bondeson - some problems about being and predication in plato´s sophist 242-249

7/24/2019 bondeson - Some problems about being and predication in platos Sophist 242-249

1/11

Some Problems about Being and Predication in Plato's

Sophist 242-249

William B. Bondeson

Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 14, Number 1, January

1976, pp. 1-10 (Article)

Published by Johns Hopkins University Press

DOI: 10.1353/hph.2008.0639

For additional information about this article

Access provided by Universidad Complutense de Madrid (2 Sep 2015 13:22 GMT)

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2/11

Some Pr ob le ms about Be ing and

Predicat ion in Plato s

ophist 242-249

W I L L I M B O N D E S O N

O N E O F T H E C E N TR A L T AS KS w h i c h P l a t o s e ts f o r h i ms e l f i n t h e

Sophi s t

i s t o s a y w h a t

b e i n g ( ~ 5 v ) is . I n d o i n g t h is h e m a k e s a v a r i e t y o f p h i lo s o p h i c a l mo v e s . T h e f i r st is t o

s h o w t h a t n o n - b e i n g i n a v e r y r e s t r i c te d s e n s e o f t h e t e r m ( T6 g~ qS ag ~g ~ v ) is a n i mp o s s i -

b l e a n d s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n c e p t . 1 T h i s o c c u p i e s t h e f i rs t p a r t ( 2 3 7 A f t .) o f t h e c e n t r a l

s e c t i o n o f t h e Sophis t . A f t e r d i sc u ss in g s o m e p u z z l e s c o n c e r n i n g d e c e p t iv e a p p e a r a n c e s

( 2 4 0 B ) a n d f a l s e h o o d s ( 2 4 0 D ) , P l a t o t u r n s t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f b e i n g a t 2 4 2 B . I n t h i s

s e c ti o n o f t h e d i a l o g u e P l a t o c l a i ms to s h o w t h a t t h e a t t e m p t s o f p r e v i o u s p h i l o s o p h e r s t o

d e f i n e b e i n g h a v e f a i le d a n d h e m a k e s h i s o w n f i rs t a t t e mp t i n t h e d i a l o g u e t o d e f i n e b e i n g

( c f. 2 4 2 C a n d 2 4 7 E ) . 2 I n t hi s p a p e r I a m c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h is s e c t io n o f t h e Sophi s t

( 2 4 2 - 2 4 9 ) , a n d I w a n t t o s h o w fi rs t t h a t P l a t o ' s n o t i o n o f b ei n g h e r e is a m b i g u o u s , t h e

t e r m x 6 5 v s h if ti ng b e t w e e n b e i n g a n d w h a t h a s b e i n g , b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a n d t h o s e

t h in g s w h i c h p a r t i c i p a t e i n it. S e c o n d , I w a n t t o s h o w t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f b e i n g a t 2 4 8 C

a n d 2 4 9 D a r e n o t o n l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r b u t a l so t h a t, w h e n p r o p e r l y u n d e r -

s t oo d , t h e y m a k e s e ns e o f P l a t o 's u s e o f m o t i o n a n d r e s t i n t h e

Sophis t .

A n d f i n a l l y , I

w a n t t o s h o w t h a t P l a t o i s c a u g h t i n t h e s n a r e s o f s e l f - p r e d i c a t i o n w h e n h e t a l k s a b o u t

b e i n g a n d o t h e r F o r m s o f th e s a m e o n t o l o g i c a l l e ve l. T h i s i s d u e t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e

f o r mu l a t e s t h e d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t a t e me n t s o f i d e n t i t y a n d p r e d i c a t i o n i n t h e a r g u m e n t

a g a in s t P a r m e n i d e s i n t hi s s e c ti o n o f t h e Sophis t .

P l a t o b e g i n s h i s d i s c u s s io n o f b e i n g i n t h e Sophi s t i n a q u a s i - h i s to r i c a l w a y b y d e a l i n g

w i t h h is p r ed e c e s s o r s ' a t t e m p t s t o c h a r a c t e ri z e i t. T h e s t a t e m e n t a t 2 4 2 C 4 - 6 s e rv e s a s a n

o u tl in e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h f ol lo w : P a r m e n i d e s a n d t h e o t h e r p h i lo s o p h e r s h a v e a t -

t e mp t e d t o d e t e r mi n e t h e n u mb e r ( ~ t t o a ) a n d c h a r a c t e r ( ~ o {a ) o f t h e t h i n g s w h i c h a r e

c a ll ed T& 5 w a . T h o s e w h o h a v e t ri e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n u m b e r o f T& 5 w c t a r e th e

m o n i s t s a n d p lu r al is ts i n 2 4 3 A - 2 4 5 E ; t h o s e w h o h a v e t r ie d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r c h a r a c -

t e r a r e t h e m a t e r ia l is t s a n d i d e a li s t s i n 2 4 6 A - 2 4 9 D . P l a t o a p p e a r s t o b e ar g u i n g t h a t

Cf. my Non-being and the One: Some Connections between Plato's Sophis t and Parmen-

ides, forthcom ing in Apeiron. My view is somewhat different from that of G. E. L. Owen's

Plato on Not-Being in Plato, A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. G. Vlastos (Garden City, New

York : D oub leday and Co., 1971), vol. I .

2 Cf. Owen, ibid. p. 229, n. 14. Owen presents a convincing case that Plato is giving a defini-

tion (as opposed to a m ark o r sign ) of being. However, O wen also seems to take the view, for

example against Moravcsik in Being and Meaning in the Sophist Acta Philosophica Fennica,

XI V [1962]), that little of philosophical significance happens in 242-249. I ho pe to show in this

pape r that this is not the case.

[ ]


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2 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

def in ing o r c harac ter iz ing x& ?Jvx& s the sam e as s ta t ing w ha t en t i tes are the p r ope r sub-

j ec ts o f d i sco u rse . In an o th e r w ay su ch a ch a rac t e r i za t io n i s an a t t em p t to d e t e rm in e w h a t

th in g s can b e sa id to b e . T h i s am o u n t s to a d e f in i ti o n o f b e in g i t se l f . I t s eems to b e a t l eas t

p a r t o f th e p u r p o s e o f t h e f o l lo w i n g a r g u m e n t s t o s e p a r a te o u t n o t o n l y t h e v a r i o u s s e n se s

o f i s ( i n th e lim i t ed w a y in w h ich P la to d o es th i s ) , b u t a l so to sh ed so me lig h t o n th e

d is t inct ion betw een b eing (x6 ~v) and th ings w hich h av e being (z& ?Jr-ca).

T h a t t h is l a t te r d i s ti n c ti o n i s n o t y e t m a d e i s s h o w n f r o m t h e d o u b l e w a y i n w h i c h t h e

b as i c q u es t io n in th i s sec t io n i s r a i sed ; i . e . , t o a sk w h a t t h e n u mb er an d ch a rac t e r o f

r& ~ w a a re i s n o t d i s t in g ui sh ed f ro m ask in g w h a t t h e t e rm

x b

?Jr signifies. F o r th e pr ese nt,

a co n cep tu a l t e rmin o lo g y w i ll s e rv e to s t a t e th e p ro b le m: P la to v i ew s h i s p red ecesso r s '

w o rk as a t t emp t s to d e f in e b e in g in t e rms o f a p a r t i cu la r co n cep t o r se t o f co n ce p t s .

T h u s t h e p lu r a li st s ( 2 4 3 D 6 - 2 2 4 B 4 ) , t h o se w h o w a n t t o d e f i n e b e i n g i n t e r m s o f a p a i r

o f co n cep t s , a r e r ep resen ted as ma in ta in in g th a t ev e ry th in g o r t h e u n iv e r se (T&

;xrvrct) is h o t o r co ld . W h a t th e i s m ean s i s t h e d i f f icu l ty . I t co u ld me an , a s a p h y s ica l

t h e o r y , t h a t e v e r y t h in g i s m a d e u p o f t h e s e t w o e l e m e n t s ( w h ic h m i g h t b e m o r e a c c u -

ra t e h i s to r i ca lly ) , b u t P l a to in t e rp re t s t h ese p lu ra l i s ts a s ma in ta in in g th e id e n t i ty o f h o t

a n d c o ld w i th b e i ng . O r i n a n o t h e r w a y , t h e y h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o l im i t t h e m e a n i n g o f t o

b e t o t o b e h o t a n d t o b e c o ld . ' 8 I f t h es e d o n o t h a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g , t h e n , P l a t o

a rg u es , h o t , co ld an d b e in g a re d i s t in c t an d ev e ry th in g wiU b e m o re th an th e o r ig in a l p a i r .

T h e a r g u m e n t is b r i ef a n d n o t a g o o d o n e . W h a t e v e r d i s ti n c ti o n t h e r e is t o b e m a d e d e -

p en d s o n g iv in g an acco u n t o f b e in g an d th i s is j u s t w h a t i s so u g h t . I t sh o u ld b e n o t i ced

h ere th a t t h e d i s t in c t io n r e s ts u p o n c o m m o n sen se , a f ea tu re o f t h i s an d su cceed in g a rg u -

me n t s w h ich w il l b e d i scu ssed l a t e r i n thi s p ap er . B u t t h e a rg u me n t a s i t s t an d s i s sca rce ly

e f fec t iv e ag a in s t d i s ju n c t iv e d e f in i t i o n s . I f b e in g i s i d en t i f i ed w i th h o t an d co ld , P l a to

a r g ue s , t h e n t h e y ar e o n e a n d n o l o n g e r t w o . B e i n g m u s t b e s o m e t h i r d t hi n g. A s M o r -

av cs ik p o in ts o u t , t h i s w o u ld n o t co n v in ce h is o p p o n en t s . 4

P la to d o es n o t sp en d mu ch e f fo r t o n th e p lu ra li s t s , p ro b a b ly b ecau se h i s o w n acco u n t

o f b e in g i s p lu ra li s ti c , a l th o u g h in a w id e r sen se w h ich w i l l b e d i scu ssed sh o r t ly . H e t ak es

m u c h g r e a t e r p a i n s w i t h t h e m o n i s t s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h P a r m e n i d e s i n 2 4 4 B 6 -

2 4 5 E 2 . T h i s s e c ti o n c a n b e d iv i d e d i n t o t w o a r g u m e n t s ; t h e f i rs t ( 2 4 4 B 9 - D 1 3 ) i s d i -

r e c t e d a g a i n s t a l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P a r m e n i d e s ' m o n i s m , t h e s e c o n d ( 2 4 4 D 1 1 -

2 4 5 E 2 ) i s d i r ec t ed ag a in s t P a rmen id es ' acco u n t o f h i s u n i t a ry en t i ty a s i d en t i ca l w i th

b e ing . T h e seco n d a rg u m en t i s co n cern ed a l so w i th d i s t in g u i sh in g b e in g , w h o len ess a n d

u n i ty a s co n cep t s a n d , u l t ima te ly , a s d i s t in c t F o rms .

T h e f ir s t a r g u m e n t c a n b e e a s i l y p a r a p h r a s e d . P a r m e n i d e s p o s i ts a u n i q u e e n t i t y b u t i n

so d o in g h e ad m i t s tw o n ame s o r d esc r ip t io n s fo r t h a t en t i t y . I t can b e ca l l ed b e in g

an d o n e . B u t t o say th i s en ta i ls t h a t t h e re a re tw o t e rms a n d a s in g le en t i t y d esc r ib ed

b y th em, in e f f ec t t h ree th in g s in s t ead o f P a rm en id es ' o r ig in a l o n e . 5 T h i s b ea r s a r e se m-

b lan ce to th e f i rs t h y p o th es i s o f t h e

P a r m e n i d e s

i .e . , i f there i s on ly a s ing le en t i ty , and

th a t en t i t y i s a p u re u n i ty , t h en th a t en t i t y can n o t h av e a n a m e (c f. P a r m . 1 4 2 A 3 - 6 a n d

8 Cf. A. E. Taylor, trans, and Intro., Plato: the Sophist and Statesman ed. R. Klibansky and

E. A nseombe (London: Thomas Nelson a nd Sons, 1961), p. 138, n.

4 Being and Meaning p. 29.

5 Cf. Taylor's paraphrase,

Sophist and Statesman

p. 139, n.; M oravcsik's comments,

Being

and Meaning

pp. 30-31; and J. H. Ackril l, ~ T M II A O K H EIA ~N , reprinted in the Vlastos

anthology (supra .), p. 204 .


4/11

B E I N G A N D P R E D I C A T I O N 3

1 6 4 A 7 - B 2 ) ; t h e re c a n b e n o d i s c o u rs e a b o u t s u c h a n e n t i ty . ~ T h e a r g u m e n t i n t h e

S o p h i s t

a l so re s ts o n a c o m m o n s e n se d i s ti n c ti o n b e t w e e n t e r m a n d t h in g , o n e w h i c h r e -

c u r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e Sophis t . ~

T h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t i s m o r e c o m p l e x ; it b e g i n s w i t h t h e d i s j u n c ti o n : P a r m e n i d e s '

u n i t a r y b e i n g e i t h e r i s o r is n o t a w h o l e ( 2 4 4 D 1 4 - 1 5 ) . 8 B u t t h e E l e a t i c S t r a n g e r a r g u e s

f r o m t h e h y p o t h e s is t h a t b e i n g i s a w h o l e , l e a v i n g as i d e w h a t e v e r c o n n e c t i o n s P a r m e n i d e s

m i g h t h a v e m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n b e i n g a n d h i s u n i q u e e n t it y .

1 . I f b e i n g i s a w h o l e , t h e n i t m u s t b e a w h o l e w h i c h h a s p a r t s . ( 2 4 4 D 1 4 -

2 4 4 E 7 )

T h i s fo l lo w s f r o m t h e d e s c r i p t io n o f b e i n g i n P a r m e n i d e s ' q u o t e d s t a t em e n t s . B u t b e -

i n g i s a m b i g u o u s . I t m i g h t m e a n e i t h e r w h a t h a s b e i n g o r b e i n g i t se lf . T h u s s t a t e m e n t 1

m a y m e a n e i th e r t h a t e v e r y th i n g w h i c h h a s b e i n g i s a w h o l e a n d h a s p a r t s o r t h a t b e i n g

i t se l f i s a w h o l e a n d h a s p a r t s . A l t h o u g h P l a t o d o e s n o t y e t d r a w s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n , t h i s

d o e s n o t h i n d e r h is d i s ti n g u i s h in g b e i n g , u n i t y , a n d w h o l e n e s s b e c a u s e , a s w i ll b e p o i n t e d

o u t l a t er , i t i s u l t i m a t e l y b a s e d o n t h e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t t o b e , t o b e o n e , a n d

t o b e a w h o l e m e a n . P a r m e n i d e s , i n h i s c o n f u s e d w a y , s e e m s to h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t

t h e s e th r e e ( n o m a t t e r i n w h a t w a y t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s s t a t e d ) w e r e i d e n t i c a l a n d t h i s i m -

p l i e d f o r h i m , b e c a u s e h e d i d n o t d i s ti n g u is h b e t w e e n i d e n t i t y a n d p r e d i c a t i o n , t h a t h i s

u n i q u e e n t i t y ( w h e t h e r w e c al l i t b e i n g o r t h e o n e ) w a s th e o n l y g e n u i n e e n t it y . P l a t o ,

- - 6 0 w e n p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e f ir st h y p o t h e s i s o f th e Parmenides c a n a l s o b e c o n s tr u e d a s P l a t o ' s

o w n c r i t ic i s m o f hi s e a r l i e r t h e o r y o f F o r m s : S o t h e d e d u c t i o n s o f t h e s e c o n d p a r t [ o f t h e

Parmenides] b eg in w i th a n eg a t iv e m o v em en t b ec au se th e g e n e r a l e ff ec t o f t h a t m o v em en t i s t o

s h o w t h e b a n k r u p t c y o f o n e w a y o f d e a l i n g w i t h u n i t y w h i c h h a d b e e n c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f t h e t h e o r y

o f F o r m s b r o u g h t u p b y S o c r a t e s i n t h e f i rs t p a r t ( 1 2 9 A - E ; c f , Rep . 5 2 5 E ) . Ju s t a s a d y e r ' s sam p le

o f v e r m i l io n m ig h t b e a p iece o f c lo th h av in g th a t an d n o o th e r co lo r , so it h ad b een th o u g h t

t h a t i n a h i g h e r w o r l d u n i t y c o u l d b e r e p r e s e n te d b y a F o r m s o p a r a d i g m a t i c a l l y u n i t a r y a s t o

h a v e n o s o r t o f p l u r a l i t y i n i t a t a ll . T h e n o t i o n w a s h e l p e d b y i d e n t i fy i n g th e F o r m w i t h t h e

n u m b e r 1 Rep. 5 2 5 E ) . H o w c a n I b e a n o t h e r n u m b e r o f a n y t h i n g ? B u t t h e n h o w c a n i t e v e n b e

d e f in e d b y a n y c o n j u n c ti o n o f p ro p e r t i es ? T h e q u e s ti o n b e l o n g s t o t h e l u m b e r - r o o m o f p h i l o s o p h y

p a r t l y b e ca u s e t h e m o v e m e n t I A [ O w e n ' s n u m b e r f o r t h e f ir s t h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e Parmenides] was ,

inter alia, the n e c e s s ar y c l e a r in g o p e r a t i o n ( N o t e s o n R y l e ' s P l a t o , i n Ryle: A Collection of

Critical Essays, e d . O . P . W o o d a n d G . P i t ch e r [ G e r d e n C i t y, N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y a n d C o . ,

1970] p. 344).

r M o r a v c s i k i s c o r r e c t i n m a i n t a i n i n g a g a in s t C o r n f o r d t h a t i n a t t a c k in g P a r m e n i d e s P l a t o

( h a s n o t ) p r e s u p p o s e d h i s o w n t h e o r y o f F o r m s . T h i s w o u l d h a v e b e e n r a t h e r o d d . W h a t P l a t o

d o es a s su m e i s t h a t t h e r e i s k n o wled g e an d th a t w e ap p ly te r m s to en t i t i e s . T h e ac t iv i t ie s o f t h e

av e r ag e in t e l l i g en t p e r so n p r e su p p o se a w o r ld wh ich co n s i s t s o f a p lu r a l i t y o f i n t e l l i g ib l e en t i t ie s .

I n t ak in g th i s a s h i s s t a r ti n g p o in t , an d in so m e o f t h e su b seq u en t a r g u m en t s , P l a to b a se s h i s c a se

o n c o m m o n s e ns e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e d i a l o g u e h e f ig h ts c l a i m s t h a t g o a g a i n s t c o m m o n - s e n s e . S u c h

c l a i m s a r e : t h a t t h e r e i s n o p l u r a l i t y , t h a t t h e r e a r e n o m e a n i n g f u l s t a t e m e n t s, a n d t h a t t h e r e i s n o

m e an in g f u l f a l seh o o d . I t i s ch a r ac t e r i s t i c o f P l a to t h a t h e t h o u g h t i t n ecessa r y to co n s t r u c t e l ab o r -

a t e m e tap h y s i ca l d e f en se s o f co m m o n - sen se t r u th s

Being and Meaning,

p p . 3 0 - 3 1 ) . B u t i t d o es

n o t f o l l o w f r o m t h i s t h a t F o r m s a r e n o t v e r y c l o s e t o t h e s u r fa c e . F o r P l a t o t o d i s t i n g u is h b e -

t w e e n t e r m s o r c o n c e p t s is a ls o to d i s ti n g u i sh b e t w e e n F o r m s . M o r a v c s i k ' s r e m a r k s a n d m i n e a r e

t o b e a p p l i e d to t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t P a r m e n i d e s a l so .

8 T h i s s t a t e m e n t a s i t s ta n d s is a m b i g u o u s . I t m i g h t m e a n e i t h e r t h a t P a r m e n i d e s ' u n i t a r y e n -

t i t y i s o r is n o t t o b e id en t i f ied w i th wh o len ess o r t h a t i t i s o r i s n o t a w h o le i n t h e p r ed ica t iv e

s e n se . T h e S t r a n g e r t a k e s i t p r e d i c at i v e ly a n d a r g u e s f r o m t h i s p o i n t . T h i s i s o n e i n s t a n c e w h e r e

P a r m e n i d e s c a n b e r e f u t e d b e c a u se h e h a s n o t d i s t in g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e i s o f i d e n t i t y a n d t h e

i s o f p r ed ica t io n .


5/11

4

H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

o n th e o th e r h an d , i s a t t emp t in g to so r t o u t t h e mean in g s o f t h ese t e rms , o r , i n th e ma-

t e r i a l mo d e , t o so r t o u t t h e r e l ev an t p ro p er ti e s . W h e th e r h e can l eg i t ima te ly d o th i s w i th -

o u t d i s t in g u i shin g b e tw een b e in g , u n i ty , a n d w h o len ess an d th e en t i t i e s w h ich

are

o n e ,

wh ole , e tc . w i l l be d iscussed la ter .

2 . S o m eth in g m ay h av e th e a t t r i b u te (n d 0 o g ) o f u n i ty in so f a r a s i t i s o n e

w h o l e a n d s u m o f i ts p a r ts . ( 2 4 5 A 1 - 3 )

3 . B u t t h is c a n n o t b e id e n t ic a l w i t h u n i t y b e c a u s e t o b e o n e d o e s n o t m e a n

t o b e m a n y ( or t o b e m a d e u p o f m a n y pa r ts ) . ( 2 4 5 A 8 - B 2 )

T h ese tw o s t ep s se rv e to d i s t in g u i sh u n i ty f ro m p lu ra l i ty . T h i s sh o u ld n o t b e t ak en as im -

p l y i n g t h a t u n i t y ( as m i g h t b e i n f e rr e d f r o m 2 4 5 A 5 - 6 ) i s o n e s i m p l y o r t r u l y . S u c h

an e n t i ty seems to b e ru l ed o u t i n th e f ir s t h y p o th es i s o f t h e

P a r m e n i d e s . T h e

m o r e g e n -

e ra l p o in t i s t h a t ev e ry th in g i s b o th m an y an d o n e b u t n o t , o f co u r se , i n th e sam e sen se .

T h e n ex t s t ep s di s tin g u ish b e in g an d w h o len ess in th e f o rm o f a d i s ju n c t io n .

4 a . E i th e r b e ing h as th e a t t r i b u te (7 r6 0o ;) o f u n i ty an d i s o n e an d a w h o le

o r 4 b . b e in g i s n o t a w h o l e ( a n d t h e r e fo r e n o t o n e w h o l e ). ( 2 4 5 B 4 - 5 )

5 . I f b e in g h as th e ~ x t0 o ; o f u n i ty , it i s n o t i d en t i ca l w i th u n i ty an d th e re i s

m o r e t h a n o n e e n t it y . ( 2 4 5 B 7 - 9 )

S ta t em en t 5 g iv es an in s tan ce o f a ru le w h ich ap p ear s to b e b as i c to m an y o f P la to ' s a rg u -

me n t s b o th h e re a n d e l sew h ere , i .e . , i f x h as th e : t t 0 o ; o f y , t h en x i s n o t i d en t i ca l w i th y .

A l t h o u g h s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t P l a t o d i d n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

id en t i ty an d p red ica t io n , i t i s n o t d i f f icu l t t o see th a t t h e d i s t in c tio n is b e in g u se d in s t a t e -

me n t s 2 an d 3 a n d in th e co n seq u en t o f 5 . T h e ru l e th u s a l lo w s fo r a d i s t in c t io n b e tw e en

b e in g an d u n i ty an d th i s am o u n t s to a r e fu t a t io n o f P a rm en id es ' o r ig in a l th es i s t h a t t h e re

is on ly a sing le en t i ty . Hen ce to th is po in t there i s a d is t inc t ion , in the f i rs t p lace , betw een

u n i ty an d w h o len ess (a s i s imp l i ed b y s t a t em en t s 2 a n d 3 ) , an d seco n d , t h e re is a d i s t in c -

t io n b e tw ee n b e in g an d u n i ty . W h a t r ema in s i s a d i s t in c t io n b e tw e en b e in g an d w h o len ess

an d th e co n f i rm a t io n o f t h e o r ig in a l p remise th a t b e in g i s a w h o le b u t n o t i d en t i ca l w i th

i t

6 . I f b e in g is n o t a w h o le b y h av in g th e : t~0 o ~ o f w h o len ess an d th e re i s su ch

a th in g as w h o len ess , t h en b e in g w i l l t u rn o u t t o b e in co mp le t e ( i .e . , i t w i ll

n o t b e a w h o le ) . ( 2 4 5 C 1 - 6 )

7 . I f b e in g an d w h o len ess each h av e th e i r o w n n a tu re an d a re n o t i d en t ica l ,

t h e n t h e re a r e m o r e t h i n g s t h a n o n e . ( 2 4 5 C 8 - 9 )

T h e p o in t o f s t a t emen t 6 i s a r ep e t i t i o n o f 4 b , b u t t h i s i s c l ea r ly w h a t P la to w an t s t o

d en y . I t ap p ea r s th a t 2 4 5 C 1 l -D 1 0 i s d es ig n ed to e s t ab l i sh th i s d en ia l o n th e g ro u n d s

th a t a n y en t i ty i s a w h o le in so m e sen se o r e l se q u an t i t a t iv e p red ica t es co u ld n o t b e ap -

p l i ed to i t . T h i s n o t o n ly d en ies s t a t eme n t 6 , b u t i t a l so a f f i rms th e o r ig in a l h y p o th es i s o f

s t a t em en t 1 . B e in g , t h en , is a w h o le a n d h as th e ~ t&0 og o f w h o len ess . A n d , b y th e ru l e

s t a t ed ab o v e th a t i f x h as th e ~ td 0o g o f y , t h en x an d y a re n o t i d en t i ca l, t h en i f b e in g h as

th e 7t~ t0 og o f w h o len ess th ey a re n o n - id en t i ca l an d e ach h as i ts o w n n a tu r e ( s t a t em en t

7 ). F ro m th i s fo l lo w s th e r e fu t a t io n o f P a rm en id e s ' u n i t a ry en t i ty .9

T h e a b o v e a r g u m e n t c o n ta i n s m a n y d if fi c ul ti e s w h i c h m u s t b e e x p l o re d . B u t b e f o r e

d o in g th i s, I sh a ll d i scu ss th e a rg u m en t s ag a in s t t h e ma te r i a l i s ts an d id ea l is t s in 2 4 6 A -

2 4 9 D s in ce h e re P la to l ay s d o w n a d e f in i t i o n o f b e in g. T h e ease ag a in s t t h e ma te r i a l i s t s

i s n o t a s o u n d o n e . T h e y a d m i t th a t s o u ls a r e ~ ; v ~ t ( 2 4 6 E 6 ) a n d t h e y a l s o a d m i t t h a t

9 This analysis owes much to Moravesik

Being and Meaning,

pp. 3 liT.) but differs fro m his

at:count in several po n ts of detail. The fundamental difference is in the statement of the rule .


6/11


w h a t e v e r c a n b e s a i d t o b e p r e s e n t t o o r a b s e n t f r o m s o m e t h i n g a r e 5 v- re . I f t h e m a -

t e r i a l i s t s u se th e c r i t e r i a o f v i s ib i l i t y an d t an g ib i l i t y to d e t e rmin e th e i r se t o f en t i t i e s

(6 0 ~ b v x&~ &n zdv , 2 4 7 B 3 ) , t h e y w i ll b e fo rce d e i th e r t o say in w h a t sen se th e m o ra l

q u a l it i e s can b e f i tt ed to th ese c r it e r ia o r t o g iv e m o re ad eq u a te c r i t e r i a fo r so m eth in g to

b e ma te r i a l . A s i t s t an d s th e i r c r it e r ia a re to o c ru d e , b u t t h i s is a l l t h e a rg u m en t d i r ec t e d

a g a i n s t t h e m c a n h o p e t o s h o w . T h e i n t e n t i o n o f P l a t o ' s a r g u m e n t i s t o s h o w h o w t h e

mate r i a l i s t s h av e t r i ed to l im i t t h e c l as s o f x h 5 vT ct. B u t t h e a rg u m en t co u ld su cce ed o n ly

i f i t co u ld b e sh o w n th a t a t l eas t so me o f t h e th in g s w h ich th e ma te r i a l i s t s h av e ca l l ed

co rp or ea l (o(b~t~t~ov,2 4 7 B 8 ) a re r ea lly in co rp o rea l (~ od Jr t(~o v, 2 4 7 D 1 ) . T h ey m ay h av e

a d i f f i cu l ty b u t t h ey a re n o t r e fu t ed .

T h e re i s an in t e res tin g h i s to r ica l a sp ec t t o th is a rg u m en t . F i r s t , t h e re i s n o h es i t a t io n

h ere to ca l l ma te r i a l t h in g s ~ w ct . T h ey a re g iv en w h a t ap p ear s to b e th e same s t a tu s a s

th a t g iv en to th e F o r m s in th e ea r l ie r d i a lo g u es ; t h e b e in g -b ec o m in g d i s t in c t io n w as co -

o rd in a te w i th ( ro u g h ly , s ince I d o n o t h av e th e sp ace fo r a d e t a i l ed t r ea tme n t o f t h e ea r l i e r

d i a lo g u es ) a d is t in c tio n b e tw een th o se en ti t ie s w h ich a re e t e rn a l ly an d th o se w h ich w e re

i n c o n ti n u a l f l ux . T h e f o r m e r w e r e t h e o n l y o b ie c t s o f k n o w l e d g e , t h e F o r m s , a n d t h e

l a t te r th e o b j e ct s o f s o m e l o w e r f o r m o f c og n i t io n , e . g ., o p i n io n . T h e f o r m e r h a d t r u e

b e i n g a n d b e ca u s e t h e la t te r w e r e c o n t in u a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e y c o u l d n o t b e s a id to b e i n

a n y se n se b u t o n ly t o b e c o m e . T h i s m a y n o t b e a n e nt i r e ly f a i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w h a t

o ccu r s in th e ea r l i e r d ia lo g u es b u t i f an y so r t o f v i ew l ik e th i s w ere s t il l h e ld b y P la to , t h i s

po in t in the

S o p h i s t

w o u l d s e e m a n a t u r a l p l a c e t o i n t r o d u c e i t . B u t i t is a n o b v i o u s c o n -

seq u en ce o f t h e a rg u men t ag a in s t t h e ma te r i a l i s t s t h a t sen s ib l es an d /o r ma te r i a l o b jec t s

a r e ~ v m . T h i s i s s u p p o rt e d b y t h e w a y t h e f r i e n d s o f t h e F o r m s a r e d e a lt w i t h i n th e

fo l lowing sect ion .

H o w e v e r , o u t o f t hi s a r g u m e n t c o m e s a n a c c o u n t o f b e i n g w h i c h is r e l ev a n t t o m a n y

o f t h e a rg u m e n t s in th e d ia l og u e . B e i n g o r x& 5 w a a r e c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y t h e i r p o w e r

(~ a3 va~ttg, 2 4 7 E 3 -4 ) . B u t i t sh o u ld b e n o t i ced th a t t h i s is q u a l i f i ed b y w h a t im m ed ia t e ly

p reced es , i . e . , x h ~ v za a re ch a rac t e r i zed b y th e i r p o w er o f ac t in g an d b e in g ac t ed

u p o n ( : t o t e r a n d :t (x 0~ v, 2 4 7 E 1 ) . T h i s r eca ll s t h e an a ly s i s o f sen sa tio n in th e

T h e a e t e -

t u s (1 5 6 A f t . ) w h ere th e ey e an d th e o b jec t seen a re b o th ac t iv e an d p ass iv e w i th r eg a rd

t o o n e a n o t h e r . H o w e v e r , a w i d e r s e n se o f a c t i o n a n d p a s s i o n s e e m s t o b e i n t e n d e d

h e r e . I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t a b o v e t h a t h a v i n g th e ~ t~ 0o g o f x m e a n s h a v i n g

t h e p r e d i c a te x . I n P l a to n i c l a n g u a g e t h is s e e m s t o m e a n th a t x a f f e c t s o r a c t s u p o n

t h a t w h i c h h a s t h e :r~ 0o g o f x a n d t h a t w h a t h a s th i s p r o p e r t y is a c t e d u p o n o r i s

p ass iv e . T h u s i f rh ~ v ~c t a re ch a rac t e r i zed b y th e i r cap a c i ty to ac t an d b e ac t ed u p o n ,

th i s seems to m ean th a t an y su b jec t o f d i sco u r se , in so f a r a s i t i s sp o k e n a b o u t an d v a r i -

o u s p ro p er t i e s a re p red ica t ed o f i t , fa l ls in th e c l a s s o f x h 5 v za . B u t i t a l so fo llo w s f ro m

t h i s th a t i f x h a s t h e p r o p e r t y o f y , t h e n , b y t h i s a c c o u n t , b o t h x a n d y c a n b e g e n u i n e

su b jec t s o f d i sco u r se, a~ In w h a t sen se th i s i s a d e f in i t i o n o f x & 8 w a w i l l b e d i scu ssed

shor t ly .

T h e ab o v e acco u n t o f -c& ~ v ra h as b een p l ay e d d o w n in s ig ni f ican ce b y so me co m m en -

ta to r s n b u t I sh a l l sh o w th a t i t is co n s i s t en t w i th w h a t h as a l r ead y b een m ain ta in ed in th e

a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e p l ur a li st s a n d m o n i s t s a n d t h a t i t h a r m o n i z e s w i t h t h e a c c o u n t o f

lo Cf. Moravcsik,

Being and Meaning,

p. 27.

al E.g., F. M . Cornford,

Plato s Theory of Kn owledg e

(N ew Yo rk: Liberal Arts Press, 1957),

pp. 238- 239, and A. E. Taylor, Pla to: The Man and His Work ( 'New Yo rk: Meridian Books,

1957), pp. 384-385. Ow en, however, takes this to be a definition (ef. m y n.2 above).


7/11


x& ~ v -c a i n t h e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e f r i e n d s o f t h e F o r m s w h i c h f o l lo w . T h e s e p h i l -

o s o p h e r s ( w h e t h e r t h e y b e P l a t o ' s a c t u a l o p p o n e n t s , h i s s t u d e n t s, o r h is e a r l ie r s e lf w i l l

n o t b e d i s c u s s e d ) w a n t t o m a i n t a i n a ri g id d i s ti n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e r e a l m s o f o 6o (,~ a n d

y ~ w lO t g, t h e l a tt e r a p p r e h e n d e d b y p e r c e p t i o n ( a ~ o0 r lo tg ) a n d t h e f o r m e r a p p r e h e n d e d b y

r e a s o n ( ~ oy to ~ t6 g, 2 4 8 A 7 - 1 3 ) . T h e y a l lo w f o r s o m e s o r t o f i n t e ra c t i o n (

2 4 8 A 1 0 ) b e t w e e n e a c h o f t h e s e r e a lm s a n d t h e k n o w e r o r p e r c e iv e r , b u t t h e y w i ll n o t

a d m i t t he a c t i o n -p a s s i o n d e s cr ip t io n fo r t he r e a l m o f o ~ o ( a ( 2 4 8 C 6 - 8 ) . T h e y d o a d m i t

t h a t k n o w i n g is a k i n d o f a c t i n g a n d t h e r e fo r e t h a t w h a t i s k n o w n i s a c t e d u p o n o r

a f f e c t e d . F r o m t hi s i t i s a r g u e d ( i n a h i g h l y i n f o r m a l w a y ) t h a t s i nc e th e y a d m i t t h a t

t h e r e is s u c h a t h i n g a s k n o w l e d g e t h e y m u s t a l s o a d m i t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s o u l, l if e , a n d

m o t i o n . M o r e g e n e r a ll y , th e y m u s t a d m i t t h a t m o t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r f o r t h e r e t o b e

k n o w l e d g e ( 2 4 9 B 5 - 6 ) . B u t i f t h e r e w e r e m o t i o n i n a n u n q u a l if i e d s e n se , t h e n t h e r e

w o u l d b e n o k n o w l e d g e , s in c e k n o w l e d g e ( o r m i n d , v oa)g ) a l s o r e q u i r e s t h a t w h a t i s

k n o w n b e , i n s o m e se n s e , a t r e s t . T h e a r g u m e n t e n d s w i th t h e a c c o u n t o f b e i n g a s w h a t -

e v e r is m o v e d a n d u n m o v e d ( ~ o a a 2 1 5 2 4 9 D 3 ) .

I t i s d if fi cu lt t o tr a c e t h e th r e a d o f th e a r g u m e n t h e r e a n d t o d e te r m i n e h o w m u c h

w e i g h t P l a t o c o n s i d e r e d i t t o h a v e , b u t i t a p p e a r s t o b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h a t a c c o u n t o f

b e i n g g iv e n a t th e e n d o f th e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t th e m a t e r i a li s t s. T I f w e s a y th a t w h e n y

i s p r e d i c a t e d o f x , x is a f f e c t e d b y y , i t c a n , in a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e a t le a s t , b e m a i n -

t a i n e d th a t y a c t s u p o n x . I n a n o t h e r s e n s e , if y i s p r e d i c a t e d o f x , t h e n x m u s t b e , in

s o m e w a y , l o c a t e a b le o r , i n P l a t o ' s l a n g u a g e , a t r e s t . T h e a c t i o n - p a s s i o n t e r m i n o l o g y

c a n b e l in k e d i n t his w a y w i t h t h e m o t i o n - r e s t t e r m i n o l o g y . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s T h a v e

r e a d t hi s s e c ti o n a s m a i n t a in i n g t h a t w h a t i s k n o w n , e . g ., F o r m s , a r e a f f e c t e d i n s o f a r

a s d a t e d t e m p o r a l p r o p o s i t io n s a r e tr u e o f t h e m . H o w e v e r , b o t h o f t h e se s e c t i o n s s e e m

t o b e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e m o r e g e n e r a l v i e w t h a t 5 w a m u s t b e a t r e s t i n o r d e r t o h a v e

p r o p e r t i e s p r e d i c a te d o f t h e m a n d t h a t, i n so f a r a s p r o p e r t i e s a r e p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e m ,

t h e y a r e i n m o t i o n . T h e r e i s n o n e e d t o r e s t r ic t t h is a n a l y si s t o t e m p o r a l p r o p o s i t i o n s .

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , m o t i o n a n d r e s t a r e u s e d i n a w i d e s e n s e . B u t t h e r e i s a f u r t h e r

p o i n t w h i c h c a n a t l e a s t b e s u g g e s t e d , i f n o t f u l ly d e f e n d e d h e r e . I h a v e a t t e m p t e d e l s e -

w h e r e t o s h o w t h a t P l a t o , i n th e l a t e r d i a l o g u e s a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e Theaetetus, main-

12 T h i s p a s s a g e h a s b e e n s u b j e c t t o a w i d e v a r i e ty o f i n t e r p r e ta t i o n s . F o r a s u r v e y o f s o m e

r e c e n t w o r k e l . H a r o l d C h e r n is s , Plato (1950-1957), Lustrum, 4 , 1 8 5 - 1 8 8 . T h e m a i n p r o b l e m i s

the in terp re ta t ion o f xb nc twe~. (7~; 5v ; i t rec a l l s Republic 4 7 7 A w h e r e P l a t o a r g u e s t h a t

xb n tt~xe~.tS~ 5v i s nc tvze~.tS; V~,o~orbv . Bu t do es th i s p assa ge nec essar i ly ha ve to ha rk ba ck to the

o n t o l o g y o f t h e Republic? S u c h a q u e s t i o n i s t o o e l a b o r a t e f o r d i s c u ss io n h e r e e x c e p t f o r s o m e

t e n t a t i v e c o m m e n t s . C l e a r l y o n e o f t h e m a i n c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t

t h e mo n i s t s , p l u r a l i s t s , ma t e r i a l i s t s , an d i d ea l i s t s i s t h a t t h e i r o n t o l o g i e s h av e b een t o o r e s t r i c t ed .

A n d , i n p a r t i cu l a r , t h e i d ea l i s t s h av e n o t r e co g n i zed t h a t c e r t a i n ac t i v e o r l i v i n g en t i t i e s s h o u l d

b e i n c l u d e d i n a n y a d e q u a t e l i s t o f w h a t i s . T h u s t h e p a s s a g e c o u l d b e c o n s t r u e d a s s t a t i n g t h a t

l if e , s o ul , m i n d , e tc . r e a l l y a r e i n t h e s en se t h a t t h ey h av e b e i n g , a r e 5 ~ t t an d a r e s u b j ec t s o f

d i s c o u r s e j u s t l i k e a n y F o r m o r m a t e r i a l o b j e c t . A n d i t i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 2 4 8 E a l o n g t h e s e

l i n e s w h i ch I s h o u l d p r e f e r ; I t ak e t h i s a l s o t o b e t h e i mp l i ca t i o n o f w h a t ap p ea r s t o b e an ea r l i e r

b u t r e l a t e d p a s s a g e 2 4 7 A 8 - 9 . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s t o f a c e t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e l i n e s i m -

m e d i a t e l y f o l lo w i n g th e 2 4 8 E p a ss a g e , w h a t i s ~ c ~ v x e ~ ~ i s s a id to h a v e m i n d , l if e , e t c . ( of .

2 4 9 A 4 , 7 , a n d p o s s i b l y 9 i f t h e S c h l e ie r m a c h e r e m e n d a t i o n i s a c c ep t e d ). F o r m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

t o b e s u cces s fu l , t h e h av e can n o t b e t ak en l i t e ra l l y . T h i s i s h e l p ed a b i t b y t h e fo l l o w i n g l i n e s

w h e r e t h e c o n c l u si o n i s d r a w n t h a t m o t i o n a n d w h a t i s m o v e d s h o u l d b e c o n s id e r e d d~g ~ v x a

(2 4 9 B1 -2 ) , i . e . , a s amo n g t h o s e t h i n g s w h i ch a r e o r h av e b e i n g .

l a C f . M o r a v c s i k , Being and Meaning, p . 4 0 a n d W . G . R u n c i m a n , Plato s Later Epistemology

(Cambr idge , 1962) , pp . 79f f .


8/11


t a in s t h a t k n o w l e d g e a n d b e l i ef a r e p r o p o s i t i o n a l i n c h a r a c t e r 2 4 I f m y v i e w is c o r r e c t ,

t h e n k n o w i n g x c o n s is t s i n k n o w i n g t h a t x h a s a c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s ti c , t h a t it h a s t h e

~ d 0 o g o f y . H e n c e , i n s o f a r a s s o m e t h i n g is k n o w n , i t is k n o w n a s h a v i n g a c e r t a i n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d i n t h is se n s e i s a f f e c t e d . I t w o u l d a l so h a v e t o b e , in s o m e s e n s e,

i d en t if ia b le o r a t r e s t. W e c o u l d t h e n d i st in g u is h tw o s e n se s o f m o t i o n ( a n d , c o r r e s -

p o n d i n g l y , o f r e s t ) . F i r s t , i n s o f a r a s d a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s a r e a s s e r te d a b o u t x ( t h a t it i s

y a t t~ , t h a t i t i s z a t t 2 , e t c .) , x is i n m o t i o n . S e c o n d , i n s o f a r a s s o m e t h i n g i s k n o w n

v i a a p r o p o s i t i o n o r s e ri es o f p r o p o s i t io n s , i t i s k n o w n q u a b e i n g i n m o t i o n o r a f -

f e c t e d . T h e s e t w o s en s es a r e n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y b u t I b e li e v e t h a t m y s en s e o f m o t i o n

a n d r e s t i s t h e m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l o n e a n d s e rv e s t o b r i n g th e t w o a c c o u n t s o r d ef i n i-

t i o n s o f z & ~ iv~ct c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . T h i s e x t e n d e d s e n s e o f m o t i o n a n d r e s t h e l p s t o e x p l a i n

w h y t h e y ar e i n c lu d e d a m o n g t h e g r e a t e s t k i n d s l a t er i n t h e S o p h i s t .

I h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a b o v e t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s e c t io n o f t h e S o p h i s t u n d e r d i s c u s -

s i o n h e r e ( 2 4 1 C - - 2 4 9 E ) is t o e x a m i n e t h e d o c t r i n e s o f v a r i o u s p h i l o s o p h e r s a b o u t t h e

n u m b e r a n d n a t u r e o f T h ~ ;v rc t ( 2 4 2 C ) . P l a t o ' s p r e d e c e s s o r s h a v e t ri ed to l im i t

r & 5 vzct t o c e r t ai n n u m b e r s o r k i n d s o f t h i n g s. P l a t o , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s e e m s t o b e m a i n -

t a i n i n g t h a t b e i n g c a n n o t b e s o l i m i te d . R a t h e r , i t a p p e a r s t o b e u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e o r

t o p i c - n e u t r a l b e c a u s e h e d i r e c t s h i s a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t v a r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o l i m i t i t . I n a n

e a r l i e r p a s s a g e i n t h e

S o p h i s t

P l a t o a r g u e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e t h i n g d o e s n o t h a v e

oSo~a o r is n o t a n ~ v t o th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t c a n n o t b e a s u b j e c t o f d is c o u r s e ( c f . 2 3 7 A -

2 3 9 B ) . T h i s i s g o o d e v id e n c e t h a t h e c o n s id e r s T& ~ v r a t o c o v e r t h e e n t i r e r a n g e p o s -

s ib l e s u b j e c t s o f d i s c o u r s e . 15 B u t t h e r e i s a l s o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h is i s n o t t h e o n l y c h a r a c t e r -

i s ti c w h i c h s u b j e c t s o f d i s c o u r s e m u s t h a v e . I t s e e m s p o s s i b le t o c o n s t r u e t h e f i n a l

h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e P a r m e n i d e s a s d er i v in g d i s a s tr o u s c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t

t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s u n i t y ( c f .

P a r m .

1 6 5 E 2 f f . ) a n d t o i n f e r f r o m p a r t s o f t h e s e c o n d

h y p o t h e s i s t h a t b e in g a n d u n i t y c o v e r t h e s a m e r a n g e o f e n t it ie s ( c f.

P a r m .

1 4 4 B l f f . ) .

T h i s i s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e s e c t i o n s o f t h e S o p h i s t d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . T h u s e v e r y s u b j e c t o f

d i s c o u r s e i s , i n s o m e s e n s e , o n e a n d h a s b e i n g . P l a t o a l s o s e e m s t o b e m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t

14 Cf . m y Pe rcep t ion , T ru e Be li ef and K now l edge in P l a t o ' s Theaetetus, Phronesis , X I V , 2

(1969), 1 11-122 ; The 'Drea m ' o f Soc ra t e s and t he Conc l us ion of the Theaetetus, Apeiron, H I ,

2 , 1 -13 ; and P l a t o ' s Sophist; F a l se h o o d s a n d I m a g e s , Apei ron , VI, 2, 1-6.

25 Cf. Mo ravcsik: Th e outcom e of Pla to ' s c r it i c isms [ i . e . , of the monist s, plura li st s, ma ter ia l -

i st s, and idea li st s ] i s tha t one canno t wi thhold Exis tence fr om any c lass of enti ti es . In sho wing

that Existence is necessari ly al l-inclusive Plato leads us to see that Existence is not an at tribute.

I t d oes not separa te a cer ta in c lass of enti ti es f ro m a l l el se ; for there i s nothing to sep ara te ex is-

t en ts f rom. F rom P l a t o ' s a rgum ent s we can a l so see t ha t E xi s tence i s t op i c -neu tra l . I t s a sc r i p t i on

to an ent i ty does not te l l us what charac ter i s t ics tha t ent i ty has . Thus Exis tence can-

not func t i on a s a sort - o r va lue -concept . Thi s l e ads t o t he i m por t an t m e t aphys i ca l conc l us i on t ha t

the eva lua t ion of types of ent i t i es and the de terminat ion of the i r ontologica l pr ior i ty cannot be

don e by assigning Exis tence par t ia l ly to som e enti ti es wh i le wi thhold ing i t f ro m o thers (Being

and M eaning, p. 28) . Moravcsik ' s s ta tements seem to me to be correc t wi th three except ions .

Fi rs t x6 6v, throughout the

Sophist ,

shoul d be t r ans la t ed a s be i ng ra t he r t han a s ex i s tence .

Cf . J . Ma lcolm, Pla to ' s Analysi s of xb 6v and ~b Ix~l 6v in th e Sophist , Phronesis , XII, 2 (1967) ,

130-146; M . Frede ,

Pri idikat ion und Exis tenzaussage, Hypomnemata,

18; and the ar t ic les by

Ow en c i ted in notes 1 and 6 abo ve for s t rong argu m ents aga ins t an exis tential sense of

e[va~

in

the Sophist .

All of these authors agree on the topic- neut ra l i ty or , as I should prefer to put i t , the

universa l appl icabi l i ty of be ing. Second, ascr ibing be ing to something does te l l us some of the

other charac ter i s t ics which i t has ; i . e . , i t must have a l l those charac ter i s t ics which are universa l ly

applicable charac ter is tics . Thi rd, as I sha l l po int o ut sho rt ly, the re i s a sense in wh ich be ing i s no t

an a t t r ibute or charac ter i s t ic but there i s a l so another sense in which i t i s .


9/11


ev ery su b jec t o f d i sco u r se in so me sen se i s a w h o le an d h a s p a r t s o r a sp ec t s ; th e r em ain in g

sect ions o f the

Sophist

ad d samen ess an d o th e rn ess to th i s li s t an d v a r io u s sec t io n s o f t h e

armenides

su g g es t t h a t s im i l a r -d is s im i l a r b e ad d e d as w e ll . T h u s a l l t h ese a re t e rm s

w h ich seem to in d ica t e ch a rac t e r i s t i c s w h ich an y su b jec t o f d i sco u r se mu s t h av e an d

thus can be cal led un iversal ly app l icab le .

B u t , t h e re a re se rio u s p h i lo so p h ica l p ro b lem s h e re . I h av e a l r ead y p o in te d o u t t h a t

th e re i s n o d i s t in c t io n m ad e b e tw een th e t e rm s T b 5 v an d T& ~ v~ a an d fu r th e r t h a t

Tb 5 v i s i t se l f amb ig u o u s . I t m ig h t s t an d fo r e i th e r w h a t h as b e in g o r b e in g i t se lf . P ro b lem s

ar ise in tw o w ay s . F i r s t , h o w i s b e in g l i k e o r u n l ik e o th e r ch a rac t e r i s t i c s? S eco n d , i s b e -

in g , w h en t a lk ed ab o u t a s a F o rm o r ch a rac t e r i s t i c , s e l f -p red icab le an d , i f so , a r e th e re

any d i f f icu l ties invo lve d?

W i th re sp ec t t o th e f i rs t q u es tio n , P l a to seem s to b e a rg u in g th a t ev e ry su b jec t o f d i s -

co u r se h as b e in g . S o me co mmen ta to r s t ak e th i s u n iv e r sa l ap p l i ca t io n o f b e in g to mean

th a t b e in g i s t o p ic -n eu t ra l an d th e re fo re th ey asc r ib e to P la to th e d o c t r in e th a t b e in g i s

n o t a p red ica t e ( e .g ., Mo rav cs ik , e l . n . 1 5) . B u t t h i s i n v o lv es th e v i ew th a t i f so m e ch a r -

ac t e ri s ti c i s u n iv e r sa l ly ap p li cab le , t h en i t can n o t b e a p red ica t e o r a t t r i b u te , s in ce to b e

a p red ica t e o r a t t r i b u te is t o b e a ch a rac t e r i s ti c w h ich can b e o p p o se d to o th e r ch a ra c t e r -

i s ti c s w h ich f a l l w i th in a ce r t a in r an g e o f ap p l i ca t io n . F o r ex am p le , h av in g a sh ap e m ay

b e co n s id e red a p red ica t e b ecau se i t is d i s t in g u i sh ab le f ro m o th e r ch a rac t e r is t i c s an d

fu r th e r b ecau se n o t h av in g a sh ap e can b e ap p l i ed as w e ll . B e in g is n o t a p red ica t e in th i s

sen se fo r P la to b ecau se i t s o p p o s i t e , ~b ~ t ~ a ~ t~ ~ v , i s r e j ec t ed as se l f - co n t rad ic to ry an d

because being i s un iversal ly app l icab le .

E v en th o u g h b e in g i s n o t a p red ica t e in th is sen se , i t d o es ap p ear to b e d i s t in g u i sh ab le

f ro m th e o th e r u n iv e r sa l ly ap p l i cab le ch a rac t e ri s t ic s . T h e a rg u m en t w h ich se rv es to d i s -

t i n gu i sh b e tw een b e ing , w h o len ess an d u n i ty a s w e l l a s th e e l ab o ra t e a rg u m en t s d i s t in g -

u i s h in g t h e g r e a t e s t k i n d s ( 2 5 4 - 2 5 9 ) w o u l d s e e m t o i n d i c a te t h is . W e c a n a s k w h e t h e r

P la to w o u ld d i s t in g u i sh b e tw een h av in g th e : t~ 0 o~ o f b e in g an d h av in g , say , t h e ~ t0 o ~ o f

red n ess. B y th e ru l e w h ich I h av e d i scu ssed ab o v e , i f x h as th e ~ t~ t0 o; o f b e in g an d a l so

h as th e : t~ t0 o; o f r ed n ess , i t i s n o t i d en t i ca l w i th e i th e r o f t h ese ch a rac t e r is t i c s . B u t w o u ld

P la to ma in ta in th a t t h ese a re ch a rac t e r i s t i c s i n th e same sen se? T h e f ac t t h a t o n e i s u n i -

v e r sa l ly ap p l i cab le an d th e o th e r i s n o t w o u ld seem to ca l l fo r a n eg a t iv e an sw er . T h u s

h e w o u ld a rg u e th a t i f x h as th e : t~ 0o g o f b e in g , t h i s d o es n o t en ta i l t h a t x h as th e ~ r~ 0o ;

o f r ed n ess b u t h av in g th e n ~t0o g o f r ed n ess d o e s en ta i l t h a t x h as th e n dt0o ~ o f b e in g . In

the lan gua ge o f the section on -cb ~t~l~a~t~~ ~Jv, red nes s is a n 5v, a m em be r of t he class -c&

~vxa. Tb Ix~ l~a~t~g 8v ca n be t rans la ted as tha t w hich has no c harac ter is t ics a t a l l on

th e g ro u n d s th a t th i s l o g ica l f i c t io n i s r em o v e d f ro m x & 8 v ~ t (o f. 2 3 7 D ) . R ed n ess , l i k e

an y o th e r ch a rac t e r i s t i c , i s a memb er o f t h i s c l a s s . B u t w e h av e to a sk w h e th e r b e in g i s

i ts e lf a m e m b e r o f t hi s c l as s , o r i n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f t h e G r e e k , i s x b 5 v o r o ~ [ a a m e m -

b er o f t h e c l a s s o f x& ~ w a? O r , i n an o th e r w ay , i s b e in g i t se l f an en t i ty ?

T h e an sw er to th i s q u es t io n is co mp lex . L e t m e re i t e ra t e th a t b e in g i s a u n iv e r sa l ly ap -

p l i cab le F o rm o r ch a rac t e r i s t i c . E v ery su b jec t o f d i sco u r se h as i t . T h i s mu s t b e co u p led

w i t h t h e f o l lo w i n g o b s e rv a t io n s . P l a t o a l t e rn a t e s b e t w e e n t h e m a t e r i a l a n d f o r m a l m o d e s

o f sp eech . H e ca n t a lk ab o u t b e in g in t e rms o f o rd in a ry su b jec t -p red ica t e s t a t em en t s ( a s

in h i s d i scu ss io n o f t h e g rea t e s t k in d s ) a s t h o u g h i t w ere n o d i f f e ren t e i th e r f ro m o th e r

ch arac te r is t ic s o r f ro m m o re o rd in a ry o b jec t s . B u t h e ea rl a l so u se th e t e rm b e in g to

s t an d fo r t h e c l a s s o f su b jec t s o f d isco u r se a s w e l l a s fo r t h e c h a rac t e r i s t i c s w h ich su b jec t s

o f d i sc o u r se h a v e . H e d o e s so i n 2 3 7 A - 2 3 9 D . F u r t h e r , h i s a r g u m e n t s i n m a n y p l a c e s a r e

a l so d es ig n ed to d i sc r im in a te th e me an in g s o f t e rms . T h u s a d i s t in c t io n b e tw een , say ,


10/11


b e in g an d u n i ty i s a d i s t in c t io n b e tw een tw o F o rms o r ch a rac t e r i s t i c s w h i l e a t t h e same

t i m e i t i s a d i s ti n c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e m e a n i n g s o f b e i n g a n d u n i t y . M y q u e s t i o n c a n

n o w b e an sw ered o n th e b as i s o f t h e ab o v e co n s id e ra t io n s . A l th o u g h i t h as a u n iq u e

o n to lo g ica l ro l e in P la to ' s sch eme , b e in g i s a m em b er o f t h e c l a s s o f x& ~ v zc t. I t i s a F o r m

o r ch a rac t e r i s ti c w h ich can b e a su b jec t o f d i sco u r se l ik e a n y o th e r su b jec t o f d isco u r se .

I n b o t h t h e Sophist and the Parmenides P l a t o t a k e s ~ e a t p a i n s t o d is t in g u is h b e i n g

as a su b jec t o f d i sco u rse f ro m th e o th e r u n iv e r sa l ly ap p li cab le ch a rac t e r is t i c s an d a rg u -

me n t s h av e a l r ead y b een p o ln ted o u t w h ich ru n : b e in g h as th e :t~t0o ; o f x , b u t i s n o t

id en t i ca l w i th x . In o rd e r t o a rg u e in th i s f a sh io n , P l a to h as to h o ld th a t b e in g i s d i s t in -

g u i sh ab le , i f n o t f ro m an in te ll ig ib le o p p o s i t e , a t l eas t f ro m ce r t a in o th e r t e rms w h ic h

ap p ear to b e o f u n iv e r sa l ap p l i ca t io n as w e l l . T h i s l ead s to a co m p ar i so n o f t h e w ay in

w h i c h b e i n g o p e r a te s w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h p a i rs o f t e r m s a s p a r t - w h o l e , o n e -

m a n y , a n d s a m e - o t h e r . P l a t o s e e m s t o b e a r g ui n g , i n t h e Parmenides ab o u t t h e sec -

o n d p a i r , a n d in th e Sophist a b o u t t h e f ir s t a n d t h i r d p a i r s, t h a t b o t h m e m b e r s a r e u n i -

v e r sa l ly ap p l i cab le b u t can n o t b e ap p l i ed to a n en t i ty in th e sam e sen se a t t h e sam e t im e ;

e .g ., x i s t h e s a m e . . . a n d x is o t h e r t h a n . . . c a n n o t h a v e t h e s a m e c o m p l e ti o n . B u t

ev ery su b jec t o f d i scou r se , sin ce th ese t e rms h a v e u n iv e r sa l ap p l i ca t io n , i s i n so m e sen se

o n e , man y , w h o le , p a r t , e t c . H o w e v er , t h e imp l i ca t io n - re l a t io n s b e tw e en th ese t e rm s a re

d i f f e ren t f ro m th o se b e tw een lo w er - l ev e l t e rms . P l a to a rg u es th a t x is a w h o le ( an y

o th e r u n iv e r sa l ly ap p l icab le ch a rac t e r i s ti c can b e su b s t i t u t ed fo r w h o le ) en ta i l s an d i s

en ta i l ed b y x i s y w h ere y is an y o th e r ch a rac t e r i s t ic o f t h i s same l ev e l. In d o in g th is ,

P la to i s w e l l o n th e w ay to a d o c t r in e o f fo rma l co n cep t s an d to th e r ea l i za t io n th a t t h ese

co n cep t s a re in co m p le t e . A n d in th i s sen se , P l a to r ea l i zes th a t t h e u n iv e r sa l ly ap p l i cab le

ch arac t e ri s t ic s a re q u i t e d i f f e ren t f ro m o rd in a ry ch a rac t e r i s t ic s .

B u t t h e f ac t t h a t h e p e r s i s ts i n t a lk in g ab o u t t h ese u n iv e r sa l ly ap p l icab le ch a rac t e r i s t i c s

in th e same w ay as h e t a lk s ab o u t o th e r ch a rac t e r i s t i c s cau ses h im to h av e v i r tu a l ly in -

s u r m o u n t a b l e p ro b l e m s w h i c h c e n te r a r o u n d t h e n o t i o n o f s e l f- p r ed i c at io n . I f u n i t y a n d

samen ess , s ay , a re u n iv e r sa l ly ap p li cab le , i n P la to ' s t ech n ica l l an g u ag e w e sh o u ld b e ab le

to sa y tha t un i t y has the ~ t~ t0o~ o f sam eness an d a lso tha t sa me ness h as the ~xgt0o~o f u n i ty .

F r o m th ese fo l lo w tw o s t a t emen t s o f n o n - id en t i ty d i s t in g u i sh in g samen ess an d u n i ty . B u t ,

i~ in the para d ig m ca .se o f a s ta tem ent , x i s y , i t i s poss ib le to app ly a l l the un iv ersal ly ap -

p l icab le ch a rac te r i s t ic s to b o th o f t h e v a r i ab les , t h en w e sh o u ld b e ab le to m a in ta in th a t

samen ess i s t h e sam e (as it s e lf ) an d th a t u n i ty i s o n e .

T h e i s s ue o f s e l f- p r e di c a ti o n h a s b e e n s h o w n , b o t h b y P l a t o a n d h i s c o m m e n t a t o r s , t o

h av e sev e re d i f fi cu lt ie s . T o say th a t t r i an g u la r i ty is t r i an g u la r imp l i e s th a t t h e re i s a t h ree -

s id ed fig u re in so me reg io n o f sp ace o f w h ich ev e ry o rd in a ry t r ian g le i s an in s t an ce ; t h i s

l ead s to th e q u es t io n w h e th e r t r i an g u la r i ty an d an o rd in a ry tr i an g le a re t r i an g u la r i n

th e same sen se . I f t h ey a re t r i an g u la r i n th e same sen se , i t i s a sh o r t s t ep to an in f in i t e

reg ress . I sh a l l n o t d ea l w i th se l f -p red ica t io n as ap p l i ed to lo w er - l ev e l F o rm s b ecau se

th e re a re su f fi c ien t d i ff i cul ti e s w h en th ese q u es t io n s a re r a i sed w i th r eg a rd to th o se F o rm s

discussed in the Sophist. O n e w a y o u t o f t h e r eg ress d i f f i cul t ie s i s t o d i s t in g u i sh b e tw een

w h a t i s i d en t ica l w i th x an d w h a t i s p red ica t iv e ly x . F o rm s a re d e f in ed as w h a t is i d en t i -

c a l w i t h x . O n t h is a c c o u n t , o r d i n a r y t ri a n gl e s a re t r i a n g ul a r b u t t h e F o r m t r ia n g u l a r it y

i s i d en t ica l w i th t r i an g u la r i ty an d i s n o t p red ica t iv e ly tr i an g u la r . T h i s m ay o r m ay n o t b e

a w ay o u t o f t h e r eg ress d i ff icu lt ie s fo r l o w er - l ev e l F o rm s b u t i t c l ea r ly l ead s to d i f fi cu l-

t i e s fo r t h o se F o rm s w h ich a re u n iv e r sa l ly ap pl i cable . 16 G o in g b ack to u n i ty a n d sam e-

16 CL Harold Cherniss' discussion of various analyses of the Third M an Argum ent in The


11/11

1 0


h e s s , t h e i r n o n - i d e n t i t y d e p e n d s o n t h e r u l e I h a v e p o i n t e d o u t a b o v e a n d e a c h h a s t h e

~ t 0 o g o f t h e o th e r . B u t i f, i n x is y , b o t h x a n d y c a n b e s u b j e c t s o f d i s c o u r s e a n d t h e

u n i v e r s a l ly a p p l i c a b l e c h a r a c t e ri s t ic s a p p l y t o e v e r y s u b j e c t o f d i s c o u r s e , t h e n b o t h x a n d

y c a n b e s a i d to h a v e ( a m o n g o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s ) t h e ~ t~ t0 og o f u n i t y a n d s a m e n e s s . T h e

r e s u l t o f th i s i s t h a t u n i t y , s a y , is b o t h i d e n t i c a l w i t h u n i t y a n d a l s o h a s t h e ~ f 0 o g o f

u n i t y . B u t b y t h e r u l e , if u n i t y h a s t h e ~ t~ t0 og o f u n i t y , i t c a n n o t b e i d e n t i ca l w i t h u n i t y .

T h u s , t h i s r u l e, w h i c h w a s u s e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s

f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , m u s t f a il i n t h e a t t e m p t i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t i t d o e s d i s t in g u i s h

i d e n ti ty a n d p r e d i c a t io n a n d m a y h a v e s o m e v a l u e w h e n a p p l i e d t o m o r e o r d i n a r y c a s es .

P l a t o , t h e n , i s f o r c e d t o a c c e p t s e l f - p r e d i c a t i o n a t l e a s t f o r t h i s s p e c i a l s e t o f F o r m s .

A n d , i f h e a d m i t s th i s o n c e a g a i n h e m u s t a l s o a d m i t t h a t b e i n g is it se lf a m e m b e r o f t h e

c la ss o f c& ~ v r a . I f b e i n g w e r e o n l y a s h o r t h a n d w a y o f ta l k i n g a b o u t t h e c la s s o f s u b -

j ec ts o f d is c o u r s e, s o m e w a y o u t o f h is d i l e m m a c o u l d b e f o u n d . B u t a s lo n g a s h e a t -

t e m p t s t o d i s t in g u i s h b e i n g f r o m t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f th i s s a m e l e v e l b y t h e d i s t in c -

t i o n b e t w e e n i d e n t i t y a n d p r e d i c a t i o n , d i ff ic u lt ie s a r e b o u n d t o r e s u l t. A n d , o f c o u r s e ,

t h e s e s a m e d i ff ic u lt ie s a r is e f o r a ll t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s w h i c h o p e r a t e i n th i s s a m e

w a y .

H a s P l a t o , t h e n , d e f i n e d b e i n g ? I f a g e n u s - s p e c i e s d e f i n it i o n is r e q u i r e d , c l e a r l y h e h a s

n o t a n d c a n n o t d e f in e b e in g b e c a u s e o f it s u n i v e rs a l a p p l i c a t i o n a s s h o w n b y t h e u n i -

v e r s a l ly a p p l i c a b l e d e s c r i p ti o n s g i v e n o f it . P l a t o p r o b a b l y r e a l i z e d t h a t a d e f i n i ti o n i n

t h is s e n se w a s o u t o f t h e q u e s t io n . B u t h e c l e a r l y w a n t e d a t le a s t t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t f r o m

t h e o t h e r c h a r a c te r i st i cs . H o w e v e r , s u c h a d i s ti n c t io n i s n o t p o s s ib l e b y m e a n s o f t h e

a r g u m e n t h e h as a d v a n c e d . P e r h a p s h e w o u l d f al l b a c k o n s o m e s o r t o f c o m m o n - s e n s e

d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n t o b e , t o b e o n e , t o b e t h e s a m e , e t c. b u t t h is i s n o t e l a b o r a t e d .

U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , C o l u m b i a

Rel a t ion of t he

Timeus

t o P l a t o ' s La t e r D i a l ogues ,

American Journal of Philology,

7 8 , 2 2 5 - 2 6 6 :

I t can be shown th a t Pla to was wel l aware of the di ffe rence be tween such an asser t ion of iden t i ty

and an a t t r ibut ion and in thi s awareness consc iously denied wha t Vlas tos [c f . G. Vlastos, Th e

T h i r d M a n A r g u m e n t i n th e

Parmenides, Philosophical Re view ,

vol . 63, 1954, pp. 319-349] be-

l ieves he un consc i ous ly a s sumed wi t hout u nde rs t andi ng i ts i mpl ica t ions . I n t he second pa r t o f t he

Parmenides,

for example [Cherniss c i tes

Parm.

158A] , he use s t he fo l l owi ng a rgument : I f t he re

are par t s , s ince 'ea ch ' s ignif ies 'one ' , each par t m ust pa r t ic ipa te in U ni ty (xb ~v); bu t i ts p ar t ic ipa-

t ion in Uni ty impl ies tha t i t i s other than one , for otherwise i t would not par t ic ipa te but would

i t se lf be one , wh ereas on ly Un i ty i t se lf (~t~Tb ~b ~v) can be o ne . S o each p ar t , l ike the wh ole of

wh ich i t i s a par t , ' i s on e ' on ly by par t ic ipa t ing in Un i ty. Here Pla to c lear ly dis tinguishes two

mea nings of ' i s x ' , namely (1) 'has the ch arac ter x ' a nd (2) ' i s ident ica l wi th x ' ; assumes tha t wh at -

ever ' i s x ' in one sense i s not x in the oth er ; a nd s ta tes tha t a6~b xb and on ly c t~zb xb x ' i s

x ' in the second sense . As appl ied to the s ta tements quoted by Vlas tos and to the doct r ine of ideas

genera l ly, thi s i s to say: ' the idea of x i s x ' means ' the idea of x and x are ident ica l and therefore

t he i dea of x does not have t he cha rac t e r x . . . . . (pp. 2 58-259 ) . B ot h t he Che rn i s s a r ti c le and t he

Vlastos a r t ic le have been repr inted in the anthology, Studies in Plato's Metaphysics, ed. R. E .

Al l en (Londo n: Rout l edge and Kegan Paul , 1965) . In Se l f -Pred i ca ti on in P l a t o ' s La t e r P e r i od ,

Philosophical Review,

LX X V II I (1969) , 74-7 8 ( repri n t ed i n h i s

Platonic Studies,

Prince ton: 1973)

Vl as tos rep l ie s to Che rn is s, agree ing wi th J . M orav cs i k ( The 'T h i rd M an ' A rgum ent and P l a t o ' s

T h e o r y o f F o r m s ,

Phronesis,

VI I I , [1963] , 50-62) , t ha t P l a t o i s com mi t t ed t o se lf -pred ica t ion fo r

those Form s which are universa l ly applicable . A s I read the rule in

Sophist

245B i f x has the

n~t0og of y, then x and y are non-ident ica l , there a re res t r ic tions or spec ia l cond i t ions la id u po n

i t and thus i t i s equiva lent to what Vlas tos , in the famous 1954 ar t ic le c i ted above in thi s note ,

ca l led the ful l s t rength no n-ident i ty assumpt ion. C f . Frede , Pri~dikation, p. 72.

bondeson - some problems about being and predication in plato´s sophist 242-249

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