biology 11 body systems
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SBI3UO Body System Notes Exam/Test Review w/ DiagramsTRANSCRIPT
BODY SYSTEMS Introduction to Internal Systems
ORGANELLE i.e. mitochondria -> CELL -> TISSUE i.e. cardiac muscle cell (group of specialized cells) -> ORGAN i.e. heart (many groups of specialized cells) -> SYSTEM i.e. circulatory ORGANISM i.e. human
Respiratory System
What is respiration? a process of supplying oxygen to the body and getting rid of CO2
Respiration at different levels: o 1) Breathing: inspiration (taking in air) and expiration (releasing air)o 2) External Respiration: exchange of oxygen and CO2 in blood (at alveoli)o 3) Internal Respiration: Exchange of oxygen and CO2 at cells and tissueso 4) Cellular Respiration: Use of oxygen at the cellular level (recall mitochondria)
C6H12C6 + O2 -> ATP + CO2 + H2O adenoside triphosphate (energy molecules)
Diffusion: the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration
SYSTEM o O2 entering = inhale mouth/nose → diffusion in lungs (alveoli) → diffusion in cells →
diffusion in mitochondria (makes O2 to CO2)o CO2 exiting = exit mitochondria by diffusion→ diffusion in cells → diffusion in lung (alveoli)
→ exhale through mouth/nose
1. nasopharynx = has cilia lining (filters), mucus and capillaries moisten and warm air , connects nasal passage to pharynx
2. nasal passage (nasal cavity) -
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Mechanics of Breathing also called ventilation – process of moving air in and out (o2 in Co2 OUT) TWO MUSCLES: INTERCOASTAL AND DIAPHRAM INHALE: IC contract and expand ribcage, diaphragm also contracts to increase volume of thoracic
cavity = to increase volume of lung, decrease pressure, high to low EXHALE: IC relax shrinks ribcage, diaphragm relax decrease volume of thoracic cavity = decrease
volume of lung, increase pressure, low to high
12.1 Structure and Function of the Respiratory System
all cells require oxygen to obtain energy from molecules of carbohydrates, fats and proti4ens during cellular respiration
cellular respiration – process that produces the energy needed to fuel all cell activities cells must have constant supply of oxygen to dispose of carbon dioxide
RESPIRATORY SURFACE IN ANIMALS in multi-cell organism gas exchange occurs along the respiratory surface the process of diffusion govern this function of their respiratory surfaces
o it is very thin and moist membrane that is permeable to the gases being diffused o SA of the membrane is large to max diffusiono a diffusion gradient must be maintained since diffusion moves gases from higher to lower
concentration = there must be a difference in the relative concentration of oxygen and CO2
some animals like earthworms use their whole bodies as a respiratory surfaceGAS EXCHANGE IN AQUATIC ANIMALS
live in water so their respiratory surface is always moist source of useful gas dissolved in water, an appropriate volume of water must come into close
contact with thin respiratory membranes and yet not damage membranes o most have GILLS = fold in the body surface that are specialized for gas exchange - enables
water to flow so that gases can diffuse from the water across the respiratory membranes - oxygen diffuse directly into the capillaries and CO2 diffuses out of the capillaries and into the environment
GAS EXCHANGE IN TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS advantage because there is more concentration of oxygen in air then in water, easier to move in
air = less energy for gas exchange disadvantage loss of moisture so they have internal respiratory systems: tracheal systems, or
lungso TRACHEAL SYSTEM
tracheal = system of tubes through their bodies air enter and leave the system through opening in body surface larger tubes = trachea, smaller = tracheoles; which to every part of the cell in the
insects body gas exchange occurs along the moist membrane and tips of tracheoles don’t need circulatory system; enough through diffusion large insects pump in more air through rhythmic body movements that compress
and expand
flight muscles also help pump air o LUNGS
internal respiration structure that are surrounded by fluid or by moist tissues and blood vessels
gas exchange occurs in lungs which are internal thin walled sac with s large SA inside lungs oxygen diffuses into blood vessels to the cells of the body
CO2 diffuses out of the blood enters lungs and moves out of the body by mechanical movements of breathing
REGULATION OF HUMAN BREATHING usually involuntary process temp. exert conscious control over breathing mostly controlled by the medulla oblongata – sends signals to diaphragm and ribs to contract and
relax level of CO2 most usually controls breathing rate
Factors affecting breathing Stretch of tissues
o receptors in visceral pleurs (membrane that surrounds lung – protect friction with ribcage), bronchioles and akevoli
o inhibits inspiration o prevents over inflation of lungs during forceful breathing
low blood oxygen o chemoreceptor in blood vesselso increase breathingo increase blood oxygen level
high blood carbon dioxideo chemosensitve areas of brain o increase breathing rateo decrease Co2 by inhaling oxygen
high blood hydrogen iono chemosensitve areas of brain o increase breathing rateo decrease hydrogen by inhaling more oxygen
ALL FACTORS WORK TOGETHER TO MAIN BREATHINGo maintain internal balance = HOMEOTISTIS
Transport of Gases in Blood
O2 is transported by RBC – hemoglobin in RBC combines w/ O2 to form oxyhemoglobins Carbon Dioxide is transported via several methods
o a) CO2 in blood combines w/ H2O to produce carbonic acid CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Enzymes in RBCs break H2CO3 into a bicarbonate ionH2CO3 ←→ H + HCO3 (enzyme)
70% of CO2 is transported this formo b) 20% is transported by hemoglobin (carbonoxyhemoglobin) o c ) 10% is carried by the plasma solution
Lung Volumes
BLAH BLAH
12.2 Promoting Healthy Respiratory, Circulatory and Digestive System structure and function of the respiratory system can be altered by disease or exposure to viruses
or environmental pollutants common cold is a group of symptoms = coughing, sneezing, and sore throat caused by SINUSITUS SIUNUSITIS = condition caused by viruses or bacteria in which the sinuses become swollen and
irritated (sinuses are moist air spaces around nose) influenza the flu is common viral infection of the upper respiratory system – spread by airborne
droplets and contact with contaminated objects – can cause serious respiratory illnesses – flu can turn to pneumonia – alveoli in lung fill with fluid which prevent oxygen from reaching blood
OTHER DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ASTHMA
o chronic disorder in respiratory system – airways become narrowedo smooth muscles surround bronchi and bronchioles when they contract they make
airways narrow = breathing more difficulto causes are pollutants, cold air, cigarette smoke, drug and infections o no cure but puffer has drug called bronchodilator that causes narrowed airways to
expand BRONCHTIS
o when bronchioles or bronchi become infected they swell and produce excess mucus o access mucus causes frequent coughing and difficulty breathing and coughing o heart must work harder to transport oxygen
EMPHYSEMAo over-inflated lung – when cilia lining in airways in damaged = no filters bronchioles
become clogged and less air reaches alveoli o air pressure builds up causing lungs to appear inflated o pressure tears the walls of alveoli and some cells deprived of oxygen – causes breath rate
and heart rate to increase o causes smoking and exposure to chemicals
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMOARY DISEASE (COPD)o serious condition that occurs when chronic bronchitis and emphysema are found
togethero ppl suffering from COPD need external source of oxygen o bronchodilator used to reduce inflammation and improve airflowo this can lead to respiratory failure
CYSTIC FIBROSISo genetic disease that cause thick mucus in airways o traps bacteria and infects lung issues o breathing is difficult and mucus is hard to dislodge
o also effects digestive system SEVERSE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYSNDROME (SARS)
o pneumonia like respiratory disease caused by cornoaviruso spread through coughing or sneezing o unusual inflammation of lungs
LUNG CANCERo lung cells began to behave abnormally by growing too fast and group together in tumors o recurring lung infections o 80% are linked to smoking
Tech. To Diagnose and Treat Disorderso respirometer to check breathing movements and lung capacity o endoscope o scans reveal airways and possible tumorso lasers o fluorescent dyes to see cellso transplant
SMOKING toxic substances can irritate the lining of bronchi and destroy cilia w/o cilia cells lose ability to move particles out of the respiratory system smoker must cough frequently to try to clear harmful particle
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
11.1 Circulatory System
cells need constant supply of nutrients and oxygen - circulatory systemCIRCULATORY SYSTEM
all cells in an animal’s need to gain nutrients, exchange games and remove waste products some aquatic animals with bodies only a few cells thick transport materials across membranes to
and from their environment large animals use internal transport system to bring resources close enough to all the cells for
exchange most animals have circulatory system that transports oxygen and CO2, distributes nutrients and
removes cellular wastes 3 PARTS TO ALL CIRCULTORY SYSTEMS
1. Blood – type of connective tissue made up of cells and fluids – carries both nutrients and wastes
2. Heart – what blood is pumped through – a multi-charmbered muscular organ3. Blood Vessels – where blood flows – tubes that form pipline in body
OPEN CICULATORY SYSTEMSo here blood is not entirely contained by blood vessels ex: grasshoppero tubular heart pumps blood through vessels that open into spongy chambers called
sinuses – blood bathes the body tissues then collects in another set of sinuses and makes it back
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMo earthworms, squids, octopuses and vertebrates
o blood remains contained entirely within blood vessels that extend in body – nutrients, oxygen, waste moth in and out through thin walls
o more efficient that open, because contained they can be pumped at higher pressure HUMAN CIRCULTORY SYSTEM
o closed in human and other vertabrates called cardiovascular systemo network of 100 000 km of blood vessels – around earth 2 ad half timeso supplies trillon cells in your body nutrients and oxygen and removes CO2 and other waste
productso under normal activity blood can complete circuit under one minute
BLOOD highly specialized connective tissue – part fluid part cellular body contains 4-6 L blood transports oxygen, water, nutrients, other chemicals, removes waste, regulate body temperature,
fight infection and heal wounds blood made out of plasma, RBC, WBC, platelets PLASMA
o 55% of blood straw colored solution called plasma – 90% water (control body temp.), 10% is proteins, dissolved nutrients and wastes
o plasma proteins transport fatty acids, vitamins, and fight bacterial and viral infections RBC
o 45% of blood – carry oxygen from lungs o each carry 250 mil. molecules of hemoglobin that binds oxygen and releases throughout
bodyo hemoglobin iron give crimson coloro RBC produces bone marrow at 2 mil per second o RBC ages lose nuclei and mito. – gives RBC shape which allows them to increase SA for
oxygen transfer, and flexibility o cannot replace proteins, grow, divide – lifespan 100-120 days, become fragile and break
down, iron is recycles in bone marrow when it becomes part of new RBC WBC
o cells that guard from infection, fight parasites and attack bacteriao do not have to stay within blood vessel o move through vessel walls and attack foreign organismso produced by bone marrowo keep nuclei and can live for years
PLATELETSo cells fragments that originate when the cytoplasm of certain bone marrow divided
fragments break off and enter bloodo blood clotting process – platelets stick to the site where blood vessel damaged , break
apart and release substances called clotting factors o reactions in clotting factors form protein strand called fibrin – network of threads forming
a patch that dries up into a scabo hemophilia – disease where they do not have necessary protein to from blood clots
BLOOD VESSELS blood flows through 3 types of blood vessels – arteries, capillaries, veins wall contain
o smooth muscle tissue – regulates diameter o connective tissue – allows expansion and contraction o epithelial tissue lines the walls of all blood vessels
ARTRIESo large blood vessels – carry blood to heart to tissueso under pressure due to heart’s pumping – one direction flow towards the tissueso arterioles flow into capillaries
CAPILLARIESo to distribute nutrients and oxygen efficiently must have close contact with cellso microscopic blood vessels w/ high SA – network of tiny tubes, so narrow few blood cells
travel at a time VEINS
o blood return from capillaries into veins o very little pressure in veinso main force is skeletal muscle – contracting muscles squeezes viens and forces blood
through them - most veins contain flaps of tissue called valves that allow blood to flow only toward the heart
o small veins merge to large
NUTRIENT EXCHANGE BETWEEN BLOOD AND CELLS process called diffusion diffusion gradient is the gradual change in the concentration of solute in a solution as a function
of the distance through the solution diffusion occurs in capillaries force that blood exerts on artery wall is called blood pressure – drives blood through arteries into
capillaries once in fluid molecules that are need by the cells move into cells by diffusion cellular wastes move out of the cell into the fluid entering the blood – carried away to places they
can be excretedLYMPHATIC SYSTEM
network of vessels, nodes *connecting points) and organs that collects the fluid that leaves capillaries – screens it for mirco organisms and returns it into the circulatory system
once inside fluid is called lymph – clear, watery made up of protein molecules, salt, glucose, and other substances
if lymph system did not drain lymph in tissues lymph would accumulate causing swelling called edema
valves control movement with contacting and relaxing muscles lymph drains into heart spleen helps remove old damaged blood cells, platelets, and control amount of blood and blood
cells some vessels run along intestine to pick up fats and fat soluble vitamin from digestive to
transport to bloodstream helps immunity
o filter out harmful microorganisms and abnormal cells
11.2 STURCTURE AND FUCTION OF HEARTANATOMY OF THE HEART
size of a clenched fist, hollow organ located between lungs, and made entirely of muscle structure of heart enables it to pump oxygen-poor blood to your lungs and oxygen rich blood to
your entire body as your heart contracts blood is pumped out, as it relaxes blood enters the heart pumping and filling takes 0.8secs protective sac called pericardium encloses the heart MORE ANTOMY PLUS PARTS
TWO CIRCUITS OF BLOOD FLOW heart functions as two pumps one pumps pushes blood into the lungs and one out - pulmonary circuit and systematic circuit PULOMNARY CIRCUIT – heart to lungs and back
o blood travels from the right side of your heart though the pulmonary arteries to your lungs
o in your lungs blood picks up oxygen and release carbon dioxide o pulmonary veins return the oxygen rich blood to the left side of the hearto pulmonary arteries carry oxygen low blood to lungs, and veins carry oxygen rich back
SYSTEMTIC CIRCUIT – heart to body o blood from heart travels through arteries through out bodyo diffuse and become poor oxygen return back through veins into vena cava o BLOOD SUPPLY FOR THE HEART
heart receives very little oxygen from its chambers instead gets it from coronary arteries
branch from aorta cover the surface of the heart like a crown to supply the heart with necessary nutrients
11.3 Promoting a Healthy Circulatory System
PLAQUE plaque can be a patchwork of
cholesterol, calcium and fat deposits sticking to interior walls
plaque buildup through a person’s life DANGERS OF PLAQUE BUILDUP
o atherosclerosis narrowing of the arteries resulting from plaque buildup inside artery walls
as pathways narrow blood pressure increases
narrowing completely blocks the flow of
blood
if it happens in a coronary arteries the heart will be deprived of oxygen causing chest pains celled angina pectoris
blood clot could close up artery leading to a heart attacko Heart attack occurs when the blood supply to the heart tissue is slowed or stopped
due to the narrowing of coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis the heart usually does not stop beating, symptoms include pain in the chest with
shortness of breath and nausea if treatment is not stared quickly heat muscles will die and be replaced by scar
tissue rare in teenagers
o arteriosclerosis is advanced plaque buildup which occurs when the deposits in arteries harder
once flexible the arteries lose ability to stretch disease increases blood pressure and the chance for blood clots to form in blood
vessels treatment may include bypass
o SUDDEN Cardiac Arrest – heart suddenly stops function as from drowning, electrocution, trauma or choking
o most common is due to coronary heart diseaseo can cause the heart to beat irregularly so that blood is not efficiently pumped
CARDIOVASCULAR DIORDERS ARRHYTHMIA
o condition where heart beats irregularly - too quickly or too slowly o most problems with the electric activity of the hearto symptoms dizziness, chest pains, shortness of breath o treatment = pacemaker or defibrillator
HYPERTENSTIONo high blood pressure is a condition where a person’s BP is higher than 140/90 for an
extended period of time o damages heart and blood vessels, heart must work harder to pump blood throughout
body = heart muscles expand = become weakened can no longer push blood o greater than normal pressure on blood vessel walls = small tears = can speed up
atherosclerosis HEART FAILURE
o heart cannot pump blood efficiently because it cannot fill with enough blood or cannot sent the blood to the rest of the body with enough force
o happens in all people – may need to be treated with a heart transplant ANEURYSM
o bulge in the wall of an artery o aneurysm can be cause by injuries, genetic conditions, or disease o blood rushed through the artery it weakens the bulging wall and may burst though o often occurs in branches of aorta o detected by MRI
STORKEo stroke occurs if a blood clot forms in an artery going to the brain o tissues downstream from the blockage can die of lack of oxygen
o effects = partial paralysis, loss of speech, memory loss + death
CHOICES THAT PROMOTE CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH Eat Healthy – get high fiber, low in salt & cholesterol (used to synthesize hormones, bile and vD) –
bad cholesterol can lead to plaque build up Maintain Healthy Weight Exercise Regularly – reduces chances of developing diseases Avoid Smoking and Second Hand Smoke – chemicals can damage heart and blood vessels
o nicotine narrows blood vessels – and increase heart rate and blood pressure – co replaces oxygen = less oxygen in body
Get Regular Heart Checkups – checks BP and heart sound, pulse and weight which can be indicators
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
10.1 Nutrition and Digestion Why do we need to eat?
Nutrients are chemicals required to grow, build & repair tissues as well as producing energyo Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats), water, vitamins & mineralso CARBOHYDRATES
made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen atoms use as energy source ex: sugars from fruit, honey, milk –esp. glucose cells break down glucose molecules and extract their stored energy also use to manufacture other kinds of molecules Complex carbs. like starch, bread, rice are broken down and absorbed into the
blood and carried to cells of the body excess converted to glycogen – chain of many glucose molecules glycogen is stored in liver/fat cells
o PROTIENS protein – complex molecule that is constructed from 20 kinds of smaller
molecules called amino acid proteins used daily – form hair and muscle, provide long term nutrient storage,
some defend body from harmful micro-organisms, convey msgs, proteins also works with ENZYMES to control chemical reactions in a cell
enzymes – are proteins that speed up specific chemical reactions with being consumed in the reaction
8 amino acids that your cells cannot make can get them from meat, milk, eggs, chesse – veg. combos are corn, beans, rice,
lentils, and hummus o LIPIDS (FAT)
molecules formed from fatty acids and glycerol - fats store energy in you body and help your body absorb fat-soluble vitamins
fatty tissues cushion your organs and provide your body with insulation SATURATED FATS -
o WATERo VITAMINS & MINERALS
We need to eat for: growth, maintenance & energy Energy amounts vary based on:
o endothermic or exothermic animalo size
Energy is required to perform many different chemical reactions (METABOLISM)o Catabolic reactions BREAK DOWN materials (i.e. chemical reactions that break down
nutrients during digestion)o Anabolic reactions BUILD LARGER, MORE COMPLEX molecules from smaller ones (i.e.
materials required for growth & repair)o Metabolic Rate: the rate at which the body converts stored energy into working energy
(this is different for everyone) Generally: Body size Physical activity (muscle burns more than fat) Sex (males tend to have greater proportion of muscle mass than females of same
age, size and fitness level) Age (due to muscle loss & decreased physical activity) Hereditary factors
Some people have difficulty balancing their diets (too much or too little nutrients)o Overeating (overweight & obesity)o Anorexia Nervosao Bulimia
IngestionThe act of taking food into the body through the mouth
DigestionThe act of breaking down food either MECHANICALLY (physical) which is done by teeth, tongue and stomach or CHEMICALLY (breaking bonds) by enzymes.
Chemical Digestion
In the mouth:
Saliva contains ENZYMES (chemicals that increase the rate of reaction without getting used up); you produce 0.75L-1.5L per day (mostly water)
o Amylase: breaks down STARCH into smaller carbohydrates (disaccharides)
In the stomach
Only PARTIAL digestion of PROTEINS; NOT lipids and carbohydrates Because of the acid in the stomach, the inner layers of the stomach replaces the entire
lining every 3 days Nerves in inner layers detect when food is present & initiates the release of the
hormone GASTRIN which is released into the blood and transported to the stomach. This hormone initiates the release of GASTRIC JUICES (mucus & digestive enzymes)
The acid in the stomach has a pH between 2 and 3 kills many harmful microorganisms AND provides the pH necessary for PEPSIN to become active
o Pepsin breaks down proteins into amino acids
In the small intestines
Lipids, carbohydrates & remaining proteins are digested here The villi are small, finger-like projections that increase surface area; there are microvilli
(smaller villi) that surrounds the outside of the villi increases surface area by a factor of 500; capillaries are found within the villi; there are also lacteal vessels that transport digested fats (they don’t enter bloodstream directly)
ENZYMES from the PANCREAS, LIVER and GALL BLADDER are added to the DUODENUMo Cholecytokinin (CCK): hormone secreted by cells in duodenum once fat enters
Signals PANCREAS to release substances that control pH and release enzymes that digest lipids, carbohydrates & proteins
Signals STOMACH to slow down speed of digestion so it can digest the fats already in the sm.int
o Small intestines release of hormone SECRETIN that stimulates: LIVER to make MORE BILE PANCREAS to secrete LIPID & PROTEIN enzymes as well as BICARBONATE
(this NEUTRALIZES the acidity in the duodenumo Pancreas releases hormone TRYPSINOGEN which is activated by the enzyme
ENTEROKINASE (in the duodenum) to make TRYPSIN an enzyme that breaks down PROTEINS
o Pancreas releases lipases (enzymes that digest fats) only helps breakdown fats, LIVER MUST also aid in digestion
o LIVER produces & secretes BILE which emulsifies (breaking down into tiny droplets) FATS sends to GALL BLADDER as well
o GALL BLADDER stores BILE produced in liver once fats enter duodenum signals GALL BLADDER to release bile into the duodenum
Absorption
RECALL: Absorption is the act of moving nutrients into the blood
Small Intestines
o Actively and passively transports nutrients through the capillary network in the small intestines (villi & microvilli as well as the lacteal vessels)
Large intestines
o Undigested materials like cellulose (which we cannot digest) & waste is passed through the colon & water is absorbed
o The water that is absorbed is from diet, mucus, gastric juices and other digestive juiceso Vitamins B and K, Na and Chloride ions
o E.coli here produce vitamin K and some B vitaminso Gas (a byproduct) is absorbed BUT some is released
o Takes 4-72 hours to pass through
Egestion
The removal of waste food materials from the body
o Feces is the name of undigested material that is eliminated as waste