN

LEARNING

PROCESS

HOW BRAIN WORK IN LEARNING

How the brain learns

“Tell me and I’ll forgot, show me and i may remember, involve me and I’ll understand.”

– Chinese Proverb

If learning was a simple as pouring the pitcher of knowledge into the empty glass of a

students head, then all education would require was a person to speak didactically on the

subject, and students would listen and gain the knowledge themselves. Unfortunately,

learning takes a lot more then merely listening to an authority speak, irregardless of his

expertise and reliability.

So how do most adults learn?

To answer this central question we need to know something about how the brain processes

information and creates long term memories:

The brain processes different stimuli in different parts of the brain:

Verbal input is initially processed through the left temporal lobe in a right handed

person.

Reading requires processing by the occipital cortex, the left temporal lobe and the frontal

cortex.

Writing requires use of the motor cortex in the dominant hemisphere (left hemisphere for

a right handed person) as well as the occipital cortex.

Pictures and other images are initially managed by the occipital cortex and eventually

the right side of the brain.

The brain creates two types of memory:

Short-term memory that includes immediate memory and working memory.

Immediate memory acts as a temporary site where input is briefly stored until the brain

decides whether to erase the memory as unimportant or to process the memory. The

triaging of memories is primarily unconsicous. These temporary memories are thought to

be stored in the hippocampus, and emotions generated in the adjacent amygdola increase

the likelihood of memory retention.

Working memory is the place where conscious processing occurs. This is where stimuli

that capture our interest and attention are managed. Auditory and visual spacial stimuli

can be rehearsed in the working memory and rehearsal increases the likelihood of long-

term storage. The adult working memory can only hold 7 objects at one time. Only by

grouping multiple facts into a single chunk can the learner process greater amounts of

information. As learners move from novice to expert, they increase the number facts

in large chunks. Items can be processed in the working memory for up to 45 minutes.

Longer periods of processing lead to fatigue. Maximal attention usually lasts about 10

minutes. Ideally to minimize working memory fatigue facts should be processed for

10 minutes at a time.

Long-term memories – These are memories that are retained for greater than 24 hours.

What determines which short-term memories become long-term memories? The working

memory scans past long-term memories and asks two questions:

1. Does the material make sense? –Is it logical and does it fit with previously retained

facts? Can it be connected or chunked with other facts in my long-term memory?

2. Is the material important to me (does it have meaning)? This is the most important

criteria for deciding whether a series of facts will be transferred to long-term memory. If

material is deemed trivial it will not be retained as a long-term memory. Brain scans show

maximal activity when material that has meaning and makes sense is presented, as

compare to material that has meaning and doesn’t make sense or material that makes

sense, but is trivial in nature.

Long-term memories require the generation of new synapses during sle New

synapses are created during REM sleep. Students who sleep for 8 hours have 5 REM

episodes while those who are sleep-deprived have on average on 3 REM episodes. The

sleep-deprived student has fewer opportunities to generate long-term memories.

Implicatons for teaching – Use all parts of the students brain by including reading, writing, verbal processing and

images in your teaching.

Engage the working memory – encourage processing of material by requiring active

participation, and requiring students to work with the material. Rehearsel enhances

understanding and increases the likelihood of a long-term memory.

Don’t overload the working memory – less is more. Remember the novice can only process

7 facts at a time in his or her working memory.

Avoid working memory fatigue – Lessons should be presented in 10-20 minute blocks

Encourage long-term memories by creating meaning and creating material that makes

sense to the learner. Relating lessons to real-life situations, and being enthusiastic create

meaning. Know your learners’ backgrounds so that you relate to past learning and allow the

learner to understand and make sense of the material you are presenting.

Encourage students to get enough sleep. Long-term memories are created during REM

sleep. Without sleep there can be no long-term memories.

Evaluations must assess long-term memory and understanding – Too often multiple

choice questions simply test recognition. Short term memory can be temporarily

crammed with blocks of material that allow the student to recognize the correct answer.

However, once the test is completed these facts are erased and never make it to long-term

storage. This phenomenon has been called the Zeigarnik effect.

Further Reading

Knowledge retention is key in both corporate training and education. Users need to remember

learning content so that they can accurately apply it in real-life instances. So when we set out

to create the amplifire software, thoroughly understanding how the brain stores information in

memory was imperative.

At its most basic level, there are four stages of memory critical to the learning process.

1. Encoding

This is the transformation of phenomenon in the environment (sights, sounds, etc.)

into material that the brain can understand. This is essentially a translation process

in which the brain creates a memory of something in relation to what it already

knows.

2. Storage

There are two different types of memory storage, short term and long term. Long-

term memory occurs when neuron pathways are established in order to store

information that can be recalled later. Short-term memory does not establish their

neural networks and is believed to be housed primarily in the prefrontal lobe.

3. Retrieval

There are four different kinds of memory retrieval:

Recall allows a person to retrieve information unprompted. This can be tested using

fill-in-the blank style questions.

Recollection uses logical reconstruction to piece together different pieces of

information. Essay questions test this kind of retrieval.

Recognition occurs as a result of “re-experiencing” the information. This can be

tested using multiple choice questions.

Relearning is a rehearsal of previously learned information to strengthen retrieval.

4. Forgetting

This often annoying process is a fundamental part of the brain’s functioning which

allows less important information to fall away so that more important information

can be retrieved more easily. Research at the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and

Self-Organization has shown that the brain forgets information at a rate of 1 bit per

second per neuron.

While the biochemical and psychological processes underlying each of these four stages are

robust and complex, this basic framework is critical for considering how our brains learn and

remember.

6 important things you should know about how your brain learns

POSTED BY BELLE BETH COOPER

1. We take in information better when it’s visual

The brain uses 50% of its resources on vision.

Think about that for a minute. Half of your brain power goes to your eyes and the processes

in your brain that turn what you see into information. The other half has to be split up among

all the other functions your body has.

Vision is not only a power-hungry sense, but it trumps our other senses when it comes to

taking in information.

Image credit: Amit Kapoor – Storytelling with Data – See | Show | Tell | Engage

A perfect example of this is an experiment where 54 wine aficionados were asked to taste

wine samples. The experimenters dropped odorless, tasteless red dye into white wines to see

whether the wine tasters would still know they were white based on the taste and smell. They

didn’t. Vision is such a big part of how we interpret the world that it can overwhelm our other

senses.

Another surprising finding about vision is that we treat text as images. As you read this

paragraph, your brain is interpreting each letter as an image. This makes reading incredibly

inefficient when compared to how quickly and easily we can take in information from a

picture.

More than just static visuals, we pay special attention to anything we see that’s moving. So

pictures and animations are your best friends when it comes to learning.

Action: Find or make flash cards with images on them. Add doodles, photos, or pictures from

magazines and newspapers to your notes. Use colors and diagrams to illustrate new concepts

you learn.

2. We remember the big picture better than the details

When you’re learning lots of new concepts, it’s easy to get lost in the barrage of information.

One way to avoid being overwhelmed is to keep referring back to the big picture. This is

probably where you’ll start with something new, so coming back to explore how the new

concept you just learned fits into that big picture can be helpful.

In fact, our brains tend to hang onto the gist of what we’re learningbetter than the details, so

we might as well play into our brains’ natural tendencies.

When the brain takes in new information, it hangs onto it better if it already has some

information to relate it to. This is where starting with the gist of an idea can be helpful: it

gives you something to hang each detail on as you learn it.

I read a metaphor about this concept once that I loved: imagine your brain is like a closet full

of shelves: as you add more clothes they fill up more of the shelves and you start categorizing

them.

Now if you add a black sweater (a new piece of information) it can go on the sweater shelf,

the black clothes shelf, the winter clothes shelf, or the wool shelf. In real life you can’t put

your sweater on more than one shelf, but in your brain that new piece of information gets

linked to each of those existing ideas. You’ll more easily remember that information later

because when you learned it you related it to various other things you already knew.

Action: Keep a large diagram or page of notes handy that explains the big picture of what

you’re learning and add to it each major concept you learn along the way.

3. Sleep largely affects learning and memory

Studies have shown that a night of sleep in-between learning something new and being tested

on it can significantly improve performance. In a study of motor skills, participants who were

tested 12 hours after learning a new skill with a night of sleep in-between improved by 20.5%,

compared to just 3.9% improvement for participants who were tested at 4-hour intervals

during waking hours.

Naps can improve learning just like a full night of sleep can. A study from the University of

California found that participants who napped after completing a challenging task performed

better when completing the task again later, compared to participants who stayed awake in-

between tests.

Sleeping before you learn can also be beneficial. Dr Matthew Walker, the lead researcher of

the University of California study, said “Sleep prepares the brain like a dry sponge, ready to

soak up new information”.

Action: Try practicing your new skill—or reading about it—before going to bed or taking a

nap. When you wake up, write some notes on what you remember from your last study

session.

4. Sleep deprivation significantly reduces your ability to learn new information

Sleep deprivation is a scary thing. Because we don’t fully understand sleep and its purpose yet

(though we have some ideas) we don’t always respect our need for sleep.

But although we can’t say definitively what sleep does for us, we know what happens if you

don’t get enough. Sleep deprivation makes us play it safe by avoiding risks and leaning on old

habits. It also increases our likelihood of being physically injured, since our bodies don’t

perform as well when we’re tired.

Most importantly for learning: sleep deprivation can cut your brain’s ability to take in new

information by almost 40%. Compared to getting a good night’s sleep and waking up

refreshed and ready to learn, an all-nighter doesn’t seem worth the effort.

Image credit: Mikael Häggström

A Harvard Medical School study found that the first 30 hours afterlearning something are

critical, and sleep deprivation during this time can cancel out any learning benefits of getting

a full night’s sleep after those 30 hours are up.

Action: Forget all-nighters. Save practice and study sessions for days when you’re alert and

well-rested. And definitely avoid sleep deprivation right after learning something new.

5. We learn best by teaching others

When we expect to have to teach other people what we’re learning, we take in new

information better. We organize it better in our minds, remember it more correctly, and we’re

better at remembering the most important parts of what we’ve learned.

One study told half the participants they would be tested on the information they were

learning, and told the other half they would have to teach someone else what they learned.

Both sets of participants were tested on the information and didn’t have to teach anyone else,

but the subjects who thought they’d be teaching others performed better on the test.

The study’s lead author, Dr. John Nestojko, said the study implied that students’ mindsets

before and during learning can make a big difference to how well we learn new information.

“Positively altering a student’s mindset can be effectively achieved through rather simple

instructions,” he said.

Though we don’t realize it, learning with the idea that we’ll have to teach this information

later tends to invoke better methods for learning subconsciously. For instance, we focus on

the most important pieces of information, the relationships between different concepts, and

we carefully organize the information in our minds.

Action: Keep a notebook or blog where you write about what you’ve learned. Write about

each new concept you learn as if it’s a lesson for others.

6. We learn new information better when it’s interleaved

A common learning approach is what UCLA researcher Dick Schmidt calls ‘block practice’.

When you practice or focus on learning one particular thing over and over, that’s block

practice. For instance, you might study history for a few hours in a row, or practice just your

serve in a tennis lesson.

Schmidt advocates a different approach to learning called interleaving, which mixes up the

information or skills you practice. Another UCLA researcher, Bob Bjork, studies interleaving

in his psychology lab. One of his experiments involves teaching participants about artistic

styles by showing them a series of images on a screen. Some of the participants are exposed

to block practice of artistic styles (all 6 examples of a painter’s style are shown before moving

on to another painter’s style), while others have their images interleaved (examples of

different painter’s styles are mixed in together).

When the two groups are tested afterwards on how well they can recognize a painter’s style in

a painting they haven’t seen before, the interleaving group usually scores around 60%, while

the block group scores around 30%.

Surprisingly, around 70% of the participants in this experiment say they think the block

practice was most effective in helping them learn. Clearly we have some work to do to

understand what helps us learn best.

Bjork believes interleaving works better because it plays into our natural abilities to recognize

patterns and outliers. When applied in the real world it also provides an opportunity for us to

review information regularly, as we interleave what we already know with new information.

Some examples for interleaving could be cycling through three different subjects you need to

study before exams, practicing speaking, listening, and writing skills of a foreign language in

tandem rather than in blocks, or practicing your forehand, backhand, and serves in a single

tennis lesson rather than setting aside one lesson for each.

Action: When you’re learning or practicing a new technique, practice it interleaved with other

techniques. For instance, if you’re practicing a particular golf swing, practice other swings at

the same time to mix it up. If you’re learning new information, mix in information you

already know—old vocabulary words and new when you’re learning a foreign language, for

instance.

As Bob Bjork says, we all need to become smarter learners. “In almost any job, you have to

keep managing some new kind of technology,” he said, so “just knowing how to manage your

own learning is very important”.

http://blog.crew.co/6-things-know-brain-learns/

http://knowledgefactor.com/blogs/breaking-down-brain-learning-process-simplified

FUNCTION

CEREBRUM carry signals between the organ and the nerve

cells

THALAMUS control the attention span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the sensations the body is feeling.

HYPOTHALAMUS control the hormonal processes throughout

the body.

MIDBRAIN help regulate body

movement, vision and hearing

CEREBELLUM is associated with regulation and coordination of

movement, posture, and balance.

BRAINSTEM is responsible for basic

vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat,

and blood pressure.

LIMBIC SYSTEM contains the thalamus,

hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

As children learn, their brains grow

newborns can understand some things about objects and their

relationship to each other

250,000 neurons are added every minute

As babies grow, they learn many things, but

they do not get new brain cells

The muscles in a baby’s arms and legs will

develop as she gets older and matures. In the same way, the nerve cells in the brain (called neurons) will

also grow and develop

When connections are not used, they get weaker

Genes provide a blueprint for the brain,

but a child’s environment and experiences carry out the construction.

BRAIN WORK IN

LEARNING PROCESS

Verbal input is initially processed through the left

temporal lobe in a right handed person.

Reading requires processing by the occipital cortex, the left temporal lobe and the

frontal cortex.

Writing requires use of the motor cortex in the

dominant hemisphere (left hemisphere for a right

handed person) as well as the occipital cortex.

Pictures and other images are initially

managed by the occipital cortex and eventually the

right side of the brain.

Short-term memory that includes immediate

memory and working memory.

Immediate memory

Long-term memories – These are memories that are retained for greater

than 24 hours.

Encoding.this is the transformation of

phenomenon in the environment (sights,

sounds, etc.) into material that the brain can

understand

Forgetting.This often annoying process is a

fundamental part of the brain’s functioning which

allows less important information to fall away so

that more important information can be

retrieved more easily