book proj pdf

7/24/2019 Book Proj PDF

1/15

1

The absence in art of a well-formulated and

systematized body of literature makes theproblem of teaching a perplexing one.

The subject is further complicated by the elusiveand personal nature of art.

Granted that a students ultimate success willdepend largely on his natural talents,

the problem still remains : how best to arousehis curiosity, hold his attention, and engage hiscreative faculties.


2/15

2 3

Through trial and error, I have found that the solution to this enigma rests, to alarge extent, on two factors: the kind of problem chosen for study, and the way inwhich it is posed.

I believe that if, in the statement of a problem, undue emphasis is placed on free-dom and self expression, the result is apt to be an indifferent student and a mean-ingless solution. Conversely, a problem with defined limits, implied or stated disci-plines which are, in turn, conducive to the instinct of play, will most likely yield aninterested student and, very often, a meaningful and novel solution.

Of the two powerful instincts which exist in all human beings and which can beused in teaching, says Gilbert Highet, one is the love of play. The best Renaissanceteachers, instead of beating their pupils, spurred them on by a number of appealsto the play-principle. They made games out of the chore of learning difficult sub-

jectsMontaignes father, for instance, started him in Greek by writing the lettersand the easiest words on playing cards and inventing a game t o play with them.


3/15

4 5

s o m e o r a l l o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s i m p l i c i t i n

Depending on the nature of the problem,

game- playing

problem solving

a r e e q u a l l y i m p l i c i t i n s u c c e s s f u l

:

motivation

motivationcompetitionchallenge

stimulusgoal

promiseanticipation

interestcuriosity

skillobservation

analysisperception

judgmentimprovisation

coordinationtiming

concentrationabstraction

discretiondiscrimination

economypatience

restraint

exploitationexcitement

enjoymentdiscoveryreward

fulllment


4/15

6 7

Without specific formal limitations, without the challenging possibilities

of introducing the element of play, both teacher and student cannothelp but be bored. The product may take the form of a superficial (butsometimes professional looking) literal translation of the problem,or of a meaningless abstract pattern or shape, which, incidentally,may be justified with enthusiasm but often with specious reasoning.

Similarly, there are badly stated problems in basic design, stressing pureaesthetics, free expression, without any restraints or practical goals. Sucha problem may be posed in this fashion: arrange a group of geometricshapes in any manner you see fit, using any number of colors, to makea pleasing pattern. The results of such vagaries are sometimes pretty,

but mostly meaningless or monotonous. The student has the illusionof creating great art in an atmosphere of freedom, when in fact he ishandicapped by the absence of cert ain disciplines which would evoke ideas,make playing with those ideas possible, work absorbing, and results interesting.

The basic design problem, properly stated, is an effective vehicle for teachingthe possibilities of relationships: harmony, order, proportion, number, measure,rhythm, symmetry, contrast, color, texture, space. It is an equally effective means forexploring the use of unorthodox materials and for learning to work within specific limitations.

Without the basic rules or disciplines, however, there is no motivation, test of skill, or

ultimate rewardin short, no game. The rules ar e the means to the end, the conditionsthe player must understand thoroughly, and work with, in order to participate.For the student, the limits of a well-stated problem operate in much the same way.

Unfortunately, in some of our schools little attempt is made to guide the studentsthinking in a logical progression from basic design to appl ied design. We are all familiar

with the so-called practical problems which attempt to duplicate the conditions ofindustry -- the atmosphere of the advertising agency, for example. Such problems arefrequently stated in the broadest terms with emphasis, if any, on style and technique inadvertising, rather than on interpreting advertising in terms of visual design principles.

Limited means, says Braque, begetnew forms, invite creation, make the style.Progress in art does not lie in extending its

limits, but in knowing them better. 6 7


5/15

8 9

T o i n s u r e t h a t t h

e o r e t i c a l s t u d y d

o e s n o t e n d i n a v

a c u u m,

p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t

i o n s o f t h e b a s i c

p r i n c i p l e s g l e a n e

d f r o m t h i s

e x e r c i s e s h o u l d b

e u n d e r t a k e n a t t

h e p r o p e r t i m e ( t h

e y m a y

i n v o l v e t y p o g r a p

h y, p h o t o g r a p h y, p

a g e l a y o u t, d i s p l a

y s,

s y m b o l s, e t c. ). T

h e s t u d e n t l e a r n s

t o c o n c e p t u a l i z

e, t o

a s s o c i a t e, t o m a k

e a n a l o g i e s ; t o s e

e a s p h e r e, f o r e x

a m p l e,

t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o

a n o r a n g e, o r a b

u t t o n i n t o a l e t t e r

, o r

a g r o u p o f l e t t e r s i n t o a

b r o a d p i c t u r e. T

h e p u p i l s,

s a y s A l f r e d N o r t h

W h i t e h e a d, h a v e g o t t o b e

m a d e t o

f e e l t h e y a r e s t u d

y i n g s o m e t h i n g , a

n d a r e n o t m e r e l y

e x e c u t i n g i n t e l l e c

t u a l m i n u e t s. 3 )

I f p o s s i b l e, t e a c h

i n g s h o u l d a l t e r n

a t e b e t w e e n

t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p

r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s

- a n d b e t w e e n t h

o s e

w i t h t i g h t l y s t a t e d

r u l e s i m p o s e d

b y t h e t e a c h e r

a n d t h o s e w i t h r u

l e s i m p l i e d b y t h

e p r o b l e m i t s e l f.

B u t t h i s c a n h a p p

e n o n l y a f t e r t h e

s t u d e n t h a s b e e n

t a u g h t b a s i c d i s c

i p l i n e s a n d t h e i r

a p p l i c a t i o n. H e

t h e n i s a b l e t o i n

v e n t h i s o w n s y s

t e m f o r p l a y i n g

t h e

g a m e . A m i n d

s o d i s c i p l i n e d s h o

u l d b e b o t h m o r

e

a b s t r a c t a n d m o r

e c o n c r e t e. I t h a s

b e e n t r a i n e d i n t

h e

c o m p r e h e

n s i o n o f a b s t r a c t

t h o u g h t a n d i n t

h e a n a l y s i s

o f f a c t s. 4 )

T h e r e a r e m a n y

w a y s i n w h i c h t h

e p l a y - p r i n c i p l e s e r v e s a s a

b a s e f o r s e r i o u s p

r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , s

o m e o f w h i c h a r

e d i s c u s s e d

h e r e. T h e s e e x a m

p l e s i n d i c a t e, I b e

l i e v e, t h e n a t u r e o

f c e r t a i n

d i s c i p l i n e s a n d m

a y s u g g e s t t h e k i n

d o f p r o b l e m s w

h i c h w i l l b e u s e f

u l t o

t h e s t u d e n t a s w

e l l a s t o t h e t e a c h

e r o f d e s i g n.

8 9


6/15

10 11

T h e

C r o ws s o r d

P u z z l e

is a variation on the acrostic, a word gamethat has been around since Roman times.There have been many reasons given forthe popularity of the game. One is thatit fulfills the human urge to solve theunknown, another that it is orderly, a thirdthat it represents, according to the puzzle

editor of the New York Times, a mentalstimulation and exercise in spelling andvocabulary-building. But the play in such agame is limited to finding the exact word tofit a specific number of squares in a verticaland horizontal pattern.

It allows for little imagination and no invention or aesthetic judgment, qualities tobe found in abundance, for example, in the simple childrens game, the Tangram.


7/15

12 13

The Tangram is an ingenious little Chinese toy in which a squareis divided into this configuration. It consists of seven pieces, calledtans: five triangles, one square, and one rhombus. The rules arequite simple: rearrange to make any kind of figure or pattern.

Here above is one possibility. Many design problems can be posedwith this game in mind, the main principle to be learned beingthat of economy of means-making the most of the least. Further,the game helps to sharpen the powers of observation through thediscovery of resemblances between geometric and natural forms. Ithelps the student to abstract: to see a triangle, for example, as a face, atree, an eye, a nose, depending on the context in which the pieces arearranged. Such observation is essential in the study of visual symbols.

This drawing is reproduced from the first volume of Hokusais RapidLessons in Abbreviated Drawing (Riakougwa Hayashinan, 1812).

In the book Hokusai shows how he uses geometric shapes as a guidein drawing certain birds. This exercise may be compared to the

Tangram in that both us e geometric means. The Tangram, however,uses geometry as an end in itself to indicate or symbolize natural

forms-whereas Hokusai uses it as a clue or guide to illustrate them. Inthe artists own words, his system concerns the manner of making

designs with the aid of a ruler or compass, and those who work inthis manner will understand the proportion of things.


8/15

14 15

This character for the word tan(sunrise) is designed within animaginary grid. Geometry functionshere in a manner similar to theprevious illustration, namely as aguide to filling the space correctly, butnot to produce a geometric pattern.

The Chinese character is alwayswritten in an imaginary square.The ninefold square, invented byan anonymous writer of the Tangdynasty, has been employed as themost useful, because it preventsrigid symmetry and helps to achieve

balanced asymmetry. At the same

time it makes the writer aware ofnegative and positive spaces. Eachpart of the character touches oneof the nine squares, thus achievingharmony between the two elementsand the whole.

Within this rather simple disciplinethe calligrapher is able to play withspace, filling it as he feels would bemost appropriate. The compositionof Chinese characters, says ChiangYee, is not governed by inviolablelaws however, there are generalprinciples which cannot be ignoredwith impunity.

The Modulor is a system based on a mathematical key.Taking account of the human scale, it is a method ofachieving harmony and order in a given work.

In his book, The Modulor, Le Corbusier describes hisinvention asa measuring tool (the proportions) based onthe human body (6-foot man) and on mathematics (thegolden section). A man-with-arm-upraised provides, atthe determining points of his occupation of space-foot,solar plexus, head, tips of fingers of the upraised arm-threeintervals which give rise to a series of golden sections,called the Fibonacci series. (1, 1, 2,3,5,8, 13, etc.)


9/15

16 17

The Modulor is a disciplinewhich offers endless variationsand opportunities for play. LeCorbusiers awareness of thesepotentialities is evident from thenumerous references to the gameand play in his book, such as:AlI this work on proportioningand measures is the outcomeof a passion, disinterested anddetached, an exercise, a game.Further, he goes on to say, for ifyou want to play modular

In comparison to most so-calIedsystems of proportion, theModulor is perhaps the leastconfining. The variations, as will

be seen from this ilIustration, arepracticalIy inexhaustible (andthis example utilizes only a very

limited number of possibilities).If, however, the system presentsany difficulties which happento go counter to ones intuitive

judgment, Le Corbusier himselfprovides the answer: I stillreserve the right at any time todoubt the solutions furnished

by the Modulor, keeping intactmy freedom which must dependsolely on my feelings rather thanon my reason.

Like the architects plan, the gridsystem employed by the graphicdesigner provides for an orderlyand harmonious distribution ofmiscellaneous graphic material. Itis a system of proportions based ona module, the standard of which isderived from the material itself. It isa discipline imposed by the designer.

Unlike the Modulor, it is not afixed system based on a specificconcept of proportion, but onewhich must be custom-made foreach problem. Creating the gridcalls for the ability to classify andorganize miscellaneous material,with sufficient foresight to allow forflexibility in handling content whichmay, for one reason or another, bealtered. The grid must define theareas of operation and provide for

different techniques, pictures, text,space between text and pictures,columns of text, page numbers,picture captions, headings and othermiscellaneous items.

Here is a simple grid systemfor a booklet. Devising such agrid involves two creative acts:developing the pattern that is suitablefor the given material and arrangingthis material within the pattern. Ina sense, the creative ability requiredfor the former is no less than thatfor the latter, because the makingof the grid necessitates analyzingsimultaneously all the elementsinvolved. But once it is evolved, thedesigner is free to play to his heartscontent: with pictures, type, paper,ink, color, and with texture, scale,size and contrast.

VariationsandOpportu nities

for Pla y


10/15

18 19

Much of the painting of Josef Albers is based onthis geometric pattern. The pattern is not used,however, in the same manner as the masonslattice. Here it is the painting itself. It represents astrict, immutable arrangement (theme) in whichthe artist, by juxtaposing colors (variations) playsthe fascinating game of deceiving the eye. Thesquares as we see them here appear to recedeinto the picture p lane. However, by skillfulmanipulation of colors, the painting flattens outand is thus seen as a two-dimensional picture.

The many variations based on this and similardesigns attest to the fascination the artist findsfrom the interplay of a great variety of color

schemes and an extremely limited geometricformat.

The grid, then, is the discipline which frees himfrom the time-consuming burden of makingcertain decisions (dimensions, proportions)without which fruitful and creative work isextremely difficult. He can move directly tothose aspects of the problem in which individualexpression, novel ideas, and freedom of choiceare essential.

The grid system has as many detractors as it hasadherents. It has been condemned as stifling,rigid and cold. But this is to confuse the productwith the process. The grid does not automaticallyinsure an exciting product. The designer muststill exercise all the experience at his command,discretion, timing, and a sense of drama andsequence. In brief, the intelligent designer willrecognize that the grid can help him achieveharmony and order, but also that it may, whenand if necessary, be abandoned.

In addition to those already discussed, variationsof the geometric plan are to be found, amongother places, in Japanese architecture, modern

painting, and in Byzantine masons marks,such as the seal at left. This seal employs amathematical key as its design basis. The thicklines represent the mark, the thin lines representthe ground lattice which allows an infinitenumber of combinations.12) The geometricscheme is the discipline in which the designerworks. Designs stemming from such a schemeare limited only by his imagination.

19


11/15

20 21

The kind of grid employed by Japanese architects in theirtraditional houses combines the virtues of determining the sizeof various rooms in the house, floors, walls, furniture, etc., andcreating the style and appearance of the house. The Tatami, astraw mat approximately 3 by 6 feet and 2 inches thick, is themodule or standard from which the plan of the house grows.

Edward S. Morse, in his book, Japanese Homes, describesthe mat system as follows: The architect invariably planshis rooms to accommodate a certain number of mats; and

since these mats have a definite size, any indication on theplan of the number of mats a room is to contain gives atonce its dimensions also.

Once the outer dimensions of the house aredetermined, the mats, together with the Japanesesystem of sliding doors, give complete flexibility in thearrangement and number of rooms. A perfect exampleof form and function, of discipline and play.

There are disciplines other than those based ongeometry, among them availability of materials,reproduction processes, mechanical limitations,economic considerations, legal requirements,time factors, physical handicaps. Some of theseare self-imposed, others are involuntary, but inthe hands of the artist each may contribute to,rather than detract from, the end product.

It is inconceivable to consider Matissescompositions with cut paper without, in someway, linking them to the play elementthe

joy of working with simple colors and thefun of cutting paper dolls. But the greatestsatisfaction, perhaps, is derived from creatinga work of art with ordinary scissors and somecolored paperwith so simple means, suchsatisfying ends.

Similarly the early Cubist collages in which cut


12/15

22 23

Similarly, the early Cubist collages, in which cutpaper played an important part, are productsof strict rules, limited materials: newspapermounted on a surface, with the addition of afew charcoal or pencil lines, usually in blackand white and sometimes with tan or brownor similarly muted colors. These elements were

juggled until they satisfied the artists eye. Theplayfulness and humor in the production ofsome of these compositions in no way detractsfrom the end resulta serious work of art.

One cannot underestimate the importance ofrestraint and playfulness in almost any phaseof Picassos work. Here, for example, one seesa restrained use of the brush and one flat color.The drawing of the childs face, the ornamentand the lettering are all one. Lettering is notused as a complement to the drawing, but asan integral part of the drawing. It serves as

both a garland and a verbal imagea visualpun. What emerges is a kind of game itself,revealing the ingenuity and playfulness of theartist, his ability to deal with problems in thesimplest, most direct, and meaningful manner.

Similarly, this ability to do much with littletofind a bulls head in a bicycle seat and handle

barsis another aspect of Picassos wizardry,his humor, his childlike spontaneity, his skill as apunster and ability to improvise and invent with

limited, often surprising means.


13/15

24 25

This monochrome, Persimmons, by Mu Chi,a thirteenth century Zen priest and painter,is a splendid example of a painting in whichthe artist plays with contrasts (the male andfemale principle in Chinese and Japanesepainting): rough and smooth, empty andfull, one and many, line and mass, black andwhite, tint and shade, up and down. It is astudy in the metamorphosis of a fruit, as wellas of a painting. (The artist, incidentally, never

used any color but black.)The reader may find a parallel, at least inspirit, between this painting and the precedingone by Picasso. Both employ a single color,and exploit this limitation to achieve as muchvariety as possible, and both undoubtedlywere painted very rapidly, a condition oftenconducive to utmost simplification andimprovisation.

In modern times artists like Man Rayand MoholyNagy, working with themost limited photographic means, thephotogram, created highly significantpictures. This technique offers the artistample opportunity to play with lightand a great variety of materials, opaque,translucent, and transparent, to produce,very rapidly, rich and unexpected effects.

The photogram, at the left, made by thewriter some years ago, shows how simplyone is able to capture movement andachieve interesting tonal effects. Because thetechnique itself dictates a certain degree ofspeed the time factor becomes an additionaldiscipline, which acts as a creative stimulus.

roughsmooth

empty full

one many

line mass

black white

tint shade

up down


14/15

26 27

The de Stijl movement, founded in 1917, hada profound influence on painting, architecture,and typography. Piet Zwart, the designerresponsible for this advertisement for theDutch firm Nederlansche Kabelfabriek, wasassociated with this group.

The disciplines which de Stijl encouraged functional use of material and meaningfulform, and the restrained use of color (blackand/or primary colors)are evident inthis design. With a few simple typographicelements and an ingenious play on the letter

O, a humorous, yet significant design wasevolved. A picture is created by typographicmeans: a few type characters and type rulesare so manipulated as to make a usefulproduct, an advertisement. Many examplesof this artists work reveal this same playfulapproach and are worthy of serious study.


15/15

28 !n !!

book proj pdf

Documents