Biodiversity and

Natural ResourcesConservation

in Protected Areas ofKorea and the Philippines

Copyright © 2010 ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Unit (AKECU)Text and photographs © 2010 Portia G. Lapitan, Edwino S. Fernando

Min Hwan Suh, Rodrigo U. Fuentes, Young Kyu Shin, Nelson M. Pampolina, Manuel L. Castillo, Roberto P. Cereno, Jae Ho Lee, Saerom Han, Tae Bong Choi, Don Koo Lee

Published by ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Unit (AKECU)National Instrumentation Center for Environmental ManagementCollege of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National UniversitySan 56-1, Silim-Dong, Gwanak-Gu, Seoul 151-742 KoreaTel: 82-2-880-4880, Fax: 82-2-880-4836, e-mail: akecu@nicem.snu.ac.kr

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the copyright owner.

First published in 2010 by GeoBook Publishing Co.www.geobook.co.krEdited by Young Sim HwangDesigned by THE-D

ISBN 978-89-6558-009-6 93530

Printed in Korea

Front cover (clockwise from top left)· The Tigbi subwatershed in Mt Makiling.· The grassland zone and upper montane (mossy) forest on Mt Pulag.· A view from the Cambantoc subwatershed of Peak 1, Mt Makiling.· Sprouting willow trees in spring, Upo Wetland.

Back cover (clockwise from top left)· Polyporus (Mt Makiling)· Rafflesia manillana (Mt Makiling)· Euryale ferox (Upo Wetland)· Rhododendron quadrassianum var. rosmarinifolium (Mt Pulag)· Cygnus cygnus (Upo Wetland)· Diplodiscus paniculatus (Mt Makiling)· Agapanthia pilcornis (Upo Wetland)

Biodiversity and

Natural ResourcesConservation

in Protected Areas ofKorea and the Philippines

P. G. Lapitan, E. S. Fernando, M. H. Suh, R. U. Fuentes, Y. K. Shin, N. M. Pampolina,

M. L. Castillo, R. P. Cereno, J. H. Lee, S. Han, T. B. Choi, D. K. Lee

National Institute of Environmental Research, Korea

University of the Philippines Los Baños

Seoul National University

ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity

ASEAN-KOREA Environmental Cooperation Unit

4

Fore

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In situ conservation is regarded as one of the most important tools for the conservation of biodiversity and protected areas are the essential components of in situ conservation. The 10Th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Nagoya, Japan in October 2010 adopted biodiversity conservation strategies. The strategies include a target that recommends each country to work out a plan to enlarge its land protected areas up to 17% of its territory by 2020 and to establish its own national implementation strategies. The adoption of this target proves the importance of protected areas for implementation of the biodiversity conservation strategies. To meet the target, each country makes its best effort to expand its protected areas.

In this regard, the ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project has so far published two books: “Flowering Plants and Ferns of Mt Makiling” and “Forest Formations of the Philippines”. The former is an illustrated guide book on the plants living in Mt Makiling and the latter is about 12 different types of forest formations in the Philippines. The major concerns dealt with by both books are species diversity and forest ecosystem diversity.

The present book “Biodiversity and Natural Resources Conservation in Protected Areas of Korea and the Philippines” focuses on biodiversity and natural resources of three protected areas with a general discussion of the status of protected areas in Southeast Asia and Korea. This book expands the focus of the two previous books and includes other biodiversity (animals, fungi and other organisms), the first attempt to bring attention to other components of biodiversity in the tropics. The natural landscape resources in the

Foreword

5

Foreword

three protected areas focused in this book are also presented and the other aspects which affect the effective conservation and management of these resources. Even though this book does not cover the various situations of protected areas in many other ASEAN member countries, it has its own significance in dealing with the overall status of natural resources conservation in protected areas of both Korea and the Philippines. We tried to include as much information as possible such as the threats to the biodiversity and natural resources and mitigation measures for each protected areas.

We believe that this book can be a good reference for the conservation and management of protected areas not only in Korea but also in the Philippines, which is recognized as one of the most important biodiversity hot spots in the world. We also hope that this book will help promote more research on the conservation of natural resources in many ASEAN member countries.

The publication of this book is largely attributed to the help of the ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Unit (AKECU), the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER), the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Seoul National University (SNU). I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all of them.

Dr. Min Hwan Suh, NIERBiodiversity Team Leader, AKECOP

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Comp

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tary Remarks

Complimentary Remarks

It is with great pleasure that I compliment and congratulate the Biodiversity Research Team of the ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project (AKECOP) for coming out with this book on “Biodiversity and Natural Resources Conservation in Protected Areas of Korea and the Philippines”. It is with gratitude, on the other hand, that I take note that once again the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve is featured in this book.

The University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) considers the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR) a priceless heritage. The mountain has invaluably supported the academic programs of the university. It has been the university’s living laboratory and study site for tropical ecosystem and integrated natural resources and environmental management since 1910. Through the MFR the university has made a mark in tropical biodiversity conservation and forest management.

This book has shown the richness of the living organisms and other natural resources in the mountain which has never been vividly documented in a book or other publications before. For this, I once again commend the AKECOP Biodiversity Research Team. I thank and congratulate AKECU for making it possible for students, researchers, conservationists, resource managers and the general public share in this richness and the knowledge resources on tropical biodiversity conservation and management through the publication of this book.

Luis Rey I. Velasco Ph.D.Chancellor

University of the Philippines Los Baños

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Contents

Foreword

Complimentary Remarks

Abbreviations

Chapter 1Protected Areas in Southeast Asia

Chapter 2Protected Areas in Korea

Chapter 3Mt Makiling Forest Reserve: Protected Area of Longest History of Biodiversity Studies in the Philippines

1. Introduction2. Status of Natural Resources3. Threats to Natural Resources4. Management of Natural Resources5. Discussion 6. Conclusion

04

07

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12

22

40

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Chapter 4Biodiversity and Natural Resources Management in the Mt Pulag National Park, Philippines

1. Introduction2. Status of Natural Resources3. Ethno-Linguistic Groups4. Threats to Biodiversity and Natural Resources5. Management of Natural Resources6. Conclusions

Chapter 5Natural Resource and Management of Upo Wetland Protected Area in Korea

1. Introduction2. Status and Use of Natural Resources3. Threats to Natural Resources4. Management of Natural Resources

Appendix Tables

Acknowledgements

Index

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178

221

240

242

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s Abbreviations

ACB: ASEAN Centre for BiodiversityAHP: The ASEAN Heritage ParkAKECOP: ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation ProjectAKECU: ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation UnitASEAN: The Association of Southeast Asian NationsBAR: Bureau of Agricultural Research, Department of AgricultureCAR: Cordillera Administrative RegionCBD: Convention on Biological DiversityCENRO: Community Environment and Natural Resources OfficeCFNR: College of Forestry and Natural Resources, UPLBCHA: Cultural Heritage Administration, KoreaCHED: Commission of Higher EducationCI: Conservation InternationalCOP: Conference of the PartiesCR: Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List Category)DA: Department of Agriculture, Republic of the PhilippinesDAO: DENR Administrative OrderDENR: Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of the PhilippinesDENR PAWB: DENR Protected Areas and Wildlife BureauDMZ: Demilitarized ZoneDOT: Department of Tourism, Republic of the PhilippinesEN: Endangered (IUCN Red List Category)ENRAP: Knowledge Networking for Rural Development in Asia/Pacific RegionFBS: Department of Forest Biological Sciences, CFNR, UPLBFPE: Foundation for the Philippine EnvironmentGRAIN: Genetic Resources Action International, New Delhi, IndiaGSW: The Greater Sipit SubwatershedIEC: Information, Education, and CommunicationIPAF: Integrated Protected Areas FundIRR: Implementing Rules and RegulationsIUCN: International Union for the Conservation of NatureIUCN-WCPA: International Union for the Conservation of Nature – World Commission of

Protected AreasKEI: Korea Environmental InstituteKFEMC: Korea Federation for Environmental Movements, ChangnyeongKFS: Korea Forest ServiceKNIER: National Institute of Environmental Research, KoreaKNPS: Korea National Park ServiceMBG: Makiling Botanic GardensMCME: Makiling Center for Mountain Ecosystems

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s

MEDF: Makiling Experimental and Demonstration ForestMFR: Mt Makiling Forest ReserveMIFAFF: Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, KoreaMLTM: Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs, KoreaMoE: Ministry of Environment, KoreaMOFAT: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and TradeNEF: Nagao Environmental FundNGO: Non-Government OrganizationNIER: National Institute of Environmental Research, KoreaNIPAP: National Integrated Protected Areas ProgrammeNIPAS: National Integrated Protected Areas SystemNPPSC: NIPAS Policy and Program Steering CommitteeNZAID: New Zealand Agency for International DevelopmentPA: Protected AreasPALF: Philippine Airline FoundationPAMB: Protected Area Management BoardPAO: Protected Area OfficePASu: Protected Area SuperintendentPCARRD: Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and

DevelopmentPFLA: Permanent Field Laboratory AreaPHP: Philippine PesoRAMSAR (Convention): Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as

Waterfowl HabitatRTD: Regional Technical DirectorSNU: Seoul National University, KoreaTBPA: Transboundary Protected AreasTIES: The International Ecotourism SocietyUNEP-WCMC: United Nations Environment Program - World Conservation Monitoring

CentreUNESCO-MAB: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – Man and

BiosphereUPCIDS: University of Philippines Center for Integrated Development StudiesUPLB: University of the Philippines Los BañosUPLBFI: University of the Philippines Los Baños Foundation IncorporatedUSAID: United States Agency for International DevelopmentUSD: United States DollarsVU: Vulnerable (IUCN Red List Category)WCC: World Conservation CongressWWF: World Wide Fund for Nature

Rodrigo U. Fuentes

ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, Los Baños, Philippines

Protected Areas in Southeast Asia

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While Southeast Asia occupies only three per cent of the Earth’s surface, it is home to key major ecosystems upon which over 580 million lives depend. Its natural habitats contain up to 18 per cent of all known species, as assessed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The region includes the mega-diverse countries of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines, and it has the most diverse coral reefs in the world. Southeast Asia also has several unique biogeographical units such as Indo-Burma, Malesia, Sundaland, Wallacea, and the Central Pacific.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or the ASEAN, is a regional grouping of countries in Southeast Asia that was established on 8 August 1967. ASEAN has 10 members to date: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Figure 1). With the motto “One Vision, One Identity, One Community”, the ASEAN stands by its fundamental principles of mutual respect and effective cooperation.

The key drivers of biodiversity loss in Southeast Asia include ecosystems and habitat change, climate change, invasive alien species, over exploitation (as a result of

1. Introduction

Figure 1. The ASEAN Region. Map: ACB, 2010

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deforestation and land-use and water-use change, as well as wildlife hunting and trade for food), pollution and poverty (ACB 2010). Cognizant of the continuing loss of biological diversity and ecosystems degradation, the 10 ASEAN Member States adopted in 1995 the Vientiane Action Programme (2004-2010) which promotes a clean and green ASEAN with fully established mechanisms for sustainable development to ensure the protection of the region’s environment, the sustainability of its natural resources and the high quality of life of its people. In 2009, this action plan was revitalized to reflect the common vision of One ASEAN Community into the Blueprint for the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (2009-2015). The Blueprint aims to ensure that the ASEAN’s rich biological diversity is conserved and sustainably managed toward enhancing social, economic and environmental well-being (ACB 2010).

ASEAN boasts of globally significant terrestrial and marine biodiversity. Out of 64,800 known species, 1,312 are endangered due to deforestation and habitat destruction; wildlife hunting for food, as pets and for medicinal use; climate change; and pollution; population growth. While the region prides itself to have three mega-diverse countries, it has, nonetheless, four of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, or areas known to have exceptional levels of endemism of species, but are facing serious losses of habitats. The ASEAN region has a total of 4.46 million km2 of land area. A little over half of this land area is covered by forest in 1990 but by 2007, it is recorded to have only 1.9 million km2. For the periods 2000-2007 alone, ASEAN had a 1.11 annual rate of decline of forests with the Philippines, Indonesia and Cambodia registering the highest rates of decline (Table 1). Viet Nam on the other hand, has reported a net forest gain for the same period (ACB 2010).

The establishment of protected areas remains as one of the key cornerstones of biodiversity conservation (Dudley 2008). Since 1950, the designated protected areas in the ASEAN region have increased by 98% in terms of area and 89% in terms of number. However, the initial results of a gap analysis on terrestrial and marine protected areas conducted by the ACB in 2010 have shown that the existing system of protected areas is insufficient and did not cover all types of biomes and species requiring protection (ACB 2010).

2. Terrestrial Biodiversity in the ASEAN Region

3. Protected Areas in ASEAN and ASEANHeritage Parks

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The Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 noted the increasing proportion of land surface designated as protected areas and reckoned from the time such areas have been established more than 50 years ago (SCBD 2010). This trend is also manifested in the ASEAN region (Figure 2).

The Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia have the most number of PAs. In terms of coverage, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines have the most expansive areas. For the Philippines as of 2010, the country has 238 PAs with a total area of 54,174.17 km2 representing 18.06% of its total area (PAWB 2010). The Mt Makiling Forest Reserve and Mt Pulag National Park on Luzon Island are currently being revalidated as part of the PA system of the Philippines.

Transboundary protected areas (TBPA) are places of land or seas or both that straddles or borders between states, sub-national units such as provinces and regions, autonomous areas and/or areas beyond the limit of national sovereignty or jurisdiction, whose constituent parts are especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed cooperatively

4. Transboundary Protected Areas

Table 1 Forest cover change in the ASEAN region in 1980-2005

ASEAN Member States

Total Land Area(km2)a

Forest Area (km2) Annual rate of change

(2000-2007)1990b 2000c 2007c

Brunei Darussalam 5,765 3,130 4,430 4,380 -0.14

Cambodia 181,035 129,460 115,410 100,094 -1.66

Indonesia 1,890,754 1165,670 978,520 847,522 -1.67

The Lao PDR 236,800 173,140 99,332 96,407 -0.37

Malaysia 330,252 223,760 201,600 196,630 -0.31

Myanmar 676,577 392,190 345,540 312,900 -1.18

The Philippines 300,000 105,740 79,490 68,472 -1.73

Singapore 710 23 23 23 0

Thailand 513,120 159,650 148,140 144,024 -0.35

Viet Nam 329,120 93,630 117,250 134,134 1.80

ASEAN 4,464,328 2,446,393 2,089,742 1,904,593 -1.11

Sources:a. Fourth ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2009. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, October 2009b. FAOSTAT 2010 accessed on 21 April 2010 at http://www.faostat.fao.orgc. Fourth ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2009. Jakarta

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through legal or other effective means (ACB 2010). It is believed that transboundary cooperative action is a highly strategic means of achieving regional integration and securing landscape-level conservation. In 2007, the UNEP-WCMC identified 227 TBPAs in its global list. Twenty-two (22) TBPAs are within ASEAN (Table 2).

Capping the conservation agenda of ASEAN Member States is the implementation of its flagship biodiversity initiative: The ASEAN Heritage Park (AHP) Programme. AHPs are protected areas of high conservation importance, preserving a complete spectrum of representative ecosystems and species of the ASEAN region. The AHP Programme aims to instill greater awareness, promote conservation, and provide a sense of pride and enjoyment of the rich natural heritage sites among the ASEAN people. These key life supporting major ecosystems have provided a common agenda and united the countries to better protect the environment and take responsibility and leadership for the sustainable management of their shared resources (ACB 2010).

The ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks was signed in December 2003. The corresponding AHP program underlines the need for greater collaboration for biodiversity conservation in the ASEAN, particularly since the region provides habitats for some of the world’s most enigmatic species and harbors a globally significant wealth of biodiversity. The ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) supports the AHP program by promoting the park areas, developing resource materials, and enhancing the capacity of protected area managers. The ACB also supports the conduct of ASEAN Heritage Parks Conferences. The First and Second AHP Conferences were conducted in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand in 2004 and in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia in 2007. The Third AHP Conference was conducted in Brunei Darussalam in June 2010.

Figure 2. Growth in area and number of designated protected areas in the ASEAN Region, 1950-2010. Source: UNEP-WCMC, 2010. World Database on Protected Areas, accessed on June 17, 2010 at http://www.wdpa.org

Area

(km

²)1 ,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

600,000

0

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

1950

26,008 27,60561,735

131,109

229,400

510,387

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

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NumberArea

461,560

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Table 2 List of TBPAs within ASEANCountries Transboundary protected areas

Myanmar and India ·Kamlang-Namdapha-Khakaborazi

Lao PDR and China ·Xishuangbanna-Nam Ha

Lao PDR and Viet Nam

·Huanglianshan-Phou Dene Din-Muong Nhe·Nam Et-Phou Loey-Sop Cop·Corridor Nalai-Nam Theun-Phou Hin-Phou-Hin Nam No-Nam

Chuane-Nam Thoun Ext-Nui Giang Man-Phong Nha-Ke Bang-Pu Mat-Vu Quang

Viet Nam and China ·Chaotianma-Guanyinshan-Jinpingfenhuiling·Gulongshanshuiyuanlin-Trung Khanh

Cambodia, Lao PDRand Viet Nam

·Lomphat-Mondulkiri-Phnom Nam Lyr-Phnom Prich-Virachey-Dong Amphan-Nam Kading-Phou Kathong-Chu Mom Ray-Yok Don

Malaysia and Thailand ·Bolum-Bukit Perangin-Joli-Kuala Gula-Ulu Muda-Bang Lang-Bala-Bala-Sun Gala Khiri

Myanmar and Thailand ·Lenya-Namtok Huay Yang-Sadej Naikom Krom Luang Chumpon(North and South)

Lao PDR and Thailand ·Nam Phouy-Doi Phukha-Lam Nam Nan-Mae Charim-Sri Nan·Phou Xiengthong-Kaeng Tana-Pha Tam

Cambodia and Thailand

·Banteay Chmar-Preah Vihear-Boon Trik-Yod Mon-Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai-Dong Yai-Hua Tabtan-Hadsamran-Huay Sala-Khao Pravihan-Pang Sida-Panom Dong Rak-Phu Chong Na Yoi-Ta Phraya-Thap Lan-Yod Dom

·Central Cardamom-Phnom Sankos-Samlaut-Klong Kruewai ChalermPraklat-Namtok Klong Kaew

Indonesia and Malaysia

·Hutan Sambas-Gading-Pueh-Maludam-Samunsam-Triso·Lanjak Entimau-Batang Ai-Betung-Kerihun-Bukit Batikap-Bukit

Batutenobang-Muller Schwart-Balleh·Muara Sebuku-Sungai Serudung

Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia ·Labi Hills, Gunung Buda-Gunung Mulu

Indonesia and Papua New Guinea ·Wasur-Maza-Tonda

Philippines and Thailand ·Pulau Penyo-Turtle Islands

At present there are 28 AHPs, with boundaries by country, as shown in Figure 3. Included in this list of AHPs are the Khao Yai National Park in Thailand, Mt Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, Tasek Meribun Mulu National Park in Brunei Darussalam, Virachey National Park in Lao PDR, Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve in Singapore, Kerinci Seblat Natural Park in Indonesia, Inlay Lake Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar (a wetland area) (Figure 4), Nam Ha Biodiversity Conservation Area in Viet Nam, and the latest is the Mt Kitanglad Range Natural Park in Mindanao, Philippines which was declared in October 2009.

In the Philippines, there are three ASEAN Heritage Parks, viz., the Mt Iglit-Baco Range National Park in Mindoro (Figure 5), Mt Kitanglad Range Natural Park, and Mt Apo Natural Park. The latter two are located on the island of Mindanao in southern Philippines.

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Figure 3. The ASEAN Heritage Parks. Map: ACB, 2010

Figure 4. The Inlay Lake Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, a wetland area. Photo : Monina T. Uriarte, ACB

5. Wetland Protected Areas and RAMSAR SitesOf the 29 RAMSAR sites in the region, eight are marine (i.e., coastal lagoons, rocky shores and coral reefs), seven are estuarine (i.e., deltas, tidal marshes and mangrove swamps), six are lacustrine (i.e., lake-associated), five are riverine (i.e., found along rivers and streams), and three

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Figure 5. The Mt Iglit-Baco Range National Park in Mindoro Occidental, Philippines. Photo: Filiberto Pollisco, Jr., ACB

are palustrine (i.e., swamps and bogs). Through the years, the establishment of RAMSAR sites has been sporadic. Southeast Asia began establishing RAMSAR sites from a total of 120 km2 in 1988 to 1,627 km2 in 1992. A lull in establishing new sites was experienced from 1995 to 1998, during which only five km2 were additionally recognized. From 1999 to 2008, Southeast Asia increased its RAMSAR sites to 29, covering a total of 13,000 km2. The location, number and total size of the 29 RAMSAR sites of the ASEAN Member States is shown in Figure 6. The three sites added to the RAMSAR list after 2005 are the following: (1) Wasur National Park, Indonesia, (2) Lower Kinabatangan-Segama Wetland in Malaysia (Figure 7), and (3) Kuching Wetlands National Park, also in Malaysia.

In the Philippines there are four RAMSAR sites: Naujan Lake National Park in Mindoro, Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park, and the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary, with a total of 684 km2.

The terrestrial ecosystems of the ASEAN region shall continue to play the crucial role of providing ecological stability to the ASEAN countries and globally. These ecosystems shall remain a key natural assets for the ASEAN Member States. However, many of these areas are under intense pressure for conversion to other land uses. New approaches to conservation, both inside designated protected areas and beyond their boundaries, will have to be pursued. This could involve the upgrading of institutional capacities for managing national parks, developing landscapes that would act as biodiversity corridors, and expanding the connectivity of the ASEAN Heritage Parks comprised of national parks linking up to become a regional network of national parks that is effectively managed.

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Figure 7. Lower Kinabatangan-Segama Wetland in Malaysia. Photo: Filiberto Pollisco, Jr., ACB

Figure 6. Distribution and number of RAMSAR sites in Southeast Asia, 2008.

Literature cited[ACB] ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity. 2010. ASEAN Biodiversity Outlook. 208p. ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, Los Banos, Philippines.Dudley, N. (ed.). 2008. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. (86p.) accessed on 1 September 2010 at http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/PAPS-016.pdf [PAWB] Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau. 2010. Unpublished Report. PAWB, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.[SCBD] Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2010. Global Biodiversity Outlook 3. 94p. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montréal.

Area

(km

²)12

0

10

8

6

4

2

0

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

Cambodia Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Thailand Viet Nam

546

3

5,565

31,342

6

1041 684

4

259

2

Num

ber

NumberArea

3,706

10

Protected Areasin KoreaYoung Kyu Shin and Min Hwan SuhNational Institute of Environmental Research, Korea

Don Koo LeeSeoul National University, Korea

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There are 13 types of protected areas in Korea. Each type is established for specific purposes such as park management, wildlife protection. These areas are designated by different legislative bills including the Natural Environment Conservation Act, Nature Parks Act. There are many relevant authorities such as Ministry of Environment (MoE), Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs (MLTM), Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA), Korea Forest Service (KFS), Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MIFAFF), and local governments.

The Republic of Korea has achieved significant economic growth and regional development for the last few decades. This achievement, however, has been made at the sacrifice of natural ecosystems: Many landscapes and habitats have been disturbed, and a number of wild flora and fauna have become extinct or endangered. Once an ecosystem is damaged, it is very hard to restore it as it use to be. Even if restoration efforts are being made, it might take a great deal of time and money. It is important, therefore, to protect undisturbed or less disturbed ecosystems by designating them as protected areas.

As of 31st March of 2011, 1,595 areas (18,731.3 km²) were designated as legally protected areas (Table 1). The total terrestrial and marine protected areas are 13,305.67 km² and 5,425,53 km² each, occupying 13.3% and 5.4% of the entire land territory of the country.(Overlapped areas among different types are counted twice or more.)

Todays, various positive pressures are mounting to demand the expansion of protected areas: (1) In the Framework Plan for Natural Environment Conservation (2006-2015), the Korean Ministry of Environment (MoE) declared a vision to expand terrestrial protected areas up to 15% of the land territory by 2015. (2) The World Conservation Congress (WCC) will be held in Jeju Island, Korea in 2012. As a hosting country, the Korean government will support many activities to expand and manage protected areas. (3) At the 10th meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP10) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Nagoya in 2010, new targets for protected areas were declared: according to these targets, each country should expand its total terrestrial and marine protected areas up to 17% and 20%, respectively, of its land territory by 2020.

Designation and management of protected areas have been a basic but powerful policy instrument for nature conservation. The Korean government is making its efforts to increase the country’s protected areas and take more effective management measures.

1. Introduction

2. Types of Protected Areas in Korea

25

Protected Areas in

KoreaTable 1 Status of protected areas in Korea according to designation types (as of March 2011)

* Overlapped areas among different types are counted twice or more.

Types Count Area(km2) * Management Authorities Legislation

Nature Parks

National Parks 20 6,769.91 MoE (KNPS)

Nature Parks ActProvincial Parks 31 1,050.42 Local (Province)

County Parks 27 239.22 Local (County)

Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation Areas 39 406.51 MoE / MLTM / Local Natural Environment

Conservation Act

Wetland Protected Areas 28 332.726 MoE / MLTM / Local Wetland Conservation Act

Special Islands 170 10.54 MoESpecial Law on Ecosystem Conservation in Island Areas including Dokdo

Baekdudaegan Mountains Reserve 1 2,634.27 KFS / MoE Act on Protection of

Baekdudaegan Mountains

Wildlife Special Protection Area 1 26.2 MoEWildlife Protection Act

Wildlife Protection Areas 377 920.02 MoE / Local

Natural Monuments 419 1,629.62

CHA Cultural Heritage Protection Act (Nature Reserves) (11) (453.99)

Scenic Sites 72 189.49

Forest Genetic Resources Reserves 381 1,166.06 KFS / Local

Law on Creation and Management of Forest Resources

Fishery Resources Conservation Areas 29 3,356.21 MIFAFF / Local National Land Planning

and Utilization Act

Total 1,595 18,731.30 18.7% of total land territory in South Korea(100,169.51 km2)

(Terrestrial protected areas) 13,305.67 13.3%

(Marine protected areas) 5,425.53 5.4%

Areas representative of natural ecosystems and landscapes are designated as nature parks under the Nature Parks Act. These areas contain undisturbed ecosystems with natural vegetation, endangered species, scenic beauty, unique landforms, etc. The management of such nature parks is carried out for two purposes: nature protection and sustainable tourism.

Nature parks are classified into National Parks, Provincial Parks, and County Parks by relevant authorities in charge of designation and management. Since the designation of

2-1. Nature Parks (National/Provincial/County Parks)

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Bukhansan

Taeanhaean

Gyeryongsan

NaejangsanByeongsanbando

Wolchulsan

Hallasan

Dadohaeasang

Hallyeohaesang

Gyeongju

JuwangsanSongnisan

Sobaeksan

Chiaksan

SeoraksanOdaesan

Deogyusan

Gayasan

Jirlsan

Mountainous National ParksMarine & Coastal National ParksHistorical National Park

Figure 1 . Location of National Parks. Source : homepage of Korea National Park Service (http://english.knps.or.kr).

Figure 2. Seoraksan (Mt) National Park. Photo: Y. K. Shin

Jirisan (Mt) National Park in 1967, 20 National Parks (6,769.905 km²), 31 Provincial Parks (1,050.421 km²) and 27 County Parks (239.217 km²) have been designated. The nature parks are important for the nation’s ecosystem conservation policies in that they occupy 8.0% of the total land territory in Korea.

Among the 20 National Parks, 15 areas are located in terrestrial areas, whereas four are in marine and coastal areas. Only one park is placed in the historic sites of Gyeongju, which used to be the capital city of an ancient Korean dynasty named Shilla. Seoraksan (Mt) and Hallasan (Mt) are also registered as UNESCO-MAB (Man and Biosphere) Biosphere Reserves.

Bukhansan

Taeanhaean

Gyeryongsan

NaejangsanByeongsanbando

Wolchulsan

Hallasan

Dadohaeasang

Hallyeohaesang

Gyeongju

JuwangsanSongnisan

Sobaeksan

Chiaksan

SeoraksanOdaesan

Deogyusan

Gayasan

Jirlsan

Mountainous National ParksMarine & Coastal National ParksHistorical National Park

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Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation Areas are designated according to the Natural Environment Conservation Act to protect areas with natural primitiveness, biodiversity, outstanding landforms, national or local representativeness.

2-2. Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation Areas

Figure 3. Hallyeohaesang National Park. Photos: K. S. Yun

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The Ministry of Environment (MoE), Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs (MLTM) and local governments are involved in these protected areas. The MoE manages the terrestrial part of the protected areas, whereas the MLTM is responsible for the marine part. Since the designation of three areas such as the Nakdonggang (River) Estuary, Jirisan (Mt), and Daeamsan (Mt) in 1989, 38 areas(406.51 km², 0.4% of South Korea) have been designated as Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation Areas: 13 (285.593 km²) by the MoE, four (70.373 km²) by the MLTM and 22 (50.544 km²) by local governments.

Figure 4. Donggang (River) Valley. Photo: Y. K. Shin

Figure 5. Coast of Sindu dune areas. Photo: H. C. Roh

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Wetland Protected Areas are designated according to the Wetland Conservation Act to protect wetlands with natural primitiveness, biodiversity, outstanding landscapes, valuable landforms or geological features, and important habitats for endangered species. Government agencies such as the MoE, MLTM, as well as local governments, are engaged in the wetland management. Among the protected wetlands, inland areas are managed by the MoE, and coastal wetlands by MLTM. Since the designation of four areas including the Nakdonggang (River) Estuary, the Yongneup of Daeamsan (Mt), the Upo Wetland and the Moojechineup in 1999, 28 areas (332.726km², 0.3% of South Korea) have been designated as Wetland Protected Areas: 16 (114.052 km²) by MoE, nine (212.040 km²) by MLTM and three (6.634 km²) by local governments.

Wetland Protected Areas are core zones to implement the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). The 10th meeting of Conference of Parties (CoP10, 2008, Changwon, Korea) served as a turing point to raise public awareness of wetland conservation. There are 14 wetlands in Korea registered as RAMSAR sites. Among 28 Wetland Protected Areas, 14 (142.926 km²) are listed as 12 RAMSAR sites (four coastal wetlands are integrated into two RAMSAR sites). RAMSAR sites in Korea also include two non-protected wetlands, one of which is located within a National Park.

2-3. Wetland Protected Areas

Figure 6. Upo Wetland. Photo: Y. K. Shin

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Figure 7. Suncheonman (Bay), a Wetland Protected Area and a RAMSAR site. Photo: Y. K. Shin

It is reported that there are a total of 3,153 islands in South Korea. Among them 2,679 are uninhabited. Most of them have high conservation value: undisturbed or less disturbed vegetation, outstanding landforms or geological features, unique flora and fauna, and habitats for endangered species. Many uninhabited islands are being surveyed under the Special Law on Ecosystem Conservation in Island Areas including Dokdo. According to this law, those uninhabited islands with high conservation values are designated as ‘Special Islands’.

2-4. Special Islands

Figure 8. Dokdo (Special Island No.1) in the middle of the East Sea. Photo: K. S. Yun

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Protected Areas in

KoreaThe MoE is responsible for the designation and management of Special Islands. Since 47 uninhabited islands were first designated in 2000, 170 (10.545 km²) have been designated until now. The MoE performs periodical monitoring to find any negative changes and take appropriate measures.

Among these Special Islands, Dokdo is regarded as the most important in that it is located in the middle of the East Sea as well as the easternmost part of the South Korean territory. This lonely volcanic island has high conservation values with unique landforms and geological features, flora and fauna, breeding and resting places for migratory birds, and rich marine resources.

‘Baekdudaegan’ is a mountain range which connects Baekdusan (Mt) in the north to Jirisan (Mt) in the south on the Korean Peninsula. It divides the peninsula into two: watersheds toward the east and west coast. From the ecological point of view, it is one of the three axes of ecological network on the peninsula along with the DMZ (demilitarized zone) and the island and coastal belt. Baekdudaegan is main ecological corridor for subalpine coniferous forests and endangered montane species such as Gorals (Naemorhedus caudatus), Asiatic Black Bears (Urusus thibetanus ussuricus).

2-5. Baekdudaegan Mountains Reserve

Figure 9. Map of the ‘Baekdudaegan’ (mountain range).Source : Framework Plan for Protection of Baekdudaegan.

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The Act on Protection of Baekdudaegan Mountains was established in 2003 to support the protection of this mountain range. By this act, some main part placed in South Korea was designated as the Baekdudaegan Mountains Reserve in 2005. The central axis of Baekdudaegan Mountains Reserve is 684km in length, and the total area is 2,684 km² (the core area is 1,695.5 km² and the buffer area is 934.77 km²) which takes up 2.6% of the total national territory and 4% of the total forest area in South Korea. This protected area contains and connects 9 nature parks (7 National Parks, 1 Provincial Park, 1 County Park) and 2 Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation Areas.

The Korea Forest Service (KFS) is responsible for the overall polices and management projects, while the MoE is involved in the protection of ecosystems.

Figure 10. Mountain ridges in Baekdudaegan, nearby Socheong Peak in Seoraksan (Mt). Photo: J. H. Lee

Special Wildlife Protection Areas and Wildlife Protection Areas are designated according to the Wildlife Protection Act to preserve important habitats for endangered species or large populations of wildlife.

The MoE is the main authorities responsible for coordinating the overall protection policies. Special Wildlife Protection Areas are designated by the MoE, while Wildlife Protection Areas are by local governments. As of March 2011, one Special Wildlife Protection Area (26.2 km²) was designated by MoE in 2005 to preserve the habitat

2-6. Special Wildlife Protection Areas and WildlifeProtection Areas

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Figure 12. Large populations of Bean Geese (Anser fabalis) in Ganwolho (Lake). Photo: J. Y. Park

The concept of Natural Monuments covers animals (including their habitats, breeding places, arrival places for migratory species), plants (including natural habitats and specific individuals), minerals, landforms and geological sites with great cultural, historical, scientific and aesthetical importance. Nature Reserves are a certain type of Natural Monuments. Compared to any other Natural Monuments, they occupy relatively large areas, playing a major role in conservation of ecosystems and landscapes. Scenic Sites are areas with outstanding or unique scenery.

2-7. Natural Monuments,Nature Reserves and Scenic Sites

Figure 11. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra). Source : Photobook of Endangered Wildlife (MoE, 2005).

of Eurasian Otters (Lutra lutra), an endangered species, in Jinyangho (Lake), and 377 Wildlife Protection Areas (total 920.02 km²) were by local governments.

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Natural Monuments, Nature Reserves and Scenic Sites are all designated according to the Cultural Heritage Protection Act to protect their great importance as natural heritage. The Administrator of the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA) has the authority to set or abolish the designation of these protected areas. Such an authority can be entrusted to local governments to manage each area more efficiently.

As of March 2011, 419 Natural Monuments (1,629.62 km², 1.6% of the total land territory in South Korea), including 11 Nature Reserves (450.548 km²), and 72 Scenic Sites (189.49 km²) have been designated to stay under the legal protection. Among the 11 Nature Reserves, Seoraksan (Mt) and Hallasan (Mt) are registered as UNESCO-MAB (Man and Biosphere) Biosphere Reserves, and “Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes” which include Hallasan (Mt) are on the list of UNESCO World Natural Heritage.

Figure 14. A volcano named Seongsan Ilchulbong in Jeju Island, which is included in UNESCO World Natural Heritage.Photo: Jeju Province Government

Figure 13. Hallasan (Mt) in Jeju Island (Natural Monument No.182, Nature Reserve, National Park, UNESCO World Natural Heritage). Photo: Jeju Province Government

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Figure. 15. Windbreak forest in Mulgeon-ri (Natural Monument No.150). Photo: Y. Kim

Figure 16. Meander in Hoeryongpo (Scenic Site No. 16). Photo: H. N. Yoon

Forest Genetic Resources Reserves are designated according to the Law on Creation and Management of Forest Resources to protect forests with great importance as genetic resources of useful trees, habitats of rare and endangered species, unique and well preserved forest vegetation.

2-8. Forest Genetic Resources Reserves

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Figure 17. Pine trees in Sogwangri Forest Genetic Resources Reserve. Photo: J. H. Lee

Fishery Resources Conservation Areas are designated according to the National Land Planning and Utilization Act to conserve important fishing grounds and adjacent coastal areas.

Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MIFAFF) is responsible for coordinating the overall conservation policies. With the delegation of authority by the Minsiter of MIFAFF, local governments can manage these areas effectively. As of March 2011, 29 Fishery Resources Conservation Areas (3,356.214 km²) have been designated and 60.8% (2,033.508 km²) of them belong to sea water surface.

2-9. Fishery Resources Conservation Areas

Although the DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) is one of the three main axes of nationwide ecological network (ecological corridor), it has been left out of legal protection. It is a neutral

3. Future Prospects of Protected Areas in Korea

The Korea Forest Service (KFS) is the authorities that designates and manages Forest Genetic Resources Reserves. With the authority awarded by the KFS Minister, local governments manage these protected areas. As of March 2011, 381 areas (1,166.06 km²) are designated as Forest Genetic Resources Reserves.

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Figure 18. Fishery Resources Conservation Areas in Wando. Photo: Y. K. Shin

zone placed between North and South Korea set in 1953 (at the end of Korean War) with the width of 4 km and the total area of 907 km². This area has since remained undisturbed, and even if it was disturbed, it was only a periodical and limited disturbance such as fire setting, logging and mowing. Some regions preserve natural landscapes of the temperate climate zone and others have unique landscapes such as wide open grassland and wetlands. Various types of habitats (grassland, forests, estuaries, rivers, lagoons and other wetlands) in the DMZ are connected transitionally from the west coast to the east coast. Moreover, the zone serves as a home to many endangered species such as Black-faced Spoonbills (Platalea minor), Red-crowned Cranes (Grus japonensis), Musk Deers (Moschus moschiferus) and Korean Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). If North and South Korea enhance their cooperation, the DMZ could be designated as a UNESCO Transboundary Biosphere Reserve.

Figure 19. Map of DMZ. * MDL : Military Demarcation Line, DMZ : Demilitarzed Zone, CCL : Civilian Control Line

North Korea

South Korea

MDLDMZCCL

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Despite the Korean government’s ongoing efforts, there is still a lot of room for improvement in the expansion of protected areas. Along with the development of various international conventions or cooperative programs such as the CBD, the Ramsar Convention and the IUCN-WCPA (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, World Commission of Protected Areas), each party has to tighten up its own standards for designation and management to keep up with the international level. Korea will establish more scientific criteria on designation, and apply methods for effectiveness evaluation.

Figure 20. Wide open grassland, a unique landscape in the middle part of the DMZ. Photo: J. H. Lee

Figure 21. The DMZ and rocky mountains in North Korea observed from the east coast. Photo: Y. K. Shin

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Protected Areas in

KoreaLiterature cited

Cho, D.S., T.B. Choi, H.Y. Heo, K.H. Yook, J.H. Lim, & W.H. Lee. 2008. Natural Protected Areas of Republic of Korea, 526p. Korean Protected Areas Forum (in English).Cultural Heritage Administration. 2011. Statistical Data for Major Works (in Korean).Ministry of Environment. 2005. Photobook of Endangered Wildlife. 247p. (in Korean).Ministr y of Environment. 2006. Framework Plan for Natural Environment Conservation (2006~2015).Korea Forest Ser vice. 2006. Framework Plan for Protection of Baekdudaegan (2006~2015).

HomepagesMinistry of Environment (http://eng.me.go.kr)Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs (http://english.mltm.go.kr)Cultural Heritage Administration (http://english.cha.go.kr)Korea Forest Service (http://english.forest.go.kr)Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (http://english.mifaff.go.kr)Korea National Park Service (http://english.knps.or.kr)

LegislationNature Parks ActNatural Environment Conservation ActWetland Conservation ActSpecial Law on Ecosystem Conservation in Island Areas including DokdoAct on Protection of Baekdudaegan MountainsWildlife Protection ActCultural Heritage Protection ActLaw on Creation and Management of Forest ResourcesNational Land Planning and Utilization Act

Mt MakilingForest Reserve :Protected Area of Longest History of Biodiversity Studies in the Philippines

Portia G. Lapitan, Nelson M. Pampolina and Manuel L. Castillo

University of the Philippines Los Baños

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1. Introduction

Figure 1. Satellite map of Mt Makiling Forest Reserve, its political location and its four subwatershed units. Map: MCME 2005

The upper portion of Mount Makiling, now known as the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR), was established as a forest reserve as early as 1910. This is the only forest reserve in the country that is ceded for control and administration to a university unlike the rest of the forests of the country which is under the jurisdiction, control and administration of the national agency, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Mt Makiling is an indigenous forest and a vital natural and water resource in the Philippines continuously providing tangible and intangible environmental benefits to its immediate communities and the greater public in general. It is the living research and training laboratory of the University of the Philippines Los Baños; a biodiversity center of the country and headquarter of the regional institution ASEAN Biodiversity Centre; a geothermal resource; a key ecotourism site of the Philippines; and the watershed and water source of industrial, agricultural and residential sectors of the CALABARZON region (Lapitan 2007). The mountain is also an important catchment area for the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia, the Laguna de Bay.

Mt Makiling, which is in the island of Luzon and just 65 km south of Metro Manila, is regarded as the best known biological area in the Philippines. Mt Makiling is an inactive volcano. The forest reserve has a total land area of 4,244.37 hectares and straddles the political boundaries of the provinces of Laguna and Batangas, covering sections of the municipalities of Bay, Los Baños, and Calamba in Laguna, and Sto. Tomas in Batangas. The forest reserve has four subwatersheds namely Molawin-Dampalit, Cambantoc, Greater Sipit and Tigbi (Figure 1).

CalambaLaguna

Tigbi

Greater Sipit

Molawin-Dampalit

Cambantoc

Los BañosLaguna

BayLaguna

Sto.TomasBatangas

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2. Status of Natural Resources

2-1. Landscape Resources

The landscape resources within the forest reserve are surrounded by a buffer zone delineated by law for the purpose of providing protection to the reserve and the resources therein (Figure 2). Prior to the declaration of the buffer zone in 1998 however, the fringes of the forest reserve have already been either farmed or made part of residential areas. The landscape of the forest reserve shows that in most part of its boundary, grassland and agroforestry farms with huts or houses are common.

The four subwatersheds in the MFR have physical features that may be used to distinguish one from the other. In the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed, the forest ecosystem in the Molawin side is reported to be characteristically natural secondary lowland dipterocarp forest mixed with indigenous non-dipterocarp species. The Dampalit side, on the other hand, is basically an agroforest zone with an elevation of 300-750 meters above sea level (masl), where crops are relatively diverse. In this subwatershed, the Mudspring can be found, a mud pot that manifests the volcanic nature, inactive though, of the mountain (Figure 3). “A mud pot” is said to be “a type of hot spring that is formed when due to volcanic heat, sulphuric acid breaks down surrounding rocks into clay. The clay mixes with water to form mud that is very hot (about 80°C), sulphurous (50 mg/L), very acidic (about pH 2) with varying consistency and color”.

The Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed has other natural features that attract visitors to the area. It has two prominent, persistent falls, the Molawin and Dampalit Falls (Figure 4). Natural pools and rocky areas can be found in this portion of the forest reserve, the Flatrocks being famous for the flat, big boulders of rocks that dominate the area (Figure 5). The natural water pool serves as a natural swimming pool. The volume of water in these parts of the subwatershed changes during the dry and wet season.

Figure 2. The Mt Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR) bounded below by the Buffer Zone delineated by Proclamation 1257 of June 20, 1998. Diagram : MCME 2007

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Figure 3.The Mudspring within the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

Figure 4. The Molawin (a) and Dampalit Falls (b) attract visitors to this part of the MFR. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

a b

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Figure 5. The Flatrocks and natural pool in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed gushing with cool water. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

This subwatershed has many streams and creeks, the Molawin creek (Figure 6) being the biggest. It is one of the many low volume flowing rocky streams crisscrossing the northeastern part of the mountain. The creek can overflow and cause flashfloods during heavy rains. It is the major waterway supplying the greater part of the subwatershed and its biodiversity with water (Figure 7). In the perspective of water recharge to Laguna de Bay, Molawin creek is just a minor tributary, one among the many small creeks that empty into the lake. Peak 2, one of the three highest points of Mt Makiling, is its headwater.

The Cambantoc’s landscape, on the other hand, is a mosaic of forest, grassland and agroforest (Figure 8). The agroforest area is occupied by a community that ekes out a living in it through the planting of agricultural and fruit crops. The forested part of the subwatershed is also the source of forest products which the community sell in nearby markets below the mountain slopes. Within the forested area, the natural habitat of the endangered Strongylodon macrobotrys, a rocky formation, was located (Figure 9). Peak 1 (Figure 10), a rather unexploited part of this subwatershed, is where the mossy forest can be found. It is the highest point of this part of the forest reserve which is the water source of eight major creeks interspersing the subwatershed. These creeks drain into the Laguna de Bay through the Cambantoc River (Figure 11).

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Figure 6. The Molawin creek, a major creek in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

Figure 7. A sampling of the diverse organisms supported by the Molawin creek. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

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Figure 8. The Cambantoc subwatershed, a mosaic of grassland, forest and agroforest area. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

Figure 9. The natural habitat of Strongylodon macrobotrys, a rocky area in the Cambantoc subwatershed. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

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Figure 10. A view from the lower part of the Cambantoc subwatershed of Peak 1 shrouded with clouds. Below is another view of Peak 1. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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The Greater Sipit subwatershed is named after the tong-like structure of the mountain viewed from a distance (Figure 12). “Sipit” is the Filipino word for tong. In this part of Mt Makiling, the Caldera can be found, a cauldron-like volcanic feature which according to volcanologist is usually formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption. Along with the Mudspring in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed this feature further manifests the volcanic nature of Mt Makiling. This part of the Greater Sipit subwatershed is locally called Latag. From this part the three peaks of the mountain surrounding the area can be seen.

Figure 11. Several creeks in the Cambantoc subwatershed drain into the Laguna de Bay through the Cambantoc River.Map: MCME 2009. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

Figure 12. The tong-like Greater Sipit subwatershed. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

Subwatershed boundary -

Creek -

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The summit area of this subwatershed is relatively “untouched”, mossy, where water springs naturally (Figure 13). The Sipit creek is the major body of water in this part of the forest reserve (Figure 13a). At least three municipalities of the province of Batangas source water for everyday use from this subwatershed.

Figure 13a. The major creek traversing the Greater Sipit subwatershed from where water is sourced for the communities and areas below the summit. Photos taken after the creek widened from the ravages of supertyphoon Xangsane. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

Figure 13. The “untouched”, mossy condition of the summit area of Greater Sipit subwatershed. Photo: Manuel L. Castillo

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Figure 14. The Tigbi subwatershed where the oldest water intake (inset) supplying the water needs of the Greater Calamba area is found. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

The Tigbi subwatershed (Figure 14) is known more for the oldest and still living, spring water source that is tapped to supply the water needs of the Greater Calamba City area. The subwatershed is an important water recharge of aquifers tapped by various users, notably the many spring resorts, in its northern slopes. It drains into the Laguna lake through the Pansol river.

Historically important in the interior of its landscape is the only, very, very old mango tree (Mangifera indica). It is believed to have been planted in the area and was used by Japanese soldiers as a marker for the place, one of the many in the Philippines, where the famous Yamashita treasure is presumed buried. A digging for treasure hunting was found underneath this mango tree (Figure 15).

The Tigbi subwatershed is characteristically rocky on both sides along the stretch of the Tigbi creek where plants protrude in profusion (Figure 16). The creek has big boulders scattered everywhere. The natural features of the subwatershed are more preserved than that of Molawin-Dampalit.

The Tigbi subwatershed is characteristically rocky on both sides along the stretch of the Tigbi creek where plants protrude in profusion (Figure 16). The creek has big boulders scattered everywhere. The natural features of the subwatershed are more preserved than that of Molawin-Dampalit.

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Figure 16. Rocky feature of the Tigbi subwatershed where plants protrude in profusion. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

2-2. Plant Resources

The flora of the mountain comprises a large number of endemic families, genera, and species that include many interesting forms. There are also species introduced from several parts of the world, some of which are already naturalized after long years of existence in the area. The complete listing of plant species in Mt Makiling Forest Reserve appears in Appendix Table 1. Pancho, in 1983, estimated the vascular plants of Mt Makiling are about 2,038.

Figure 15. A digging for treasure hunting was found underneath this more than a meter-diameter mango tree in Tigbi. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

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A rapid floral diversity assessment conducted from June to July 2009 from the Mudspring area down to the vicinity of the Flatrocks of this subwatershed shows the presence of Critically Endangered (CR) and Vulnerable (VU) plant species (Table 1). Note that Diospyros blancoi (Figure 17a) is categorized by IUCN as Vulnerable (VU) only while DAO 2007-1 listed it as Critically Endangered (CR). Parashorea malaanonan is another Critically Endangered (CR) species that is found abundant in this subwatershed (Figure 17b). Century-old trees of Parashorea malaanonan with diameter of more than a meter spread in the 400-600 meter elevation of this subwatershed. The ridges in the bark deepen as trees mature and bark color darkens.

2-2-1. Tree species

Tree Species in the Molawin-Dampalit Subwatershed

Legend:

DAO 2007-1 : Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order 2007-1

IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994) : International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ver. 2.3 series of 1994

VU A1d : Vulnerable considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild because of observed, estimated, inferred

or suspected population size reduction of 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer,

where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible and understood and ceased, based on actual or potential levels

of exploitation

CR A1cd : Critically Endangered considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild due to an

observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 90% over the last 10 years or three generations,

whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible and understood and ceased, based on

a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat and actual or potential levels of exploitation

EN : Endangered Species

OTS : Other threatened species under threat from adverse factors, such as over collection, throughout its range and is

likely to move to the vulnerable category in the near future

Table 1 Threatened tree species in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed

Species Name FamilyConservation Status

DAO 2007-1 IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994)

Parashorea malaanonan DIPTEROCARPACEAE CR A1cd

Macaranga bicolor EUPHORBIACEAE VU A1cd

Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE VU A1cd

Celtis luzonica CANNABACEAE VU A1cd

Diospyros blancoi EBENACEAE CR A1cd VU A1cd

Artocarpus rubrovenius MORACEAE VU A1c VU A1d

Balakata luzonica EUPHORBIACEAE VU A1cd VU A1cd

Aglaia edulis MELIACEAE VU A1cd

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Figure 17b. Parashorea malaanonan DIPTEROCARPACEAE, another critically endangered species, dominates the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

Figure 17a. Diospyros blancoi EBENACEAE, a critically endangered species, dominates the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

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Table 2 lists the most frequent and dominant species found in Molawin-Dampalit which include Diplodiscus paniculatus, Celtis luzonica, Canarium luzonicum, Parashorea malaanonan, Pisonia umbellifera, Diospyros blancoi, Ficus subcordata, Chisocheton cumingianus subsp. cumingianus, Knema glomerata and Diospyros pyrrhocarpa. The dipterocarp species, Parashorea malaanonan and Shorea guiso, occupy the middle story and the upper story of the area. Shorea guiso is also found growing in this subwatershed.

In other parts of this subwatershed, specifically in the two permanent field laboratory areas (PFLAs) established by the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, vegetation sampling revealed there was a total of 55 tree species that belong to 30 genera and 22 families with diameter-at-breast height ranging from 30-80 cm. Two species other than those found by the UPLB-KNIER team dominate these two-hectare sampling plots: Pterocymbium celebicum and Ahernia glandulosa. The population density is recorded at 3,533 individuals per hectare (PFLA Final Report 2006).

In the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed, Diospyros blancoi and Parashorea malaanonan which are considered as Critically Endangered (CR), and Diplodiscus paniculatus as Vulnerable (VU) species (IUCN 1994), dominate the area that their conservation appears to be not a problem in this part of the forest reserve.

Relative dominance, frequency, density, and importance value of the tree species along Molawin-Dampalit subwatershedTable 2

Species Name RelativeDominance

Relative Frequency

Relative Density

Importance Value

Diplodiscus paniculatus 14.4071 12.9870 19.0476 46.4417

Celtis luzonica 7.7902 9.0909 13.0952 29.9764

Canarium luzonicum 15.1815 3.8961 3.5714 22.6490

Parashorea malaanonan 6.2955 3.8961 4.7619 14.9535

Pisonia umbellifera 8.8984 1.2987 1.1905 11.3876

Diospyros blancoi 3.3684 3.8961 3.5714 10.8359

Ficus subcordata 6.3308 1.2987 1.1905 8.8200

Chisocheton cumingianus subsp. cumingianus 2.0888 3.8961 3.5714 8.5918

Knema glomerata 0.7360 3.8961 3.5714 8.2035

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa 0.9769 5.1948 1.1905 7.3622

Shorea guiso 4.6800 1.2987 1.1905 7.1692

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Table 3 shows the top ten tree species found in the area and their relative dominance, frequency, density and importance value. Diplodiscus paniculatus (Figure 18) is the most dominant in the area.

Tree Species in the Cambantoc Subwatershed

Figure 18. Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE, the most dominant species in Cambantoc subwatershed. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

Importance value for all tree species encountered in 10m x 10m plot in the Cambantoc subwatershedTable 3

Species Name Family Name Relative Dominance

Relative Frequency

Relative Density

Importance Value

Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE 68.2473 10.1124 13.9130 92.2727

Chisocheton pentandrus MELIACEAE 46.8876 7.8652 12.1739 66.9267

Ficus satterthwaitei MORACEAE 55.8659 2.2472 1.7391 59.8523

Pterocymbium tinctorium MALVACEAE 28.6159 4.4944 3.4783 36.5886

Celtis luzonica CANNABACEAE 25.5682 5.6180 5.2174 36.4036

Ficus subcordata MORACEAE 28.6937 1.1236 0.8696 30.6869

Ficus nervosa MORACEAE 20.0807 2.2472 2.6087 24.9366

Turpinia ovatifolia STAPHYLEACEAE 17.3594 2.2472 2.6087 22.2153

Knema glomerata MYRISTICACEAE 6.9016 7.8652 6.0870 20.8537

Horsfieldia costulata MYRISTICACEAE 12.5013 2.2472 1.7391 16.4877

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Table 4, on the other hand, presents the different threatened tree species in the Cambantoc subwatershed according to DAO 2007-1 and IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994). Two species considered Critically Endangered (CR) are found in this subwatershed, Toona calantas (Figure 19) and Shorea polysperma. Myristica philippinensis is listed as Endangered (EN) while five are listed as Vulnerable (VU) species: Palaquium philippense, Dracontomelon edule, Artocarpus rubrovenius, Diplodiscus paniculatus and Celtis luzonica. Diplodiscus paniculatus and Celtis luzonica are the two tree species abundant in this subwatershed but listed as Vulnerable (VU) by DAO 2007-1 and IUCN 1994.

Figure 19. Big trees of Toona calantas MELIACEAE, a Critically Endangered (CR) species, found in MFR. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

Legend: See Legend of Table 1

Table 4 Threatened tree species in the Cambantoc subwatershed

Species Name Family

Conservation Status

DAO 2007-1 IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994)

Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE VU A1cd

Celtis luzonica CANNABACEAE VU A1cd

Artocarpus rubrovenius MORACEAE VU A1c VU A1d

Dracontomelon edule ANACARDIACEAE VU A1cd

Shorea polysperma DIPTEROCARPACEAE VU A1cd CR A1cd

Myristica philippinensis MYRISTICACEAE EN A1c, B2c

Toona calantas MELIACEAE CR A1cd

Palaquium philippense SAPOTACEAE VU A1cd VU A1d

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The dominant tree species based on the computed relative dominance, basal area, and frequency include Syzygium maquilingense (Myrtaceae), Neotrewia cumingii (Euphorbiaceae), Swietenia macrophylla, Turpinia ovatifolia (Staphyleaceae), Ficus septica (Moraceae), Diplodiscus paniculatus, Dillenia reifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus (Fabaceae), Palaquium philippense, and Laportea luzonensis (Urticaceae) as shown in Table 5. A total of forty-four (44) tree species were found in the sampling plots established in the area. Syzygium maquilingense (Figure 20) can only be found in this subwatershed.

Syzygium maquilingense (syn Syzygium alvarezii), an endemic Philippine tree species with light cream to brown bark (Figure 20) that is very distinct among the different stems in the area, is abundant in the upper slopes of the watershed. Moreover, the species is not found growing in the lower portion of the subwatershed. Palaquium philippense, Turpinia ovatifolia, Laportea luzonensis, and Dillenia reifferscheidia (Figure 21) are the most dominant associated species in the higher slopes of the watershed. These species thrive only at the middle and near the summit of the mountain. Dillenia reifferscheidia and Palaquium philippense belong to the endangered species category. Small trees of Neotrewia cumingii and Ficus septica (Figure 22), on the other hand, are two species widely distributed throughout the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve and found in wide range of habitats from the lower slopes to the upper slopes.

Tree Species in the Greater Sipit Subwatershed (GSW)

Relative dominance, frequency, density, and importance value of all tree species ≥ 10 cm diameter in the Greater Sipit subwatershedTable 5

Species Name Family Name Relative Dominance

Relative Frequency

Relative Density

Importance Value

Syzygium maquilingense MYRTACEAE 16.9517 10.9756 10.9756 38.9029

Neotrewia cumingii EUPHORBIACEAE 5.2918 9.7561 9.7561 24.8040

Swietenia macrophylla MELIACEAE 16.4584 2.4390 2.4390 21.3364

Turpinia ovatifolia STAPHYLEACEAE 9.9959 4.8780 4.8780 19.7520

Ficus septica MORACEAE 4.2119 6.0976 6.0976 16.4070

Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE 4.8130 3.6585 3.6585 12.1301

Dillenia reifferscheidia DILLENIACEAE 6.0712 2.4390 2.4390 10.9493

Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus FABACEAE 5.6300 2.4390 2.4390 10.5080

Palaquium philippense SAPOTACEAE 1.7256 3.6585 3.6585 9.0426

Laportea luzonensis URTICACEAE 3.9829 2.4390 2.4390 8.8609

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Figure 20. Syzygium maquilingense MYRTACEAE, species unique to the Greater Sipit subwatershed. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

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Figure 21. Dillenia reifferscheidia DILLENIACEAE, an endangered species, one of the most dominant associated species in the higher slope of the subwatershed. Note the flowering Medinilla magnifica MELASTOMATACEAE, another endangered species, in its trunk. Another flowering plant of Medinilla magnifica (below right). Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

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Figure 22. Ficus septica MORACEAE, small tree widely distributed throughout the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve from the lower slopes to the upper slopes. Photo: Manuel L. Castillo

Diplodiscus paniculatus, the tree species commonly found all throughout the middle portion of Mt Makiling, is also found at GSW. But unlike in the other three subwatersheds where it is the most dominant, this species ranks only 6th in importance value at GSW. Swietenia macrophylla and Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus are the two species not found to be part of the natural vegetation of GSW but dominate the lower portion of this subwatershed as these two were used as reforestation species for rehabilitation of the denuded portion of the watershed in the 1960’s. These species’ big diameter at breast height (dbh) and the number of individuals present in the lower slopes account for their higher values of basal area and frequency.

In Table 6, the results of the Greater Sipit subwatershed survey for threatened species are shown. Only one Critically Endangered (CR) species (Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus), and six Vulnerable (VU) species (Artocarpus rubrovenius, Aglaia edulis, Mitrephora lanotan (Figure 23), Cinnamomum mercadoi, Palaquium philippense, and Dillenia reifferscheidia) were found in this part of the MFR. Myristica philippinensis is listed as other threatened species (OTS) under threat from adverse factors, such as over collection, throughout its range and is likely to move to the vulnerable category in the near future. The seeds (Figure 24) of this species are particularly collected as nutmeg for food flavouring.

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Legend: See Legend of Table 1

Figure 23. Mitrephora lanotan ANNONACEAE, a vulnerable species found flowering in the Greater Sipit subwatershed. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

Table 6 Threatened tree species in the Greater Sipit subwatershed

Species Name Family Name

Conservation Status

DAO 2007-1 IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994)

Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE VU A1cd

Dillenia reifferscheidia DILLENIACEAE VU A1c VU A1d

Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus FABACEAE CR A1cd VU A1d

Palaquium philippense SAPOTACEAE VU A1cd VU A1d

Cinnamomum mercadoi LAURACEAE VU A1c VU A1d

Mitrephora lanotan ANNONACEAE VU A1c, B2c VU A1cd

Myristica philippinensis MYRISTICACEAE OTS VU A1c

Aglaia edulis MELIACEAE VU A1cd

Artocarpus rubrovenius MORACEAE VU A1c VU A1d

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There were fifty-seven (57) tree species found in the sampling plots established in Tigbi subwatershed. The commonly encountered ones in this subwatershed are Diplodiscus paniculatus (Figure 18), Pterocymbium tinctorium, Celtis luzonica, Neotrewia cumingii, Toona calantas (Figure 19), Laportea luzonensis, Chisocheton cumingianus subsp. cumingianus (Figure 25), Palaquium foxworthyi, Artocarpus rubrovenius and Sterculia comosa. These tree species occupy the middle and upper story of the area, pointing to the subwatershed as belonging to the balobo-type forest.

The list of threatened species found in the area is shown in Table 7. There are three species belonging to the Critically Endangered (CR) category, Syzygium nitidum (Myrtaceae), Diospyros blancoi and Toona calantas. Seven species are listed as Vulnerable (VU). Figure 26 shows the different features of some of these species.

The survey revealed that Toona calantas and Diplodiscus paniculatus, Artocarpus rubrovenius, Celtis luzonica which are listed as Critically Endangered (CR) and Vulnerable (VU), respectively by DAO 2007-1 and IUCN 1994 are abundant in Tigbi subwatershed. In this portion of the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve these species are not threatened.

Figure 24. Fruits and seeds of Myristica philippinensis MYRISTICACEAE. Photo: Manuel L. Castillo

Dominant and Vulnerable Tree Species in the Tigbi Subwatershed

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Figure 26. Tree species in the vulnerable category present in the Tigbi subwatershed: Syzygium nitidum MYRTACEAE (a) Palaquium philippense SAPOTACEAE (b). Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

Figure 25. Chisocheton cumingianus subsp. cumingianus MELIACEAE, one of the dominant species in the Tigbi subwatershed. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

a b

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Legend: See Legend of Table 1

Table 7 Threatened tree species in the Tigbi subwatershed

Species FamilyConservation Status

DAO 2007-1 IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994)

Diplodiscus paniculatus MALVACEAE VU A1cd

Celtis luzonica CANNABACEAE Not assessed VU A1cd

Toona calantas MELIACEAE CR A1cd

Artocarpus rubrovenius MORACEAE VU A1c VU A1d

Canarium luzonicum BURSERACEAE VU A1cd

Myristica philippinensis MYRISTICACEAE VU A1c

Diospyros blancoi EBENACEAE CR A1cd VU A1cd

Syzygium nitidum MYRTACEAE CR A1cd

Aphanamixis polystachya MELIACEAE VU A1c VU A1cd

Palaquium philippense SAPOTACEAE VU A1cd VU A1d

Pterocymbium tinctorium (Figure 27), Artocarpus rubrovenius, Diplodiscus paniculatus are the tree species found in all the four subwatersheds of Mt Makiling. These species grow well from the lower to higher elevation of the mountain. The two species (Artocarpus rubrovenius and Diplodiscus paniculatus) were considered Vulnerable (VU) by IUCN facing high risk of extinction but in the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve, these species dominate the middle portion of the mountain and have adequate population.

Tree Species Found in all the Subwatersheds of the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve

Figure 27. Pterocymbium tinctorium MALVACEAE, tree species common to all four subwatersheds of MFR. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

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Table 8 presents the distribution of the dominant tree species in the four subwatersheds of the mountain. It also presents the distribution of the dominant undergrowth species (seedlings, saplings, shrubs, herbs, palms and vines) found underneath the canopies of trees in the area.

The table shows the threatened species in colored boxes and indicates the dominance and abundance of Diplodiscus paniculatus and Celtis luzonica in all four subwatersheds either as adult trees or seedlings and saplings. The Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed has the highest number of Vulnerable (VU) species and Criticically Endangered (CR) species (Parashorea malaanonan and Diospyros blancoi) dominating the area. The Greater Sipit subwatershed, on the other hand, has the least number with only Diplodiscus paniculatus abundant in the area. This subwatershed however, is unique from the other three subwatersheds having Syzygium maquilingense as the most dominant species. This species is not found in any of the other subwatersheds.

In addition to the distribution of dominant tree species in the forest reserve, the survey showed Celtis luzonica, Chisocheton cumingianus ssp. cumingianus, Chisocheton pentandrus ssp. pentandrus, and Ficus nervosa are the tree species found in Cambantoc, Tigbi and Molawin-Dampalit subwatersheds but not in the Greater Sipit subwatershed. The

Spatial Distribution of Tree Species in the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve

Table 8 The top six most dominant tree and undergrowth species in MFR

* I.V. : Importance Value

Molawin-Dampalit Cambantoc Tigbi Greater Sipit

Tree species

Diplodiscus paniculatusI.V.*- 46.442

Diplodiscus paniculatusI.V. - 92.273

Diplodiscus paniculatusI.V. - 44.364

Syzygium maquilingenseI.V. - 38.903

Celtis luzonica Chisocheton pentandrus Pterocymbium tinctorium Neotrewia cumingii

Canarium luzonicum Ficus satterthwaitei Celtis luzonica Swietenia macrophylla

Parashorea malaanonan Pterocymbium tinctorium Neotrewia cumingii Turpinia ovatifolia

Pisonia umbellifera Celtis luzonica Toona calantas Ficus septica

Diospyros blancoi Ficus subcordata Laportea luzonensis Diplodiscus paniculatus

Under-growth species

Strombosia philippinensisI.V. - 10.034

Diplodiscus paniculatusI.V. - 23.399

Diplodiscus paniculatusI.V. - 10.750

Chloranthus erectusI.V. - 15.586

Arenga pinnata Celtis luzonica Donax cannaeformis Elatostema longifolium

Drypetes maquilingensis Coffea arabica Micromelum minutum Neotrewia cumingii

Anaxogorea luzoniensis Amphinuerons terminans Calamus merrilli Microsorium longissmum

Celtis luzonica Ficus sp. Strombosia Philippinensis Elatostema angustatum

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Connarus semidecandrus Trigonostemon philippense Syzygium maquilingense

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four species usually grow and are abundant in the lower to the middle altitude of the forest. In addition to these four species, Kleinhovia hospita, Knema glomerata, Ficus satterthwaitei, Polyscias nodosa, Sterculia comosa and Toona calantas are the species of trees found growing naturally in Tigbi and Cambantoc subwatersheds. These two subwatersheds are characterized by many openings which are usually cultivated or farmed. At the edge of these openings, sun-loving species (Figure 28, e.g. Lantana camara, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Macaranga bicolor, etc.) are found growing well.

Acmena acuminatissima, Astronia cumingiana, Cinnamomum mercadoi, Dillenia reifferscheidia, Elaeocarpus cumingii, Ficus botryocarpa, Gomphandra cumingiana, Litsea garciae, Neolitsea vidalii, Pavetta indica, Saurauia latibractea, Sterculia oblongata, and Syzygium maquilingense (syn Syzygium alvrezii) are the tree species growing in medium and high elevation with very high humidity and cool and windy condition which is the condition in the Greater Sipit subwatershed .

Figure 28. Sun-loving, alien species Lantana camara, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Mikania cordata found growing well in opened areas like this in MFR. Note also the presence of Cocos nucifera (coconut) and mango, Mangifera indica. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

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The undergrowth or understory plant species surveyed were those plants growing underneath the trees in the forest including wildlings and saplings of tree species, ferns, shrubs, herbs and vines and those growing on tree stems/trunks and branches. A total of 125 species was found in the area surveyed. The complete list of these species is presented in Appendix Table 2.

The forest floor in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed is occupied by ferns, vines, saplings, seedlings, palms, herbs, rattans, and regenerations from dominant trees (Figure 29). The closed canopy of the area favors the growth of shade-tolerant species. The shade-intolerant species are able to adapt only at the edges of the creek. Light demanding vines, rattans, some ferns, and orchids “climb” trees to catch a good amount of sunlight (Figure 30). Strongylodon macrobotrys, an endangered species, is one of the vine species that reach for sunlight by climbing trees. The species below the trees, on the other hand, depend on crown gaps and sun flecks for their light requirements. The sampling of undergrowth plant species inside the forest showed that seedlings of Strombosia philippinensis (Olacaceae), Arenga pinnata (Arecaceae/Palmae), Drypetes maquilingensis (Putranjivaceae) (Figure 31), Anaxogorea luzoniensis (Annonaceae), Celtis luzonica (Cannabaceae), Diospyros pyrrhocarpa (Ebenaceae) and Anamirta cocculus (Menispermaceae) dominate the Molawin-Dampalit ground in terms of density and frequency. These species are encountered in the length of the creek more often than the other species. A complete list of the undergrowth species surveyed in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed appears as Appendix Table 3. Arenga pinnata (Kaong), a palm species growing under the tall trees, is found all throughout the forest floor. Seedlings of the Critically Endangered (CR) species of Shorea guiso and Parashorea malaanonan (IUCN 1994) of the family Dipterocarpaceae were found naturally growing under the dominant trees of the subwatershed so does Syzygium nitidum of the family Myrtaceae also classified as Critically Endangered (CR) species by DAO DENR 2007-1. Figure 32 shows the many seedlings of Parashorea malaanonan in the forest floor within 10-meter distance from the mother tree. In the same listing, Celtis luzonica (Cannabaceae), Aphanamixis polystachya (Meliaceae), Alocasia zebrina (Araceae) and Aglaia edulis (Meliaceae) are listed as Vulnerable (VR) species. These species are observed to be associated with the under canopy vegetation of the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed.

2-2-2. Undergrowth plant species

Forest Undergrowth Species in the Molawin- Dampalit Subwatershed

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Figure 30. Light-demanding, shade-intolerant vines, rattans, ferns, and orchids “climb” trees to catch a good amount of sunlight. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

Figure 29. The forest floor in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed occupied by a variety of undergrowth species and regenerations from dominant trees. Photo: Manuel L. Castillo

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Figure 32. Parashorea malaanonan seedlings dominate the forest floor underneath mother trees in Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

Figure 31. Drypetes maquilingensis PUTRANJIVACEAE, the seedlings of which dominate the forest floor of Molawin-Dampalit. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

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The Cambantoc subwatershed understory vegetation is mostly comprised of seedlings of Diplodiscus paniculatus (Malvaceae), seedlings of Celtis luzonica (Cannabaceae), Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), Amphinuerons terminans (Thelypteridaceae), and several Ficus sp. (Moraceae). This subwatershed is similar to Tigbi subwatershed in slope, elevation, and other environmental exposures except the orientation with respect to the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve. The dominance of Coffea arabica in the area can be attributed to the various coffee plantations in the area the fruits of which are dispersed by man, squirrel, wild cats and other wildlife. The presence of several species of Ficus indicates a good supply of water in the area. The undergrowth occurs naturally in the remaining patches of fragmented forested area usually on moderately steep slope. The Vulnerable (VU) species of plants include Diplodiscus paniculatus, Celtis luzonica, Artocarpus rubrovenius (Moraceae), Alocasia zebrina and Aglaia rimosa (Meliaceae). Celtis luzonica is a species of plant in the Cannabaceae family, endemic to the Philippines and threatened by habitat loss. The species is also listed as Vulnerable (VU) along with Artocarpus rubrovenius by IUCN 1994. However, in the area, despite the presence of cultivation and clearing, the species are still the dominant trees in the upper and lower story strata of the subwatershed.

The understory vegetation of this subwatershed is dominated by seedlings of Diplodiscus paniculatus, Donax cannaeformis (Marantaceae), seedlings of Micromelum minutum (Rutaceae), Calamus merrillii (Arecaceae) and seedlings of Strombosia philippinensis (Olacaceae). Diplodiscus paniculatus, an endemic timber in the Philippines and classified as Vulnerable (VU) species by IUCN (1994) is the dominant tree species inside the Tigbi subwatershed. The species is the most frequently encountered regenerant on the ground being the most dominant tree in the area and having very good regeneration capacity. This dominant species occurs all throughout the different elevation and slopes of the subwatershed. The several clusters of regenerations of Calamus merrillii, a rattan species, on the other hand, indicate the presence of mature individuals growing and climbing in the dominant tree species in the area (Figure 33). The species thrives in warm, sheltered, and moist environment. Excessive harvesting has caused it to be officially listed as a threatened species.

Understory Plant Species in the Cambantoc Subwatershed

Plant Species in the Forest Floor of the Tigbi Subwatershed

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The Greater Sipit subwatershed is characterized by closed canopy vegetation and cool temperatures where Chloranthus erectus (Chloranthaceae), Elatostema longifolium (Urticaceae), seedlings of Neotrewia cumingii (Euphorbiaceae), Microsorium longissmum (Polypodiaceae) and Elatostema angustatum (Urticaceae) dominate. Figure 34 shows the dominance of Elatostema angustatum and how it spreads underneath the trees. Chloranthus erectus (Figure 35) is a shrub species which thrives in valleys and ravines of China, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sikkim, Thailand and Vietnam. The species have traditionally been used as a folklore medicine to treat localised swelling, joint pain, skin inflammation, fever and body ache. Neotrewia cumingii is found in Southeast Asia and known locally by the name apanang. The species is found also in all subwatersheds of MFR from lower to higher elevation with a lot of regeneration on the ground. Aglaia elliptica (Meliaceae), Artocarpus rubrovenius, Celtis luzonica, Cinnamomum mercadoi (Lauraceae), Cyathea contaminans (Cyatheaceae), Diospyros pilosanthera (Ebenaceae), and Diplodiscus paniculatus are understory vegetation found inside the GSW which are listed as threatened by conservation institutions. There are many interesting flowering plants found in this part of Mt. Makiling (Figure 36). Among these are Amorphophallus paenifolius, Medinilla magnifica, Cyrtandra roseo-alba, and Begonia oxysperma. Another Begonia probably a new species, was also located in this subwatershed.

Understory Plant Species in the Greater Sipit Subwatershed

Figure 33. Calamus merrillii mother plant in Tigbi with clusters of regeneration underneath. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

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Figure 34. Elatostema angustatum dominating this area in the Greater Sipit subwatershed. Photo: Manuel L. Castillo

Figure 35. Chloranthus erectus, one of the dominant understory species in the Greater Sipit subwatershed. Photo: Manuel L. Castillo

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Figure 36. Understory flowering plants in bloom in May 2010 at the Greater Sipit. Mussaenda philippica (a), probably a new species of Begonia (b), Amorphophallus sp. (c), Spathoglottis sp. (d) Amorphophallus paenifolius (e) and Begonia oxysperma (f). Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

a

c

e

b

d

f

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Arenga pinnata, Celtis luzonica, Donax cannaeformis, Neotrewia cumingii, Selaginella plana (Selaginellaceae), and Strombosia philippinensis (Olacaceae) are the different plant species found under the dominant trees and which are distributed widely in the four subwatersheds as shown in Table 9. Figure 37 shows some of these species. For tree species, seedlings and saplings were found. The holoparasitic plant Rafflesia manillana which before is feared to have gone extinct in Mt. Makiling was found in all the four subwatersheds (Figure 38). Its first “re-sighting” after its natural habitat in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed was bulldozed in 1982 for geothermal exploration (Fernando et al. 2001) was in 2002 (Abraham et al. 2004). The sightings were reported to be in Molawin-Dampalit and thereafter in Greater Sipit subwatershed only.

Forest Undergrowth Species Common to all the Four Subwatersheds of

the MFR

Figure 37. Understory species common to all the four subwatersheds: Donax cannaeformis and seedlings of Strombosia philippinensis. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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The undergrowth species, Tetrastigma harmandii, a vine, which is the host plant of Rafflesia manillana can be seen all over the MFR. Figure 39 shows the habit of this species. Note this vine can have a diameter of 30 centimeters and climb high into the tree canopy.

Medinilla magnif ica (Figure 21) and Strongylodon macrobotrys (Figure 40) are two endangered plant species which can be distinctly found in the MFR. Medinilla magnifica is found in higher, colder parts of the forest reserve usually attached to tree trunks and branches. Strongylodon macrobotrys climbs trees and hangs its long inflorescence and big fruits atop.

Figure 38. Rafflesia manillana, a Critically Endangered species, found in the MFR. Photos: A. F. Yahya 2010 (Dampalit). Other photos: Portia G. Lapitan

at Dampalit

at Greater Sipitat Tigbi

at Cambantoc

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Figure 39. Tetrastigma harmandii, the host plant of Rafflesia manillana, abounds in the MFR. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

Table 9 Forest undergrowth species present in all the four subwatersheds of the MFR

Figure 40. Strongylodon macrobotrys, an endangered vine species which reproduces well in the MFR. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo

Conservation Status

Plant habit DAO 2007-1 IUCN ver. 2.3 (1994) Importance Value

Arenga pinnata Palm 2.1696 - 8.1720

Celtis luzonica Tree VU A1cd 1.1837 - 16.4887

Donax cannaeformis Herb 1.8620 - 8.5736

Homalomena philippinensis Herb 1.0778 - 5.5170

Neotrewia cumingii Tree 1.0988 - 14.9762

Selaginella plana Herb 1.0778 - 3.8801

Strombosia philippinensis Tree 1.1837 - 10.0340

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The computed diversity index using Shannon-Wiener formula shows that the different subwatersheds of the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve have moderately high diversity index values. Tigbi subwatershed has the highest diversity index for tree species with 57 species and 29 families identified (Table 10). The lowest diversity index was computed for the Greater Sipit subwatershed with 44 species and 25 families. However, the computed index is not significantly different with Molawin-Dampalit and Cambantoc, with species difference ranging only from 1 to 2 species. Three (3) species of trees were found in all subwatersheds namely: Pterocymbium tinctorium, Artocarpus rubrovenius and Diplodiscus paniculatus. The chance of finding the above species was very high in all MFR subwatersheds.

The highest diversity index for undergrowth was computed for the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed with 68 species belonging to 40 plant families. The subwatershed with many small openings and the presence of the two (2) creeks favour the growth of light-demanding and moisture-tolerant species to grow and develop under the big trees. The lowest computed index was for the Tigbi subwatershed characterized by closed canopy with very little openings. In the survey in 2010, there were 49 species and 34 families of undergrowth plants inside the Tigbi subwatershed. The common species for all the MFR subwatersheds includes Selaginella plana, Strombosia philippinensis, Neotrewia cumingii, Celtis luzonica and Arenga pinnata. The species are found naturally growing in all subwatersheds and always frequently encountered anywhere.

Diversity Indices of Tree and Undergrowth Species in the MFR

Diversity indices of tree and undergrowth species in the different subwatersheds in the MFRTable 10

Shannon -Wiener Diversity Index for MFR

Subwatershed

Tree Species Undergrowth Species

Number of Species

Number of Family

Diversity Index

Number of Species

Number of Family

Diversity Index

Tigbi 57 29 1.771 49 34 1.553

Cambantoc 46 25 1.643 54 37 1.638

Molawin-Dampalit 45 26 1.396 68 40 1.763

Greater Sipit 44 25 1.301 56 40 1.722

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Figure 41. The mosses, liverworts and ferns found in the MFR during the surveys. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

Lichens

The abundance of lichens was noted in the MFR particularly in areas of almost pristine condition. Their presence was also observed in trees and rocks near roads and trails but they are more abundant in places relatively unexploited and undisturbed. A few samples of these symbiotic associations between a fungus and algae found in the MFR are shown in Figure 42.

The lower forms of plants (mosses, liverworts, clubmosses, horsetails, and ferns) were also found present in all the four subwatersheds of MFR in places which are usually moist. Some were found attached to rocks, growing on stems/trunks of trees and in branches of plants. Figure 41 shows the mosses, liverwort and ferns found during the surveys.

Other Plant Resources in the MFR

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Figure 42. Different kinds of lichens found in rocks, stem/trunk of plants in MFR. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

In a survey conducted in 2004 by Abraham et al. in the Greater Sipit subwatershed 117 terrestrial vertebrates were recorded: 84 species were birds, 12 were mammals and 21 were amphibians and reptiles. Sixty-two (62) species are reported to be endemic only to the Philippines and found nowhere else in the world, with about 14 species being restricted only to the Greater Luzon faunal region. Among these 117 terrestrial vertebrates, only one, a bird species, was found to have a threatened status – the

2-3-1. Vertebrate

2-3. Animal Resources

The animal resources in the forest reserve of Mt Makiling are diverse as the plant resources. Prior to 2004 it was reported to be home to more than 45 species of mammals, 181 species of birds, 65 species of reptiles and 22 species of amphibians. The area is said to contain also at least 7,000 insect species.

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Legend: + (present), - (absent)Note: The list is not exhaustive and was derived from field observations, interviews and existing records examined.

Table 11 Animal species found in the four subwatersheds of Mt Makiling Forest Reserve

Philippine Eagle-Owl (Bubo philippensis), and only one mammal was considered to be rare or possible vulnerable in status – the Philippine Pygmy Fruit Bat (Haplonycteris f ischeri). Both species are endemic only to the Philippines and are highly restricted to the original rain forest habitats.

Table 11, on the other hand, shows the list of animal species (vertebrate and invertebrate) present in Mt Makiling as revealed by field observations in 2009-2010, interviews, and examination of existing records on Mt Makiling animals. Figures 43 and 44 put on view some of the animals encountered during the field surveys, and those bird species of Alviola 2010, respectively.

Wildlife Molawin-Dampalit Tigbi Cambantoc Greater Sipit

1. Reptiles

Lygosoma smaragdinum, “Bangkalang” + - + + Calotes marmoratus, Marbled Bloodsucker / Agamid + + + +

Draco sp., Flying Lizard + + + +

Phyton sp., Snake + + + +

Varanus sp., Monitor Lizard + + + +

Field Lizard - + + +

2. Amphibians

Bufo sp., Toad + + + +

Rana magna, Frog + + + +

3. Mammals Cervus mariannus, Philippine Brown Deer / Philippine Deer - - - +

Sus philippinensis - - - +

Viverra tagalunga, Palm Civet / Civet Cat + + + +

Phloeomys cumingi, Cloud Rat + + + +

Macro- and microchiropterans Bats + + + +

Macaca fascicularis, Monkey + + + +

Rattus sp., Field rat + + + -

4. Annelids

Leech “Limatik” + + + +

Earthworm + + + +

5 Crustacean

Shrimps “Hipon” + + - +

6. Gastropods

Ryssota otaheitana, Snail “Bayuko” + + + +

Japanese Snail + + + +

Other snail species + - - +

7. Fishes

Gobius criniger, “Biya” + + - +

Total number of species 19 18 17 21

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Figure 43. Some animal species, mostly vertebrates, found in the MFR during the 2009-2010 surveys. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

Calotes marmoratus or Philippine Calotes, an agamid, is endemic to the Philippines and was found in all the four subwatersheds. Another endemic to the Philippines reported naturally thriving in Mt. Makiling is the amphibian, Philautus surdus (Figure 45 left). It is a species of frog in the Rhacophoridae family naturally inhabiting subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss according to the 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Sus philippinensis which is listed as endangered by IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008 was sighted only in the Greater Sipit subwatershed. Another mammal that is native to the forests of much of the Philippines, Cervus mariannus (Figure 45 right), is also only found in the Greater Sipit.

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Figure 44. Birds in Mt Makiling: Actenoides (a), Alcedo (b), Dicrurus balicassius balicassius, Balicasiao (c), black-naped monarch (d), blue-throated bee-eater (e), brown shrike (f), Caprimulgus (g), emerald dove (h), Luzon tarictic (i), Pachycephala (j), Parus (k), Phapitreron (l), Pycnonotus (m), Cuckoo dove (n), Rhipidura (o), Stachyris (p). Photos: Phillip A. Alviola

Many bats were also found in this mountain. Figure 46 shows the different species of macro- and microchiropterans found in the MFR (Alviola 2010). These bats feed on insects, tiny animals or fruits. Megaderma spasma is one bat species that feed on insects in the forest like cicadas, crickets and large beetles and moths. It is reported to be one of only two bats in Asia and the only one in the Philippines that catches and eats tiny frogs and lizards.

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Figure 45. Two Philippine endemics, Philautus surdus (left) and Cervus mariannus, found naturally thriving in the MFR. Photos: Phillip A. Alviola

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Figure 46. Bats in the MFR: Cynopterus brachyotis (a), Emballonura alecto (b), Hipposideros ater (c & d), H. diadema (e), H. obscurus (f), Megaderma spasma (g), Miniopterus australis (h), Ptenochirus jagori (i), Rhinolophus arcuatus (j), Rousetus amplexicaudatus (k & l). Photos: Phillip A. Alviola

Abraham et al. 2004, in the same survey of the Greater Sipit subwatershed, reported a total of 118 arthropod species belonging to 50 known families were encountered. Among the significant finds were arthropods which generally indicate the pristine and least disturbed condition of this part of the forest. Figure 47 presents the different arthropods found during recent surveys in the different subwatersheds of Mt Makiling.

Ryssota otaheitana locally called “bayuko” was found in all the four subwatersheds. Most of those sighted were dead ones, shells only, left by campers who feasted on this species in the forest. This snail is highly valued as nutritious, healthy source of protein and as such is sought after in this mountain. The different snails found in the MFR are shown in Figure 48.

2-3-2. Invertebrate

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Figure 47. The different arthropods found during recent surveys in the different subwatersheds of Mt Makiling. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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Figure 48. Snails of different kinds inhabit Mt Makiling, the most sought after being Ryssota otaheitana. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

Adequate rainfall, minimal temperature, high humidity, and availability of decaying logs, twigs, forest litter, and soil moisture contributed to the diversity of species of fungi and decomposers in the Molawin area. The macrofungi from Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed basically function as decomposers of dead organic matter on the forest

2-4. Fungi and Decomposers

The microorganisms belonging to the group Fungi are among the biotic resources which sustain the life of the Mt Makiling forest. This group is responsible for nutrient cycling in the forest being mostly decomposers. There are some species that maintain the ecological balance in the mountain by acting as pathogens and antagonists while other species associate with higher plants to improve the nutrition of these plants. Some species are important to humans as food and source of medicine. To date, not much have been published on the fungi of Mt Makiling.

Fungi and Decomposers in the Molawin-Dampalit Subwatershed

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floor in the ecosystem, except for a mycorrhizal species that mutually associate with roots of higher plants in the area. A total of 14 species of macrofungi were recorded in the sampling plots established along the Molawin creek. Among the species identified were from the mycorrhizal genus, Amanita sp. and non-mycorrhizal genera like Auricularia, Cookeina, Ganoderma, Lentinus, Marasmius, Microporus, Mycena, Pleurotus, Polystictus, Polyporus, and Xylaria as shown in Figure 49. The details about these fungi are presented in Appendix Table 4.

Morphologically, the diversity of macrofungi is manifested in the structure of their fruiting bodies. Those with leathery fruiting bodies are the genera Ganoderma, Peziza, Pleurotus, Polystictus and Xylaria; brittle body by Amanita and Lepiota; and fleshy and slightly leathery body texture by Marasmius and Mycena. Chemically, the tissues from macrofungi have components that make them edible such as Auricularia and Pleurotus. Based on the studies conducted by Alicbusan (2006), these tropical edible fungi contain protein (3.8 grams), carbohydrate (6.9 grams), fiber (1.2 grams), calcium (3.0 mg), phosphorus (94.0 mg), iron (1.7 mg) and traces of thiamine, riboflavin; niacin and ascorbic acid.

The majority of the fungi were observed growing on forest litter like leaves, twigs or branches, and decaying logs and stumps. Some were on bark of standing trees and simply on soil on the forest floor. The habitat provides the substrate for fungi’s growth and development. The substrate usually contains carbon–rich cellulose and other macro- and micronutrients. An adequate amount of moisture stored in the ecosystem from rainfall, optimal pH, light, temperature and humidity also dictate the proliferation of a diverse fungal community in the area.

Table 12 shows the ecological and diversity values of the fungal population in the Tigbi subwatershed. In all transects sampled the genus Corticium, decomposers of twigs and branches, were found abundant. The subwatershed’s fungal diversity as revealed by the data from the four transects studied is very poor to moderate. The very dry condition of the area (the El nino phenomenon is prevailing in this part of the Philippines) at the time of the survey limited the development of fruiting bodies of fungi to those genera that predominate during the dry season.

Fungal Diversity and Decomposers in the Tigbi subwatershed

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Figure 49. Mycelium of Armillaria (a), fruiting bodies of Polystictus (b), Polyporus spp. (c,d), Xylaria (e), Ganoderma spp. (f,g), Auricularia (h), Marasmius spp. (i,j), Lepiota (k), Lacaria (l), Corticium (m), Cookeina spp. (n,o), Agaricus (p), Pleurotus (q), Lentinus (r), Polyporus (s), and Dasycypha (t) from the Molawin-Dampalit. Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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Some of the fungi found in the area are shown in Figure 50. Most of these fungi are found in logs, dead branches and twigs.

Table 13 lists the fungi that dominate the transects surveyed in Cambantoc which belong to the genus Corticium. The diversity of the species of fungi found in the subwatershed ranges from very low (for T3) to low to moderate. These fungi are decomposers of fallen branches and leaf litter. The sampling of fungi was done in April 2010 when this part and the other parts of Luzon, Philippines were plunged in a very long dry spell. As expected, fungi that dominate during the dry season e.g. genus Corticium were found abundant. Figure 51 shows the samples of fungi located in the transects established in Cambantoc.

Cambantoc’s Population of Fungi and Decomposers

Ecological and diversity values of fungi in sampled transects in the Cambantoc subwatershed in Mt Makiling during the dry period (April, 2010)Table 13

Transect SpeciesRichness Density Highest

Frequency Abundant

SpeciesEcologicalFunction

Diversity Index

Evenness Value Diversity Category

T1 5 24 Corticium (75%) Corticium Mostly decomposing

branches 1.5222 0.9458 Low to moderate diversity

T2 2 53 Corticium (50%) Corticium Mostly decomposing

branches and twigs 0.6544 0.9440 Very low diversity

T3 1 5 Corticium (50%) Corticium Mostly decomposing

branches 0.0000 0.0000 Very poor diversity

T4 4 6 Poria (50%) Corticium Mostly decomposing

forest leaf litter 1.3424 0.9683 Low to moderate diversity

Mean 3 21.25 Corticium Corticium Mostly decomposer 0.8798 0.7145 Very low diversity

Transect SpeciesRichness Density Highest

Frequency EcologicalFunction

Diversity Index

EvennessValue Diversity Category

T1 7 17 Corticium (100%)

Decomposer of branches 1.6435 0.8446 Low to moderate

diversity

T2 5 6 Corticium (75%)

Decomposer of twigs 1.5607 0.8020 Low to moderate

diversity

T3 3 9 Sterium (50%)

Decomposer of branches 0.8356 0.7606 Very low diversity

T4 4 5 Corticium (50%)

Decomposer of branches and leaf litter 1.3322 0.6846 Low to moderate

diversity

Mean 4.75 9.25 Corticium Decomposer 1.343 0.7730 Low to moderate diversity

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Figure 50. Macrofungi in the Tigbi subwatershed: Polystictus (a), Polyporus spp. (b,c,d,e,f,g), Hexagona (h), Polyporus (i), Ganoderma (j), Polyporus (k), Corticium (l), Panus (m), Poria (n), Corticium (o), Fomes (p), Hexagona (q), Xylaria (r), Daldinia (s), and Lentinus (t). Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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Greater Sipit Subwatershed’s Fungal Resources

Figure 51. Macrofungi in the Cambantoc subwatershed: Marasmius (a), Poria (b), Auricularia (c), Favolus (d), Polystictus (e), Sterium spp. (f,g), Xylaria (h), Cantharellus (i), Lentinus (j), Panus (k), Polyporus spp. (l,m), Corticium (n), Auricularia (o), and Tremella (p). Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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erve (CFNR), University of the Philippines Los Banos in July 2006, the results showed

the microfungi associated with litter, debris and humus in the forest floor belong to 27 genera, mostly saprophytes (Table 14). Some are facultative saprophytes which parasitized or attacked live tissues of plants. The dominant fungi belong to representative species of the genera Trichoderma, Penicillium and Gliocladium. These fungi are antagonistic or they inhibit the growth of other fungi by means of direct parasitism or the production of antibiotic and toxins. The other species, classified as pathogenic, cause diseases in plants that they attacked.

Source: Dr. Ernesto P. Militante, FBS, CFNR, UPLB

Table 14 Microfungi associated with litter, debris, and humus in the soil at GSW, July 2006Genera Ecological Role

1. Amerosporium Saprophytic

2. Ampullifera Saprophytic

3. Ascodesmis Saprophytic

4. Aspergillus Saprophytic/Pathogenic

5. Cephalosporium Pathogenic

6. Curvularia Saprophytic

7. Cylindrocladium Pathogenic

8. Emericeriopsis Saprophytic

9. Eurotium Saprophytic

10. Geotrichum Saprophytic

11. Gilmaniella Saprophytic

12. Gliocladium Saprophytic/ Antagonistic

13. Moniliela Saprophytic

14. Mucor Saprophytic

15. Oedecephalum Saprophytic

16. Paecilomyces Saprophytic/Antagonistic

17. Penicillium Saprophytic/Antagonistic/Pathogenic

18. Periconia Saprophytic

19. Phyllosticta Saprophytic/Pathogenic

20. Pythium Saprophytic/Pathogenic

21. Rhizoctonia Saprophytic/Pathogenic

22. Rhizopus Saprophytic

23. Scytallidium Saprophytic

24. Stachybotrys Saprophytic

25. Torula Saprophytic

26. Trichoderma Saprophytic/Antagonistic

27. Verticillium Saprophytic

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In this 2006 survey, rainfall was high that fungal diversity was also high. The diversity of microfungi in the area explained the observed productive state of this part of the subwatershed. The top soil was thick and loose, indicating the high nutrient and organic matter content of the soil, which can be attributed to the fast turnover of litter and other substrates to soil. This was the result of the efficient decomposition of the forest litters and debris by the concert of microfungi in the area. This observation confirmed that the diversity of microfungi in a given area can be used as a good indicator of productivity and sustainability of the area.

Ecological and diversity values of fungal flora in sampled transect from the Greater Sipit subwatershed in Mt Makiling during the dry period (May, 2010)Table 15

Table 15, on the other hand, shows the data gathered in a recent survey conducted in May, 2010 at the time El nino hit the Philippines. The results are for macrofungi found in the transects established near the 2006 plot. Again, as in the Tigbi and Cambantoc subwatersheds, the genus Corticium, dominated the area. Over all fungal diversity is low composed mostly of decomposers. Figure 52 shows samples of the fungi found in this subwatershed in May 2010.

The overall distribution of fungi in the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve in its four subwatersheds as revealed by the 2009-2010 surveys is shown in Appendix Table 5. A total of thirty-nine (39) genera were found in the forest reserve with Molawin-Dampalit registering the

Distribution and Diversity Indices of Fungal Species in the MFR

Transect SpeciesRichness Density Highest

Frequency Abundant

SpeciesEcologicalFunction

Diversity Index

Evenness Value

Diversity Category

T1 6 89 Corticium (100%)

Black mycelium from unknown

fungi

Mostly decomposer of twigs and leaf

litter 1.5633 0.8725

Low to moderate diversity

T2 5 11Equal

distribution for all species (25%)

CorticiumDecomposer of

branches, twigs and leaf litter

1.2948 0.9340 Low diversity

T3 5 14 Corticium (50%) Corticium Mostly found in decaying branches 1.4786 0.9187

Low to moderate diversity

T4 2 2

Equal distribution

for two fungal species (50%)

Corticium and an unknown fungal

species

Mostly on decomposing twigs 0.6931 1.0000

Very low to

Lowdiversity

Mean 4.5 29 CorticiumCorticium and an unknown fungal

speciesDecomposer 1.2575 0.9313 Low

diversity

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Figure 52. Macrofungi from the Greater Sipit subwatershed: Lentinus spp. (a,b), Pleurotus (c), Sterium spp. (d,e,f,g,h), Polystictus (i), Polyporus spp. (j,k,l), Fomes (m), Corticium spp. (n,o), Scleroderma (p), Geastrum (q), Ramaria, Amanita, Russula (r), mixture of Sterium and Corticium (s,t). Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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highest number of species of twenty-two (22), two-thirds of the total. The least number of genera of fungus (13) was observed in the Tigbi subwatershed not very different from that of Greater Sipit (14). The most common of the fungi were Corticium, Polyporus, Polystictus and Xylaria. Two mychorrizal-forming fungi were found, Amanita and Scleroderma.

The Molawin-Dampalit has the highest fungal diversity value of all the four subwatersheds. This probably is due to the time of sampling which was done during the rainy months in 2009. In Table 16, the three subwatersheds all surveyed during the dry months registered a very low to moderate diversity. Tigbi had the lowest diversity index among the three while Cambantoc had the highest. In all these areas the dominant fungus was Corticium.

The most frequently inhabited area/the most common substrate of fungi found in Mt. Makiling is the fallen parts of plants and tree species. Most of the fungi were observed to inhabit fallen logs or branches of trees (Figures 53-55). Several species of fungi can sometimes be found in one fallen log (Figure 56). A healthy fungal succession was indicated by the different species which thrive in the substrate depending upon the state of decomposition of the plant part. In most instances, only one species of fungus is found at a time in one substrate. The other substrates of the fungal population in this mountain are fallen leaves and twigs; humus in the forest floor and there’s one species found growing in a stone (Figure 57). Standing dead trees and very old ones were also found to harbour fungi. Figures 53-57 present the different habitat of fungi found in the survey transects in 2009 – 2010.

Table 16 Diversity index of fungi in the three subwatersheds of the MFR

Variation in Habitat of Fungi in the MFR

Subwatershed Species Richness Density Highest

FrequencyEcologicalFunction

Diversity Index

EvennessValue Diversity Category

Cambantoc 4.75 9.25 Corticium Decomposer 1.343 0.7730 Low to moderate diversity

Tigbi 3 21.25 Corticium Mostly decomposer 0.8798 0.7145 Very low diversity

Greater Sipit 4.5 29 Corticium Decomposer 1.2575 0.9313 Low diversity

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Figure 53. Fungal habitat in the subwatershed of the Cambantoc: Auricularia in fallen branch (a), Polystictus in fallen branch (b), Marasmius in fallen leaves and twigs (c), Dacremyces in decayed log (d). Photos: Nelson M. Pampolina

Figure 54. Fungal habitat in the subwatershed of the Molawin-Dampalit. Poria and Corticium in fallen branch (a), Xylaria in forest soil full of litter (b), Cookeina in forest soil (c) Ganoderma in decaying log (d). Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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Figure 56. Several fungi species attacked this fallen tree in the Molawin-Dampalit. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

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Figure 57. Fungal habitats of some fungi in the Tigbi subwatershed. Hymenochaete (a), Polyporus (b), Panus, fungus in stone (c), and Sterium (d). Photos: Manuel L. Castillo, Nelson M. Pampolina

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3. Threats to Natural Resources

The natural resources in the mountain to a certain extent are threatened by both natural occurrences and anthropogenic activities. There are incidences encountered during the survey which show the extent or gravity of these threats and the specific natural resources affected.

The introduction of exotic/alien species is the result of a long history of the development of the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve from the Pre–Spanish time (Malayo Polynesian migration), Spanish time (Galleon/Acapulco trade) to the current time, from activities including trade, reforestation, research, seed exchange, cultivation (agricultural activities), landscaping and beautification, establishment of botanical gardens and even natural migration of wildlife especially birds, and introduction due to natural sea current (e.g. Kuro-siwo Japanese current). The introduction of many exotic species in the reserve came about during the establishment of the College of Agriculture (1909) and the School of

3-1. Alien Species

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Forestry in 1910. The introduction was done at the base of the grassy and brushy slopes of the mountain inside the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed.

In 1910, as written by Brown (1919), the School of Forestry headed by American administrators started the reforestation of the school premises mainly by planting indigenous tree species but there were also tropical “American species” e.g. Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla and S. mahogani), Para Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), and Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), Palosanto (Triplaris cumingiana), Anchoan Dilaw (Senna spectabilis), Golden Shower (Cassia f istula), and Teak (Tectona grandis). From then on more reforestation species were trial-planted by the Makiling Experiment and Demonstration Forest (MEDF) in the campus for eventual introduction to other parts of the country. The other species included Kaatoan Bangkal (Anthocephalus chinensis), Acacia sp. (Acacia mangium and A. auriculaeformis), Eucalyptus sp., Rain Tree (Samanea saman), Sandbox (Hura crepitans), Gmelina (Gmelina arborea), Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), Panama Rubber (Castilloa elastica), Fringon (Bauhinia monandra), Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica), Lumbang (Aleurites moluccana), Moluccan Sau (Paraserianthes falcataria=Falcataria mollucana) and other ornamental tree and palm species.

The first developed area to be established in Mt. Makiling was the Makiling Botanic Gardens (MBG) in 1965 which further increased the number of introduced species especially ornamental trees, shrubs, palms, herbs and other flowering plants in the mountain. The MBG to date maintains both ex situ and in situ conservation stands of various timber and other plant species. These stands, however, are not fully documented as to the origin of the introduced species.

The Japanese-American war forced residents of neigboring towns and barangays specifically from the Batangas side to seek refuge inside the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve. Many people settled in the Cambantoc-Saimsim portion of the mountain where the original vegetation was cleared and planted with coconut, banana, papaya, root crops and vegetables. Eventually permanent crops such as citrus, lanzones, mango, rambutan, guayabano, coffee, cacao, nangka, santol and other exotic fruit trees were introduced further increasing the number and population of exotic species in the mountain. Ipil-ipil was planted for firewood and kakawate as nurse tree for cacao and support for black pepper as well as for fencing the farm lot. The opening of the areas in the mountain as a result of illegal settlers’ expansion of their upland farms in Tigbi subwatershed and Cambantoc subwatershed paved the way for the colonization of these areas by invasive species such as Lantana camara (Coronitas), Mikania cordata (Uoko), Chromolaena odorata (Hagonoy), Mimosa pudica (Makahiya) and Imperata cylindrica (Cogon).

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The recent survey (2009–2010) showed some one hundred seventy-eight (178) exotic/alien species in the forest reserve (Appendix Table 6). The list is not exhaustive though as only those found within the sampling plots were listed. On the other hand, Appendix Table 7 shows the seventy-eight alien species confined to the Dampalit Molawin-subwatershed. The species are mostly found and growing inside the Makiling Botanic Gardens consisting mostly of small flowering trees, pandans, palms, herbs, and vines. The rest are growing as ornamental and landscaping plants as well as ground cover in the UPLB College of Forestry and Natural Resources campus.

In these surveys, thirty-three (33) alien species, as listed in Table 17, are found in all the four subwatersheds of the forest reserve. These species are often confined in the lower slopes of the mountain and the result of reforestation/rehabilitation, cultivation, domestication, and natural invasion of open areas through the years. Of the 33 species, 17 are trees mostly introduced as food/fruit species; 7 are herbs (used as ground cover/N-fixing, ornamental, and one planted for its fruits); 3 are bamboos mostly grown for canes for furniture manufacture; 4 are shrub, mostly ornamental; 1 palm used as ornamental, and 1 vine grown for its N-fixing ability.

The exotic species slowly invading the base of the mountain especially in the Molawin-Dampalit side includes Chromolaena odorata, Coccinea grandis, Justicia coccinea, Odontonema strictum, Justicia brandegeana, Thunbergia grandiflora, Triplaris cumingiana and Broussonetia papyrifera. These species grow gregariously; competing with other species for environmental factors such as light and nutrition; overtopping and eventually killing trees. These plants are slowly dominating the lower areas in numbers through regeneration although further studies are needed to find out their rate of expansion in the mountain. Swietenia macrophylla one of the earliest tree species introduced to Mt. Makiling has increased in number but has not been observed to exclude or overgrow the native species of the mountain.

The MFR though a forest reserve is beset with problems on forest occupancy. The absence of a clearly delineated boundary on ground can be considered a contributory factor to the occurrence of forest violations within the reserve. Many of the forest violations occur in the periphery of the MFR. The forest violations include illegal construction of structures, illegal camping and the attendant putting up of campfire.

3-2. Construction

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Table 17 Alien/exotic species common in the Mt Makiling Forest ReserveSpecies Family Plant Habit Primary Use

Annona muricata Annonaceae Tree Fruit

Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae Tree Fruit

Bambusa spinosa Poaceae Bamboo Furniture

Bambusa blumeana Poaceae Bamboo Furniture

Bambusa vulgaris Poaceae Bamboo Reforestation sp.

Carica papaya Caricaceae Herb Fruit

Ceiba pentandra Malvaceae Tree Fiber

Centrosema pubescens Fabaceae Vine Nitrogen fixing

Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Shrub Fodder

Colocasia esculentum Araceae Herb Food

Dieffenbachia amoena Araceae Herb Ornamental

Dieffenbachia maculata Araceae Herb Ornamental

Gliricidia sepium Fabaceae Tree Nurse tree

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Malvaceae Shrub Ornamental

Lantana camara Verbenaceae Shrub Ornamental

Leucaena leucocephala Fabaceae Tree Firewood

Livistona chinensis Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Tree Fruit

Mimosa pudica Fabaceae Herb Nitrogen fixing

Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Tree Food

Muntingia calabura Muntingiaceae Tree Fruit

Persea gratissima Lauraceae Tree Fruit

Pilea microphylla Urticaceae Herb Ground cover

Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Tree Fruit

Ruellia tuberosa Acanthaceae Shrub Ornamental

Sandoricum koetjape Meliaceae Tree Fruit

Spathodea campanulata Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental

Swietenia macrophylla Meliaceae Tree Reforestation sp.

Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae Tree Fruit

Syzygium jambolana Myrtaceae Tree Fruit

Syzygium samarangense Myrtaceae Tree Fruit

Tamarindus indica Fabaceae Tree Fruit

Typhonium trilobatum Araceae Herb Ground cover

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There are constructions done legally before which have also resulted to unanticipated, unwanted impacts. These include the construction within the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed of the National Arts Center, a resort- the Pook ni Maria Makiling, the jamboree site of the Boy Scout of the Philippines, government offices and the housing units for the employees of these government agencies. The trails within the area though important to the patrolling work for the protection of the watershed have also been the access route of people doing illegal extraction of forest products.

In the Cambantoc subwatershed are a number of geothermal wells from where geothermal power is generated by CHEVRON. The drilling done in an area naturally inhabited by Rafflesia manillana in the 1980s is believed to have adversely affected the population of this species. For some time after this, the species has not been observed in this place. The gas emission from the wells and the geothermal plants in the periphery of the reserve is also being faulted for abnormal developments in the peripheral areas. The construction of a good road network in support of the geothermal drilling and power generation in the mountain also led to the “sprouting” of households and communities along these roads. These people gradually encroached into the forest.

In the Molawin-Dampalit, the accessibility of this subwatershed to people due to the presence of an all-weather road has opened the resources in the area to exploitation. This is in addition to the people that reside in the area called Brgy. Bagong Silang, part of which, lies in the Cambantoc subwatershed. While the inner, hinterland of the subwatershed is not frequented by many people, the more often visited areas have shown signs of exploitation (Figure 58).

In the Tigbi, the presence of several households at the perimeter/boundary of the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve has also threatened the integrity of the forest (Figure 59). Charcoal making is still occurring which most probably utilizes the subwatershed as source of the wood material for charcoal. The remnants of camp paraphernalia found in the area also indicate that it is also used as a favorite camping ground of people.

In the Greater Sipit, there are a number of constructions which posed threat to the natural resources of the area (Figure 60). The construction of the Grotto for spiritual/religious activity if not managed properly can also cause adverse effects (Figure 61).

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Figure 58. More often visited areas in the Molawin-Dampalit showing signs of exploitation/degradation. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Rolly V. Breva

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Figure 59. The forest around the houses has changed, its natural vegetation lost to alien and introduced species in this area at the boundary of the Tigbi subwatershed. Photo: Portia G. Lapitan

Figure 60. In the Greater Sipit, the construction of structures has exposed the forest to encroachment and further exploitation. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan and MCME

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Figure 61. People in mass trek to the Grotto, 100-meter high up the mountain. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan, Manuel L. Castillo

The volume of visitors threatens proportionately both the biological and physical resources of the area. The more visitors who enter the area, the more the area is predisposed to damage. Among the common damages which ensue are vandalism and garbage problem, soil compaction and trampling of the biotic component, noise pollution that affects wildlife and illegal collection of biological and physical resources. Figure 62 shows the numbers of visitors to the MFR from 2005-2009. The peak of visitorship to the mountain is February to April, the months when most flora are reproductive or bears flowers, cones and spores.

3-3. Visitors

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The MFR is also beset with problems on exploitative human activities which made use of the land for direct human gain. The forest reserve is a major source of livelihood for many landless farmers in the adjacent and nearby communities who depend on the forest for food, shelter and cash. A portion of the reserve is farmed by these farmers. The effective protection and conservation of the resources within the forest is compromised by these people who either reside within or reside outside but farm within the reserve. Brgy. Bagong Silang is a community within the Molawin-Dampalit and Cambantoc subwatersheds that ekes a living from the resources of the area. The activities of this group and, on the other hand, of those who extract and collect forest products from the reserve are among the problems commonly encountered by the forest officers. The forest violations include illegal hunting and collection of forest products (e.g. over-extraction of bayuko; hunting for wildlife like shrimp, biyang bato, talangka, kuhol, and bitoo; collection of forest products like kaong, rattan and materials for novelty items), timber poaching and collection of physical resources e.g. mud from

3-4. Unregulated Forest Products Harvesting forBioprospecting and Livelihood

Figure 62. Data on the numbers of visitors to the MFR from 2005-2009.

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Months of Visit

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Among the four subwatersheds, the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed is the most visited by mountain trekkers and campers followed by Cambantoc, the lower part of Greater Sipit and least frequently visited is Tigbi.

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the Mudspring area, “puting lupa” (white earth) from the Tigbi subwatershed. Figure 63 shows the violations in the forest reserve.

Figure 63. Extractive and livelihood activities undertaken in the forest reserve. Bayuko gathering (a), Timber poaching (b), Charcoal making (c), Killing trees by girdling (d), Illegal cutting of trees (e), Treasure hunting (f), Forest clearing (g). Photos: Portia G. Lapitan and MCME

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Figure 64. Diplodiscus paniculatus buttresses illegally cut for tool handles and novelty item production. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

Tigbi is a source of livelihood by a good number of people. The livelihood activities include upland farming (specifically in the boundary of the subwatershed); cottage industry that sourced wood and rattan for hand tools and novelty craft manufacture; collection of forest products used as food (e.g. bayuko snail) and treasure hunting as discussed before. Specific to this subwatershed is the threat posed by the collection of buttresses of trees for the manufacture of hand tools. Diplodiscus paniculatus buttresses are illegally collected for this purpose (Figure 64).

In Greater Sipit, there are also similar intrusive activities. These include goat raising, illegal hunting, forest products gathering and charcoal making. In Molawin-Dampalit, Arenga pinnata (Kaong), a palm species is sought by many as a source of fruits and for broomstick–making. Even the leaf “sheaths” of the plant are collected for sale (Figure 65).

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Figure 65. Arenga pinnata (Kaong) leaf “sheaths” gathered by a community member of Brgy. Bagong Silang for sale. Photos: MCME 2007

Climate change has definitely threatened the natural resources of Mt. Makiling. In 2006, the supertyphoon “Milenyo” (international code name: Xangsane) has caused massive landslides that killed many organisms including the endangered species Medinilla magnif ica, and Strongylodon macrobotrys and critically endangered Rafflesia manillana (Yahya et al. 2010) among the many plant species and other biotic components. The ravaging rainwaters have swept the habitat of many living organisms bringing along the organisms. The landslides have opened big tracts of land all around the mountain exposing dangerously many shade-loving plants.

3-5. Climate Change and Related Impacts

Figure 66. Landslide that wide-opened the creek in Greater Sipit sweeping down the vegetation and habitat in the periphery of the old creek. Photo: MCME 2006

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4. Management of Natural Resources

4-1. Legal Framework

The Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve is under the control, jurisdiction and administration of the University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB) by virtue of Republic Act 6967 of 1990. The law provides for the use of the reserve to serve primarily as a training laboratory for scientific and technical knowledge on the preservation, conservation and development of the forest and natural resources therein, including the flora and fauna. The management of the reserve for this purpose in tandem with the Laguna de Bay was detailed and spelled out in a “bible” that is today known as the Makiling Reserve Area and Laguna de Bay Master Plan which was promulgated in 1996 through Executive Order 349 of then President Fidel V. Ramos.

The forest reserve is also governed by Presidential Decree No. 705, the Philippine Forestry Reform Code, the principal law governing forest management in the country. Proclamation 1257 of June 20, 1998, on the other hand, governs the activities in the surrounding buffer zone to insure these will not negatively impact on the environmental integrity of the forest reserve within.

In Greater Sipit, the steep slopes and loose soil owing to the very high organic matter in the summit area of this subwatershed have predisposed the area to landslides during unusually heavy rains. Big tracts of landslide have been located most likely the effects of the supertyphoon “Milenyo” and the other strong typhoons that came after. Figure 66 shows some of the major landslides in Mt. Makiling indicating the extent of damage wrought by climate change.

The very recent change in climate, the El nino phenomenon, has also imperilled some plants particularly the shallow-rooted plants. During the surveys in 2010, many plants have shown signs of wilting and even death (Figure 67). Even the dipterocarp trees Hopea foxworthyi which were planted in Tigbi in 2003 died from dehydration.

A natural phenomenon that can be due also to climate change is the resurgence of growth of plants which are parasitic or antagonistic to other plants. Many pathogens and parasitic plants have been observed to kill host plants in the area particularly introduced fruit trees.

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Figure 67. Many plants wilting and even dying during the surveys in 2010. Photos: Portia G. Lapitan

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The Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities to promote, enhance and sustain active stakeholder’s participation towards the conservation and development of the MFR include the following major programs: Environmental Education Program, Make it Makiling, Community Fora known as “Ugnayang Pamayanan”, among others. The goal of these activities is to educate the general public on the value of the MFR and move them to act for the protection and conservation of the mountain and the resources therein. The Environmental Education Program is directed at elementary and high school students and teachers. The Program worked for the incorporation in their respective formal curricula of environmental issues and concerns. The Summer Youth Camp, Outdoor Recreation Program are conducted every summer also under this program. Make it Makiling addresses the environmental and responsible mountaineering education needs of visitors of the mountain during the high visitorship period of the Christian Lent in Mt Makiling. “Ugnayang Pamayanan” is a regular program meant to reach out and keep in touch with the surrounding communities and their respective local government units to inform them of developments and activities in the MFR where their participation is crucial. Figure 68 shows some of these activities participated in by the different stakeholders of Mt. Makiling.

Ecotourism has been proven in Mt Makiling to be a very effective environmental IEC program. In this activity tourists, mostly students, get to learn about the value and

4-2. Organization and Personnel

4-3. Ecotourism, Education and Public Awareness

While RA 6967 lodged in UPLB the control, jurisdiction and administration of the MFR, in 1998 the Board of Regents of the University of the Philippines in its 1121st Meeting designated the Makiling Center for Mountain Ecosystems (MCME) of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources to be the specific unit of UPLB responsible for the MFR. The Center’s mandates are to conduct research and demonstration program on mountain ecosystems development and formulate and execute plans for the sustainable management of MFR. The Center was also given the authority, though limited in scope, to generate resources for its operation and management of the MFR. The Center is a 50-personnel strong institution. Following the integrated watershed management approach, the reserve was divided into 4 watershed management units or subwatersheds: Tigbi, Molawin-Dampalit, Cambantoc and Greater Sipit (Figure 1).

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Figure 68. Environmental education and public awareness programs attended by different sectors around the MFR. Photos: Cambantoc Project 2009

5. Discussion

The foregoing discussions have presented the state of the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve particularly the scientific data/bases on which the management of the forest reserve should be anchored on.

While the reserve is not too large (in the perspective of government natural resource management in the Philippines) for intensive management, the reality is that priorities should be identified and outlined for effective and efficient program implementation. This is due to resource (human, logistics etc.) constraint. The diversity index of the different subwatersheds and the conservation status of the plants therein are good bases for management decision-making. The exposure of the area to threats should also be given weight in the prioritization.

enjoyment of trekking a sustainably-managed environment as the Mt Makiling. A guided educational tour into the different facets of the forest (e.g. creeks, sloping areas, under forest canopy site, biodiversity areas) is handled by technical staff of MCME and trained college students of UPLB.

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The whole forest reserve has been shown to support a number of threatened plant species (more than thirty), about ten of them critically endangered. In Appendix Table 8 the threatened species of plants encountered in the sampling plots for each subwatershed are shown. More threatened species were found in the Greater Sipit subwatershed (14) followed by Molawin-Dampalit (12) and the other two subwatersheds having both 11 threatened species. Four of the twelve threatened species of Molawin-Dampalit are critically endangered while only one of the fourteen of Greater Sipit. Observations revealed most of them are growing well and regenerating naturally in the reserve area.

While the Greater Sipit subwatershed has the highest number of threatened species, only Diplodiscus paniculatus was found to be dominant in the area. Molawin-Dampalit, on the other hand, has the most number of threatened species dominating the place - Diplodiscus paniculatus, Celtis luzonica, Parashorea malaanonan and Diospyros blancoi. Tigbi subwatershed has 3 threatened species growing very well in it - Diplodiscus paniculatus, Celtis luzonica and Toona calantas. Other than this, the difference of Greater Sipit from the other three subwatersheds is highlighted by the presence of Syzygium maquilingense only in this part of Mt Makiling. All these data are shown in Table 8.

In Table 10, the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index for tree species found in the subwatershed was highest in Tigbi. For the undergrowth plant species, diversity index was highest in Molawin-Dampalit.

In so far as fungal species is concerned, Molawin-Dampalit has the most number (22) followed by Cambantoc (18), and Tigbi and Greater Sipit with almost the same number (13 and 14, respectively). These numbers though may not be fully reflective of the comparative diversity of this group of organism in the different subwatersheds as the surveys were done on different seasons of the year.

The assessment of the Greater Sipit earlier (Abraham et al. 2004) reveals the presence of organisms indicative of the ecological health of the area surveyed. The area also supports the presence of three threatened animal species, one of them Critically Endangered (CR).

5-1. Biological Factors for Consideration inManaging the MFR

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The threats to the MFR natural resources discussed previously show the vulnerability of the Molawin-Dampalit to intrusion and exploitation among the four subwatersheds. The Cambantoc subwatershed follows closely. These two can be accessed through a road. In addition, the terrain of these two subwatersheds that is accessible only by foot is relatively flat and rolling. The other two subwatersheds, on the other hand, have steeper terrain.

Patrolling of the area is easier, but as mentioned earlier, the presence of roads and trails for patrol work makes also the area accessible to forest violators. The limited number of forest officers for patrol work compromises the effectiveness of protection program in these areas of Mt Makiling.

The presence of a community within the area of Molawin-Dampalit and Cambantoc subwatersheds, the Brgy. Bagong Silang, directly impinges on the normal ecological functioning of these subwatersheds. The clearing of the occupied area to give way to houses and farm lots and other facilities for the community has adversely affected the forest’s health.

A study on altitudinal diversity in Mt Makiling conducted by Lambio and Buot (2006) revealed the lowest altitude showed significant loss in diversity index from 0.92 to 0.80 while the highest altitude registered little loss. This may be attributed to the accessibility to people of the low altitude area predisposing the area to more exploitation and disturbance.

5-2. Physical and Sociopolitical Considerations forMFR Management

All these data when considered point to the merit of focusing attention or prioritizing the management, protection and conservation of the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed over the other subwatersheds. This is because more biodiversity is at stake of being threatened if this subwatershed, which is the most accessible, is left unmanaged.

As it is in this subwatershed where facilities for ecotourism and environmental education were established and a community resides, specific areas for conservation should be identified apart from the built-up areas. These areas are where normal, ecological processes should be allowed to occur. The conservation areas should be left as much as possible “on their own”, intrusion minimized as much as possible too. This

5-3. Areas for Conservation

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The snail Ryssota otaheitana locally called bayuko needs attention. The increasing interest of people in this species has increased the drive of collectors for this species in the MFR. Its collection should be managed to insure the population in Mt. Makiling will not decline. This will require data on the biology and specific habitat of this species that studies on these should be prioritized. Securinega fleuxosa should also be conserved. Its confinement in the Greater Sipit area should be studied and the possibility of its introduction to other parts of Makiling assessed. Toona calantas and the other critically endangered plant (Syzygium nitidum, Shorea guiso, Pterocarpus indicus forma indicus, Parashorea malaanonan, Diospyros blancoi, Diospyros pilosanthera) and animal species (Sus philippinensis) in the subwatersheds should be protected and managed for sustained growth and development in this mountain. While regeneration of these species appears not to be a problem as indicated by the species’ dominance in the area, there has to be an effort at monitoring and assessing population growth and genetic diversity changes.

5-4. Species for Conservation

would require an effective protection and IEC programs where the participation of all stakeholders would be vital.

The Greater Sipit should be prioritized next for a number of species are found only in this part of Mt. Makiling. These are Syzygium maquilingense, Securinega fleuxosa (Abraham et al. 2004), Cervus mariannus (a mammal) and the threatened Philippine Eagle-Owl (Bubo philippensis), the frog (Philautus surdus); and the endangered Sus philippinensis. In the several surveys conducted in the whole of the MFR, these species were sighted only at the Greater Sipit area.

The access to this subwatershed should be guarded to prevent hunters/gatherers from entering the area out of season of peak population growth. An IEC program to make the public aware and responsible for the species should be undertaken.

The rest of the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve should also be managed for biodiversity and other natural resources conservation. The landscape of Tigbi subwatershed should be conserved, the white earth in the area protected from indiscriminate extraction. The biological resources in this part are threatened by forest product collectors and treasure hunters. The farmlots and the related activities in Cambantoc are becoming threats to the forest species.

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The invasion of alien species at the base of the mountain should be managed to insure these species will not encroach into the forest reserve. The threats posed by increased visitorship beyond the carrying capacity of an area should be carefully studied for effective control and management.

Human interventions in the reserve should be channelled to benefit the mountain. This would be particularly significant to the protection and conservation of the mountain if the huge number of visitors who come to the mountain will share in their own little way whatever they could to maintaining the integrity of the forest.

5-5. Threats for Control and Management

6. Conclusion

The Mt Makiling Forest Reserve needs to be protected, conserved and managed in an integrated ecosystem approach to insure that all the natural resources therein (biological, sociocultural and physical) are sustained. Only in this manner can the benefits and services this forest provides can continuously flow to support the living world and its environ.

Mt Makiling is a highly biodiverse forest well supported by rich physical resources, ecological processes and a wealth of knowledge resources that its long history of scientific growth has accumulated. The crucial work of sustaining and conserving all these resources needs the participation of all stakeholders with UPLB taking the lead.

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Literature cited

Abraham, E.R.G., J.C.T. Gonzalez, M.L. Castillo, I.L. Lit Jr., & E.S. Fernando. 2010. Forest cover and biodiversity profile of the crater area of Mt Makiling, Luzon, Philippines. Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 4: 49-82.Alicbusan, R.V. 2006. Mushroom production technology for rural development. BirdLife International. 2010. Important Bird Areas Factsheet: Mount Makiling Forest Reserve. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 28/12/2010Brown, W.H. 1919. Vegetation of Philippine Mountains. Government Printing Bureau. Manila.Bugayong, L.A., N. Balahadia, R.R.E. Mariano, J.T. Dizon, R.F. Paelmo, L.A. Castillo, R.Breva, & P.G. Lapitan. 2007. Lessons from Implementing a Participatory Upland Development Project: The Case of Dampalit Watershed in Makiling Forest Reserve, Laguna, Philippines. Poster Paper presented at the International Conference on Poverty Reduction and Forests: Tenure, Market and Policy Reforms, 3-7 September 2007, Bangkok, Thailand.Cambantoc Terminal Report. 2010. UPLBFI-DA-BAR Research on Community-based Watershed Management Approach in Improving Livelihood Opportunities in Cambantoc Watershed of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve. Portia G. Lapitan, Project Leader; Rebecca Ramona E. Mariano, Nicasio M. Balahadia, Jose O. Sargento, Ernesto P. Militante, Study Leaders with Rolly V. Breva, Eulalia B. Alcasid, Jorge M. Maloles Erlinda N. Rebugio, Project Staff; and Aisa Lien E. Velasco, Research Assistant. December 2007 - July 2010.Dampalit Terminal Report. 2008. UPLBFI-DA-BAR Research on Participatory Upland Development Program in Dampalit Watershed of the Mt.Makiling Forest Reserve. Portia G. Lapitan Over-all Program Coordinator; Nicasio M. Balahadia, Project Leader; Leilani A. Castillo, Leonida A. Bugayong, Roselyn F. Paelmo, Josefina T. Dizon, Rebecca R. E. Mariano, Rolly V. Breva, Study Leaders; Rogelio C. Gibe, Research Assistant. April 2006 - April 2008.[DENR-UNEP] Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines – United Nations Environment Programme. 1997. Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Action Plan. 298p. Bookmark Inc., Makati, Philippines.DENR Administrative Order No. (DAO) 2007-1. National List of Threatened Philippine Plants and their Categories, and the List of Other Wildlife Species.Fernando, E.S., W.S. Gruezo, N.C. Bantayan, M.M. Calderon, & J.T. Dizon. 2001. Biodiversity and Plant Genetic Resources in the Philippines: A State of the Art Report. AKECU Annual Report. Seoul National University, Suwon, Korea.

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Gruezo, W.S. 2000. Floral Diversity Prof ile of Mt Makiling Forest Reserve, Luzon Philippines. Paper presented during the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity (ARCBC) and UPLB College of Forestry and Natural Resources (CFNR) Seminar Workshop on Facing the Challenges of Sustaining Biodiversity Conservation of Mt Makiling held on 20-21 September 2000 at CFNR Auditorium, UPLB, College, Laguna, Philippines.GSW Habitat Care Program Progress Report. 2008. Mt Makiling Forest Reserve Greater Sipit Watershed Biodiversity and Habitat Protection and Conservation Program. Portia G. Lapitan, Program Leader.IUCN. 1994. (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) ver. 2.3 IUCN. 2006. Red List of Threatened SpeciesIUCN. 2008. Red List of Threatened Species Lambio, I.A.F & I.E. Buot Jr. 2006. Zonation Studies on Mt. Makiling, Philippines: Its Relevance in Handling Resource Loss. Paper presented at the 6th Annual Scientific Convention The Philippine Society for the Study of Nature, Inc, Kapalong, Davao del Norte, Philippines. May 15-21, 2006Lapitan, P.G. 2007. Restoration of Mt. Makiling – A Biodiversity Hotspot and Ecotourism Destination in the Philippines. In Proceedings of the IUFRO Conference on Forest Landscape Restoration. Stanturf, J. (ed.). Seoul, Korea. 14-19 May 2007. Korean Forest Research Institute, 268pp.PFLA F inal Report. 2006. UPLB-PCARRD-CHED Research Project on Permanaent Field Laboratory Areas (PFLA) for Effective Forest and Natural Resources Management, Conservation and Development, Enrique L. Tolentino Jr., Project Leader; Amelita C. Luna, Ramon A. Razal, Nelson M. Pampolina, Emmanuel Rhodantes G. Abraham, Manuel L. Castillo, Cristino L. Tiburan Jr., Elsa P. Santos, Aileen A. Jara, Jose O. Sargento, Unit Coordinators. May 31, 2002 – May 31, 2006. Yahya, A.F., J.O. Hyun, J.H. Lee, T.B, Choi, B.Y. Sun & P.G. Lapitan. 2010. Distribution pattern, reproductive biology, cytotaxonomic study and conservation of Rafflesia manillana in Mt Makiling, Laguna, Philippines. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 22(2): 118-126.

Biodiversity and NaturalResources Management in

the Mt Pulag National Park, PhilippinesEdwino S. Fernando and Roberto P. Cereno

University of the Philippines Los Baños

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1. IntroductionIn northern Luzon are the island’s highest mountains that form part of the Mt Pulag National Park. The park has many unique features such as pine forests, misty lakes, dense upper montane or mossy forests with oaks, rhododendrons, tree ferns, and rare cloud rats, and rolling grasslands with dwarf bamboos. It is one of the most popular mountain ecotourism sites in the Philippines. The park covers approximately 11,500 hectares in the Central Cordillera (DENR-NIPAP 2000), a north-south trending mountain range between the Ilocos foothills in the west and the Cagayan Valley in the east (Queaño et al. 2007). This rugged terrain comprises seven mountain peaks above 2000 m, including Mt Pulag (also sometimes called Pulog) (2922 m), Mt Tabeyoc (also called Tabeyo) (2819 m), Mt Akiki (2760 m), and Mt Panotoan (2650 m).

The Central Cordillera mountain range is, indeed, unique that Merrill (1926) early on already recognized it as a sharply defined botanical subregion or floristic province with the dominance of pine forests on the lower elevations and thick upper montane (mossy) forests towards the mountain summits (see also Dickerson 1928). The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) of the Philippines recognizes the Cordillera as one of 15 biogeographic zones, based on floristic, faunistic, and geological composition of the geographic areas (DENR-UNEP 1997).

The Mt Pulag National Park, in particular, is recognized as a (i) Center of Plant Diversity in the Philippines, owing to its richness in plant species, large number of endemic species, and diverse range of habitats (Cox 1988, Davis et al. 1995, DENR-UNEP 1997); (ii) Priority Important Bird Area (PH004), supporting populations of many threatened birds, including most species restricted to montane habitats (Mallari et al. 2001); (iii) Biodiversity Conservation Priority Area, based on a combined assessment of plants, birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, arthropods, and socio-economic pressure (DENR-CI-UPCIDS 2002); and a (iv) Key Biodiversity Area, based on the occurrence of one or more globally threatened species, i.e., Critically endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU), and presence of restricted range species or endemic species (CI-DENR PAWB-Haribon 2006). The Mt Pulag National Park is, thus, a priority biodiversity conservation area in the Philippines.

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2-1. Landscape and Watershed Resources

2. Status of Natural Resources

The Mt Pulag National Park lies within five municipalities and three provinces, viz., Bokod, Buguias, and Kabayan in Benguet Province, Tinoc in Ifugao Province, and Kayapa in Nueva Vizcaya Province. The entire vast area of the park has elevations ranging from 1100 m to 2922 m alt., a largely mountainous landscape of pine forests, upper montane (mossy) forests, grasslands, a few small lakes, and cultivated and residential areas. Much of the park has a slope greater than 50% (DENR-NIPAP 2000). Apart from Mt Pulag, Mt Tabeyoc, Mt Akiki, and Mt Panotoan, there are three other summits in the park that reach more than 2200 m alt. Rainfall data (1988-1999) for Benguet Province alone indicates a mean annual rainfall of 3,921 mm (range from 2,617 to 4,968 mm). The months of July to September are usually the wettest, and December to February the driest.

There is one lake (Lake Babadak), approximately 60 m x 20 m, at 2400 m alt. on the southwestern part of Mt Pulag that is fed by a small spring, but the surrounding natural vegetation here has already been severely damaged. On Mt Tabeyoc, at least four lakes are known. The largest of these is Lake Tabeyoc (2230 m alt.), about 280 m x 100 m. It used to have ‘virgin forest’ (primary upper montane forest) around it up until the 1970’s ( Jacobs 1972), although the lake was already dried up then. The area around the lake is now largely devoid of forest and replaced with vegetable farms and some grasses (Figure 1). A road now crosses the southern edge of the lake bed.

Figure 1. Lake Tabeyoc at c. 2230 m alt. is largely dried up and devoid of forest around it. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Lake Ingkolos (2380 m alt.) is about 200 m x 60 m and still surrounded by forest. It drains on its eastern shore towards a marshy ground ( Jacobs 1972). Lake Latapngapos (2315 m alt.) is the smallest, more or less triangular in shape, about 60 m x 120 m and is completely surrounded by forest and has no shore vegetation of herbs ( Jacobs 1972). Lake Bulalacao (also known as Bula Dacau or Ambulalakaw, 2420 m alt.) is approximately 215 m x 50 m and occurs in a sheltered valley with tall forest around it (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2. Lake Bulalacao on the southern spur of Mt Tabeyoc at c. 2420 m alt. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 3. Lake Bulalacao is found in a sheltered valley with thick mossy forest. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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al ParkThe entire Mt Pulag National Park is nationally significant as a watershed, providing water for the domestic, industrial, and agricultural irrigation needs of many parts of northern and central Luzon. As Luzon’s highest watershed, it contributes water to at least four hydroelectric power plants in northern Luzon, viz., Ambuklao and Binga in Benguet Province, Magat in Isabela Province, and San Roque in Pangasinan Province. The several tributaries originating from within the park feed their water into two major river systems: in the west the Agno River in Benguet, and in the east the Catnaan River in Nueva Vizcaya (DENR-NIPAP 2000). Agno River, approximately 206 km long, originates from Buguias in Benguet, flowing south to Ambuklao, then Binga, then San Roque in Pangasinan, and finally exiting at Lingayen Gulf. The Catnaan River serves as the depository of all major headwaters on the eastern part of the park including Tawangan, Lusod, Tinoc, and Balete, flowing east and merging with the Ifugao River that feeds into Magat Dam.

Ambuklao is the first hydroelectric power plant in the Philippines and has Agno River as its main source of water. The dam has a usable storage of about 50 million m3 and is designed to produce 75 megawatts (105 megawatts after current rehabilitation) of electricity to the Luzon power grid (Figure 4). The Binga Dam is just downstream of Ambuklao and has a current usable water storage capacity of 13 million m3 and a power capacity of 100 megawatts (Figure 5). Farther south, also along the Agno River, is the San Roque Dam in Pangasinan Province, with a water reservoir capacity of 850 million m3 and an installed rated capacity of 345 megawatts.

Figure 4. The spillway of the Ambuklao Hydroelectric Power Plant whose dam is fed by several tributaries originating from within the Mt Pulag National Park. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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The San Roque Dam also irrigates up to 70,000 hectares of farmlands in Pangasinan and Tarlac Provinces. The Magat Dam in Nueva Vizcaya Province can impound up to 1.08 billion m3 of water at full capacity and has a rated power capacity of 360 megawatts. Magat Dam also irrigates up to 85,000 hectares of agricultural lands.

Figure 5. The Binga Dam, farther downstream of Ambuklao, is also fed by water from the Agno River. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

2-2. Plant Resources

Mt Pulag has three distinct vegetation zones (Merrill & Merritt 1910, Jacobs 1972, Aguilar et al. 2000): (a) the lower montane (pine, Pinus kesiya) forests, (b) the upper montane (‘mossy’) rain forests, and (c) the grassland summit.

In the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, a region with a distinct dry season, the lower montane rain forest is the pine forest dominated by Pinus kesiya (Fernando et al. 2008). In the Mt Pulag National Park, the pine forest covers about 17.7% of the total park area (DENR-NIPAP 2000; Table 1) and occurs on the lower slopes up to about 2300-2400 m alt. (Buot & Okitsu 1998). On Mt Akiki, the pine forest is at 1685 to 2200 m alt. (Buot 2007). Merrill & Merritt (1910) earlier described the pine trees on Mt Pulag as 15-30 m tall with 45-90 cm diameter, ‘forming an open, park-like forest’. Pine trees with such sizes are now exceedingly rare. Much of the pine forests have long been converted to other uses and many of the big pine trees have been felled

2-2-1. Vegetation and land use cover

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Figure 6. The lower montane (pine) forest dominated by Pinus kesiya on Mt Pulag at c. 2400 m alt. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

down when large parts of these forests were under a logging concession. Only smaller trees remain (Figures 6 and 7). Some broadleaved species in the pine forest occur in the sheltered ravines, gullies, and along streams. The forest floor is often covered with grasses (e.g. Imperata cylindrica, Miscanthus sinensis, Mnesithea rottboellioides, Themeda triandra), ferns (e.g. Pteridium aquilinum var. wightianum), and perennial composites (e.g. Ageratina adenophora). In the dry months, the forest floor is fire-prone and many young pine trees also die during fires (Figure 8).

Figure 7. The pine forest on the lower, eastern slopes of Mt Panotoan, some of which have been converted to vegetable terraces, c. 2400 m alt. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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Figure 8. The pine forest is often prone to fire in the dry season. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

The upper montane (‘mossy’) rain forests (Fernando et al. 2008) constitute the largest extent of the natural vegetation of the park, covering slightly more than half (50.4%) of the entire area. On Mt Pulag, the forest occurs on the slopes, forming irregular curves between c. 2600-2750 m alt. (Figures 9 and 10). In earlier times, the upper montane forest zone ranged from as low as 2000 m alt., which was then the upper limit of the pine forest (Merrill & Merritt 1910). A few remaining mossy forest fragments occur at lower elevations, mostly interspersed in a landscape of actively cultivated or abandoned vegetable farms (Figure 11). On Mt Tabeyoc (Figure 12) and Mt Panotoan (Figure 13), the upper montane (‘mossy’) forest begins at lower elevations and occurs all the way up to the summit.

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Figure 9. The upper montane (mossy) forest on Mt Pulag at c. 2700 m alt. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Vegetation / Land cover Area (hectares) Percent cover

Residential / Cultivated 2,877 24.9

Pine (lower montane) forest 2,047 17.7

Mossy (upper montane) forest 5,822 50.4

Grassland 804 6.9

Total 11,550 100

Figure 10. The upper montane (mossy) rain forest on the slopes below the grassland of Mt Pulag, forming irregular curves between c. 2600-2750 m alt. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Table 1 Vegetation and land use cover of Mt Pulag National Park (NIPAP-DENR 2000)

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Figure 11. Fragments of upper montane (mossy) forest among cultivated farms on the southern part of Mt Pulag, c. 2500 m alt. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

Figure 12. The dome-shaped, cloud-covered summit of Mt Tabeyoc (2819 m), with upper montane (mossy) forest from c. 2200 m up to the peak of the mountain. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Unlike on Mt Pulag, the upper montane (mossy) forests on Mt Tabeyoc (Figure 12) and Mt Panotoan (Figure 13) occur up to their summits. However, like Mt Pulag, Mt Akiki, just northwest of the former, also has some grassland on its summit, although not as extensive (Buot 2007).

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Figure 13. Upper montane (mossy) forest on the northern slopes and summit of Mt Panotoan, c. 2650 m. Some scattered pine trees occur on the lower slopes. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

On Mt Pulag, above the mossy forest and up to the summit, is the grassland (Figures 14-16), occurring on a rolling landscape of gentle hills and plateaus. It covers about 6.9% of the entire park, with the dwarf bamboo, Yushania niitakayamensis, locally called útod, as the dominant constituent species (Merrill & Merritt 1910, Jacobs 1972, Santos 1979; Figures 16 and 17). On its lowest limit, the grassland begins at 2600 m alt. and reaches all the way to the summit. Apart from grasses and sedges, other native vascular plants occur in the grassland zone (Merrill & Merritt 1910, Jacobs 1972). Mini marshes (shallow bogs filled with peat, a few square meters in area), wet only in the rainy season, have also been reported in the grasslands on Mt Pulag ( Jacobs 1972). During prolonged dry periods, the grassland may become susceptible to fires, which can also destroy the edges of the mossy forest. On Mt Tabeyoc, the grassland area is generally much smaller than that on Mt Pulag and has limited occurrence of the dwarf bamboo ( Jacobs 1972); it also does not occur on the mountain’s peak.

Figure 14. A panoramic view of the grassland zone and upper montane (mossy) forest on Mt Pulag. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 15. The grassland zone on Mt Pulag begins from c. 2600 m alt. reaching all the way to the summit. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 16. The dwarf bamboo, Yushania niitakayamensis, on the plateau just before the summit of Mt Pulag, sometimes forming pure patches. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 17. The dwarf bamboo in the grassland zone growing on the trail to the summit of Mt Pulag. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 18. Residential and farming areas within the Mt Pulag National Park, near the Babadak Ranger Station. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Within the Mt Pulag National Park there is also a rather large, aggregated area of about 25% of the park that is developed into residential and vegetable farming areas (Figures 18 and 19). The commonly cultivated vegetables include cabbages, potatoes, carrots, and radishes. The resident communities within the park are mostly members of the indigenous peoples of the Cordillera, viz., Kalanguya, Ibaloi, Kankanaey, and Karao.

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Figure 19. Terraced vegetable farms in the area between Mt Tabeyoc and Mt Panotoan. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

The flora includes about 57 species of bryophytes, 91 pteridophytes, 3 gymnosperms, and 377 angiosperms, with endemicity between 30% to 46% (Merrill & Merritt 1910; Table 2). At least 250 species are confined to the Cordillera region and about 112 species are of northern Asiatic types. These figures are out of date and should be interpreted with caution; also they refer only to Mt Pulag itself, not the entire national park. This list is currently being consolidated with more recent botanical surveys of Mt Pulag ( Jacobs 1972, Buot & Okitsu 1998, Aguilar et al. 2000), Mt Tabeyoc ( Jacobs 1972), and Mt Akiki (Buot 2007) and nomenclature updated to conform with current usage. There are certain areas within the park that have not yet been fully surveyed, even more sites that remain unexplored at all.

Table 2 Plant biodiversity of Mt Pulag (after Merrill & Merritt 1910)

2-2-2. Plant biodiversity

Plant Group Families Genera Total Species / Endemic Species

Bryophytes 3 43 57 /19

Pteridophytes 7 41 91 / 30

Gymnosperms 2 3 3 / 1

Angiosperms 82 270 377 / 174

Total 94 357 578 / 224

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al ParkRecent collections of mosses from Mt Pulag have increased the number of species recorded from the area to 144 (Hipol et al. 2007) from the previous record of 117 species documented by Bartram (1939) and Tan & Iwatsuki (1991).

The vascular flora of most of the mountain summits within park contains many Asiatic continental (including Japan and Taiwan) floristic elements that do not occur elsewhere in the Philippines (Merrill & Merritt 1910, Merrill 1926, Dickerson 1928, Jacobs 1972), and hence, are a unique representation of plant biodiversity in the archipelago. Many of these species also belong to cold-loving genera, essentially of temperate or sub-temperate plant taxonomic groups, with their main distributional range outside of the tropics.

Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya) (Figure 20) is the most characteristic forest tree of the Cordillera region. This species is the single main tree component of the pine forest within the park (Figure 6). It also occurs as scattered individuals at the edges of the mossy forest and in the grassland zone.

In the mossy forest, three species of oaks (Lithocarpus jordanae, L. luzoniensis, L. woodii) are common. The conifers include Dacrycarpus cumingii, D. steupii, Phyllocladus hypophyllus, Prumnopitys amara, and Taxus sumatrana. Other common trees include

Figure 20. Pinus kesiya in the lower montane (pine) forest of Mt Pulag National Park. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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Leptospermum flavescens, Syzygium besukiense, Clethra canescens var. luzonica (Figure 21), Viburnum odoratissimum (Figure 22), and Medinilla whitfordii (Figure 23). The epiphytic shrub Medinilla cordata (Figure 24) is common and usually conspicuous with its pink inflorescences, while another, the white-flowered Rhododendron taxifolium (Figure 25), is rather rare and, thus far, known only from Mt Pulag. On deep ravines, exposed ridges, and sometimes along foot trails in the mossy forest, the following may be found: Omalanthus fastuosus (Figure 26), Saurauia elegans (Figure 27), Elaeocarpus argenteus (Figure 28), Vaccinium indutum (Figure 29), Neolitsea megacarpa (Figure 30), Melastoma bensonii (Figure 31), and Rhododendron quadrassianum var. rosmarinifolium (Figure 32). The tree fern Cyathea fuliginosa (Figure 33) occurs as scattered individuals on the steep slopes.

Rhododendron subsessile (Figure 34) is common near the edges of the ‘mossy’ forest and regarded as one of the pioneer elements of the forest moving into the grassland ( Jacobs 1972; Figure 35). The frequent terrestrial herbs are Gunnera macrophylla (Figure 36), Gaultheria borneensis (Figure 37), Hedyotis microphylla, the widespread Nertera granadensis (Figure 38), Anemone vitifolia (Figure 39), and Gnaphalium adnatum (Figure 40).

Figure 21. Clethra canescens var. luzonica is one of the common trees in the mossy forest. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 22. Viburnum odoratissimum. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 23. Medinilla whitfordii. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 24. Medinilla cordata is a common epiphytic shrub, usually conspicuous with its pink inflorescences. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 25. Rhododendron taxifolium is a rather rare species of shrub epiphytic on trees with numerous narrow Taxus-like leaves and white flowers. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 26. Omalanthus fastuosus is a common tree near gaps and edges of the mossy forest. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 27. Saurauia elegans. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 28. Elaeocarpus argenteus. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 29. Vaccinium indutum. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 30. Neolitsea megacarpa. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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Figure 31. Melastoma bensonii. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

Figure 32. Rhododendron quadrassianum var. rosmarinifolium is common on exposed ridges, and sometimes along foot trails in the mossy forest. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 33. The tree fern Cyathea fuliginosa occurs as scattered individuals on the steep slopes in the mossy forest. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

Figure 34. Rhododendron subsessile. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 35. Rhododendron subsessile as a pioneer in the grassland zone of Mt Pulag, c. 2700 m alt. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 36. Gunnera macrophylla is a frequent terrestrial herb near damp places. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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Figure 37. Gaultheria borneensis, a prostrate herb usually growing along trails and in open places in the pine and mossy forests. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 38. Nertera granadensis, a creeping herb with red and round fruits frequent near the edges of the mossy forest, but also found in the pine forest. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 39. Anemone vitifolia is of temperate affinity and common on slopes and ravines. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 40. Gnaphalium adnatum, also of temperate affinity occurs on open slopes and near trails. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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al ParkIn the grassland zone, Yushania niitakayamensis (Figures 16 and 41) is a prominent component of the vegetation. Others include the cushion-forming Danthonia oreoboloides (Figure 42) along the foot trails, Aniselytron agrostoides, Deschampsia flexuosa var. ligulata, and Deyeuxia suizanensis var. stenophylla. The endemic sedge Scirpus pulogense occurs in wet depressions of the grasslands. Another endemic plant in the grassland is Hypericum pulogense (Figure 43).

Figure 41. Yushania niitakayamensis is a prominent component of the grassland vegetation on Mt Pulag. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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Figure 42. Danthonia oreoboloides forms dense, tufted colonies along the open trails in the grassland area. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 43. Hypericum pulogense occurs in the open grassland and is, thus far, endemic only to Mt Pulag. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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al Park2-3. Animal Resources

The Mt Pulag National Park is home to several genera and species of vertebrate fauna. It supports populations of many of the restricted-range and montane forest-dependent vertebrates in the Philippines. Of these, information is known only of the mammals and birds of the vertebrates and some of the butterflies of the invertebrates.

At least 22 species of large and volant and non-volant small mammals have now been recorded as occurring in the park (Heaney et al. 1998, 2008a, DENR-NIPAP 2000, Rickart et al. 2011; Table 3; Figures 44-48). One of these species is Crateromys schadenbergi, the Luzon Bushy-tailed Cloud Rat (Figure 44), only recently discovered on Mt Pulag’s upper montane (‘mossy’) forests at elevations above 2600 m (Heaney et al. 2008a). This arboreal and nocturnal animal is very beautiful, with its long, soft hair, often entirely black, but sometimes may have white patches in different parts of its body. Although apparently common, this species is hunted and its forest habitat is rapidly shrinking. It was previously listed as a threatened species in the Vulnerable (VU) category (Heaney et al. 1998), but has recently been upgraded to the Endangered (EN) category of IUCN (Heaney et al. 2008b).

Most of the known mammals live in the upper montane (mossy) forest. In the upper zones towards the grassland area, at least eight species have been recorded, mostly small, non-volant mammals (Heaney et al. 1998). Some species earlier discovered on Mt Data (2200 m) (Thomas 1898), about 30 km north, have now also been found in the park. Carpomys melanurus, the Greater Dwarf Cloud Rat, also called the Short-footed Luzon Tree Rat (Figure 45), was last seen in 1896 on Mt Data, and thought to have been extirpated given the very little mossy forest left on that mountain (Fernando et al. 2008). However, it was found in the mossy forest on Mt Pulag at 2285 m alt. during a scientific expedition in April 2008 that focused on mammals (Heaney et al. 2008).

Figure 44. The endangered Luzon Bushy-tailed Cloud Rat, Crateromys schadenbergi. Photo: Danilo S. Balete

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Mammals in the Mt Pulag National Park (after DENR-NIPAP 2000, Heaney et al. 1998, 2008a, Rickart et al. 2011)Table 3

Species names and common names after Heaney et al. (1998); local names after DENR-NIPAP (2000).

Family / Species Common and local name

Family Muridae

Apomys abrae Luzon Cordillera Forest Mouse

Apomys datae Luzon Montane Forest Mouse

Apomys musculus Least Philippine Forest Mouse

Archboldomys kalinga Cordillera Shrew-mouse

Bullimus luzonicus Luzon Large Forest Rat, wigit

Carpomys melanurus Greater Dwarf Cloud Rat, Short-footed Luzon Tree Rat

Chrotomys silaceus Blazed Luzon Shrew-rat

Chrotomys whiteheadii Luzon Montane Striped Shrew-rat, buwet

Crateromys schadenbergi Luzon Bushy-tailed Cloud Rat

Phloeomys pallidus Northern Luzon Cloud Rat, otot

Rattus everetti Common Philippine Forest Rat

Rhynchomys soricoides Northern Luzon Shrew-rat

Musseromys sp. Tree Mouse

Family Soricidae

Crocidura grayi Luzon Shrew

Suncus murinus Asian House Shrew, hiba

Family Vespertilionidae

Pipistrellus tenuis Least Pipistrelle

Family Pteropodidae

Acerodon jubatus Golden-crowned Flying Fox

Pteropus vampyrus Large Flying Fox

Family Pteropodidae

Rhinilopus arcuatus Arcuate Horse-shoe Bat

Family Suidae

Sus philippensis Philippine Warty Pig, ulha

Family Cervidae

Cervus mariannus Philippine Brown Deer, makwa

Family Cercopithecidae

Macaca fascicularis Long-tailed Macaque

Family Viverridae

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Common Palm Civet, am-keh

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Figure 45. The Greater Dwarf Cloud Rat or Short-footed Luzon Tree Rat, Carpomys melanurus. Photo: Danilo S. Balete

Figure 46. The Luzon Montane Forest Mouse, Apomys datae. Photo: Danilo S. Balete

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Figure 47. The Blazed Luzon Shrew-rat, Chrotomys silaceus. Photo: Danilo S. Balete

Figure 48. The Northern Luzon Shrew-rat, Rhynchomys soricoides. Photo: Danilo S. Balete

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al ParkChrotomys silaceus (Figure 47) and Rhynchomys soricoides (Figure 48) have been recorded in both lower and higher elevations of the mossy forest. Both species feed primarily on earthworms.

There are no specialized mammals in the grassland area. The most common species there is the Luzon Shrew, Crocidura grayi, and an alien pest species, Rattus exulans (Heaney et al. 2008). Rattus tanezumi, another alien pest species, and Rattus exulans are both frequent near the vegetable farms and edges of mossy forest.

The larger mammals such as monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and wild pigs (Sus philippensis), are now uncommon and live mainly at lower elevations of the park. The Northern Luzon Cloud Rat (Phloeomys pallidus), is still likely to be found at lower elevations up to 2000 m alt. The Philippine Brown Deer (Cervus mariannus) is also occasionally seen near the mountain peak.

Of the birds, at least a total of 76 species have been recorded in the Mt Pulag National Park, including 30 species endemic to the Philippines, 14 species with restricted distributional range, and another 14 migratory species ( Jensen et al. 1994; Table 4). The park is also home to populations of at least six species of threatened birds, including the Flame-breasted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus marchei (Figure 49), and the Luzon Water Redstart, Rhyacornis bicolor (Figure 50), all of which prefer montane forests as habitats (Collar et al. 1999, Mallari et al. 2001; Table 5).

Table 4 Bird diversity in the Mt Pulag National Park (Jensen et al. 1994)

Total number of species recorded in the park 76

Migratory species 14

Endemic to the Philippines 30

Endemic to Luzon Island 9

Restricted range species (global distribution < 50,000 km2) 14

Percent of total resident breeding species on Luzon Island 24%

Percent of total Philippine endemics 32%

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Two globally threatened and conservation-dependent butterflies, Papilio benguetanus and Papilio chikae, both of which are confined to the Cordillera mountain ranges, have also been recorded in the area (Mallari et al. 2001, Danielsen & Treadaway 2004). At least three other species, similarly threatened northern Luzon endemic butterflies, may also possibly occur in the national park (Danielsen & Treadaway 2004).

Figure 49. The Flame-breasted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus marchei. Photo: Nicky Icarangal, www.birdingphilipppines.com

Threatened Philippine and Luzon endemic bird species in the Mt Pulag National Park (Collar et al. 1999, Mallari et al. 2001Table 5

Species name Philippine Distribution 2010 IUCN Threatened Category

Collocalia whiteheadii, Whitehead’s Swiftlet Luzon Data Deficient

Erythrura viridifacies, Green-faced Parrotfinch Luzon, Panay, Negros Vulnerable

Pitta kochi, Whiskered Pitta Luzon Vulnerable

Ptilinopus marchei, Flame-breasted Fruit Dove Luzon Vulnerable

Rhinomyias insignis, White-browed Jungle Flycatcher Luzon Vulnerable

Rhyacornis bicolor, Luzon Water Redstart Luzon, Mindoro Vulnerable

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Figure 50. The Luzon Water Redstart, Rhyacornis bicolor. Photo: Adri Constantino, www.birdingphilipppines.com

3. Ethno-Linguistic GroupsThe Mt Pulag National Park includes ethnographic cultural communities of the Kalanguya, Ibaloi, Kankana-ey, and Karao indigenous peoples (DENR-NIPAP 2000, Peres & Minter 2004). The Kalanguya comprise about 77%, the largest group, and inhabit the inner portions of the park and upper slopes, particularly in parts of the villages (barangay) of Ballay, Lusod, Tawangan, Bashoy, and Eddet in the Municipality of Kabayan, and Impugong and Eheb in the Municipality of Tinoc, and Balete in the Municipality of Kayapa. The Ibaloi make up about 20% and are settled on the lower slopes and western portions of the park. The remaining 3% is comprised of the Kankana-ey and Karao. The Kankana-ey are in the northwestern portion of the park, in the villages of Amlimay and Catlubong in the Municipality of Buguias, while the Karao are in Ekip and Karao in the Municipality of Bokod. Many of the ethnic groups, with their rites and traditions, regard the mountain as sacred (Cariño 1958, Calanog 1983, DENR-NIPAP 2000). They depend mostly on agriculture, mainly rice and vegetable crops, both subsistence and market-oriented, for their livelihood. These indigenous groups are represented in the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) of the Mt Pulag National Park.

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4. Threats to Biodiversity and NaturalResources

Like most other designated protected areas in the Philippines, the Mt Pulag National Park faces serious threats to its biodiversity and natural resources (DENR-NIPAP 2000). The following are some of the more important ones.

(i) Encroachment and expansion of vegetable farms - The growing demand for vegetables and tamed law enforcement has encouraged more clearing and burning of the mossy forests and converting large patches of these into vegetable farms on commercial scale (Perez & Minter 2004). Farming here also often involves the use of pesticides, herbicides, and inorganic fertilizers (DENR-NIPAP 2000) that can contaminate freshwater resources and may be hazardous to human health and the native wild vertebrate fauna. Encroachment for expansion of vegetable farms has reached elevations of up to 2500 m, well deep into dense upper montane (mossy) forests (Figures 51 and 52). This is very clearly the single most destructive activity that seriously threatens all of the biodiversity and natural resources within the Mt Pulag National Park.

Figure 51. Clearing of the mossy forests for vegetable farms as seen from along the Babadak Trail. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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(ii) Timber poaching and wildlife hunting. These activities continue despite the many current regulations, especially those relating to threatened species of both plants and wildlife. In certain areas of the park, akik or ikik, the trapping of birds with the use of nets and bright lights during the months of September to February, is still practiced (Aquino 1997).

(iii) Infrastructure development. Roads constructed inside the park facilitates access of motorized vehicles to transport people and farm products, which also encourages more development (e.g. vegetable farms, housing settlements) within the park (DENR-NIPAP 2000, Perez & Minter 2004).

(iv) Overlapping jurisdiction and tenurial instruments – Between and among the ethnic groups inside the park is the issue of overlapping ancestral domains claims and conflicting administrative and political boundaries of local government units (Pinel 2007, 2009). There are also overlapping tenurial instruments issued by two different government agencies in some portions of the park (DENR-NIPAP 2000). Claims for ancestral domains within the park under the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997 has been problematic as many of these also overlap with strict protection zones of the park. The conflicting policies of various national government agencies and the overlapping claims allow conditions for competition among the stakeholders, with many pushing for their rights both under customary and state laws (Prill-Brett 2002).

Figure 52. Expansion of vegetable farms deep into the mossy forests on Mt Tabeyoc. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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(v) Bioprospecting. As a nature reserve highly diverse in plant and animal resources, the Mt Pulag National Park remains vulnerable to illicit exploration and collection of unique organisms with potentials for pharmaceutical and biotechnological use on a commercial scale. The case of Taxus sumatrana is well known (Nicholson 1998, GRAIN & Kalpavriksh 2002, Bengwayan 2003), but there could be many yet unreported. Such activities are now strictly regulated under Philippine Republic Act No. 9147, also known as the ‘Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act’.

(vi) Invasive alien species – Within the Mt Pulag National Park occur some alien plant species that are weeds near cultivated areas and open patches or disturbed spots in the pine and mossy forests. Two of these species, Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara, are listed in 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species (Lowe et al. 2000). Ageratina adenophora (Figure 53) is another alien species that aggressively invades vegetable farms, edges of the mossy forests, and along foot trails in the park at higher elevations reaching up to 2700 m. This species is considered as a noxious weed in many countries. Of the vertebrates, Rattus exulans and Rattus tanezumi are the alien species that have been recorded near the vegetable farms and margins of the mossy forest (Heaney et al. 2008a). There could many more other alien species associated with the increasing areas for vegetable cultivation and surging numbers of park visitors. Alien species can seriously have negative impacts over time by out-competing the native species for space and resources and change community structure and species composition. These negative impacts may worsen with the continuing loss of the mossy forests and other human-induced changes in the vegetation of the park.

Figure 53. Dense thicket of the white-flowered Ageratina adenophora, an alien invasive species in the Mt Pulag National Park, up to c. 2700 m alt. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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5-1. Designation and Legal Framework

5. Management of Natural Resources

Mt Pulag was designated as a national park on 20 February 1987 by Presidential Proclamation No. 75. Seven mountain peaks, including Mt Pulag, Mt Tabeyoc, and Mt Panotoan, covering approximately 11,500 hectares in the Cordillera were included in the national park (DENR-NIPAP 2000). Earlier, the national park was made part of the Central Cordillera Forest Reserve by virtue of Proclamation No. 217, series of 1920. Proclamation No. 548 in April 1969 establishing the Ambuklao-Binga Watershed Forest Reservation also included portions of the national park. In April 2000, this area, excluding portions within the national park as defined under Proclamation No. 75, were set aside as the Upper Agno River Basin Resource Reserve by Proclamation No. 268. Since the enactment of the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 or Republic Act No. 7586, the management of the park has been under the jurisdiction of the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB).

The conservation of the Mt Pulag area was strongly recommended earlier by a leading international botanist ( Jacobs 1972, 1974), following extensive field botanical survey by the Rijksherbarium, Netherlands together with the National Research Council of the Philippines and the National Museum, Philippines ( Jacobs 1972). For at least three years from 1990 to 1995, Mt Pulag National Park received some development support for park protection and information and education campaign from the WWF–US Debt-for-Nature Swap Programme and the Foundation for the Philippine Environment (FPE). In 1997-2000, the European Union provided support for the National Integrated Protected Areas Programme (NIPAP), a special project of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), for the protection, conservation, and management of the natural habitats and biodiversity in the Mt Pulag National Park and the formulation of its General Management Plan (DENR-NIPAP 2000).

5-2. Management Authority

The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) is the policy-making body of the Mt Pulag National Park and implements the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) and the park’s General Management Plan. The existence, structure, and composition or membership of the PAMB is set out in the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of the NIPAS Act.

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The PAMB is composed of representatives from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Regional Office – Regional Executive Director of the DENR Cordillera Administrative Region (Chairman) (1); Local Government Units, Provincial (3), Municipal (5), Village (‘Barangay’) with territory within the park (13); Tribal Communities residing within the protected area (4); Non-government organizations (NGOs) or community groups, peoples, civic, or church organizations based near the protected area (3), and; Other national government agencies involved in protected area management (1).

In view of the large size (up to 30 members) of the PAMB for the Mt Pulag National Park, the PAMB may create an Executive Committee to be composed of the Regional Technical Director (RTD) as Chair, and at least two representatives each from local government, concerned NGO’s, and indigenous cultural communities, if applicable. The PAMB determines the authorities to be delegated to the Executive Committee.

It is intended for collaborative management and is mandated by law to: i. Decide matters relating to planning, resource protection and general administration of the area in accordance with the General Management Planning Strategy. ii. Approve proposals, work plans, action plans, and guidelines for management of the protected area in accordance with the approved Management Plan. iii. Delineate and demarcate protected area boundaries, buffer zones, ancestral domains, and recognize the rights and privileges of indigenous communities under the provisions of the Act. iv. Promulgate rules and regulations to promote development programs and projects on biodiversity conservation and sustainable development consistent with the Management Manual of the protected area. v. Ensure the implementation of programs as prescribed in the Management Plan in order to provide employment to the people dwelling in and around the protected area. vi. Control and regulate the construction, operation and maintenance of roads, trails, water works, sewerage, fire protection and sanitation systems and other utilities within the protected area. vii. Monitor and evaluate the performance of protected area personnel, NGOs and the communities in providing for biodiversity conservation and socio-cultural and economic development and report their assessments to the NIPAS Policy and Program Steering Committee (NPPSC) and the IPAF Governing Board.

The PAMB decides on issues, approves or takes necessary actions by consensus or majority vote. It deliberates and approves proposals for land and resource use, income

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al Parkgeneration, scientific studies, and documentation activities within the park. It meets usually every quarter of the year at the Protected Area Office (PAO) in Ambangeg, Bokod, but special meetings may be called by the PAMB Chair when deemed necessary. Acting as Secretariat of the PAMB is the Protected Area Office (PAO) which is headed by the Protected Area Superintendent (PASu) who serves as the chief officer of the DENR at the site. The PASu has the following administrative and regulatory duties and responsibilities as provided for in the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of the NIPAS Act:

Administrative -i. Serve as chief administrative officer of the protected area for the purpose of implementing the Management Plan as detailed in the annual work program. ii. Establish a productive partnership with the local community, including groups, in the planning, protection and management of the protected area. iii. The performance and good morale of his/her staff. iv. The proper utilization of annual budget allocations and the proper disposition of fees and other funds generated within the protected area. v. Develop and implement a park information, education, and visitor program. vi. Develop and implement a natural history documentation program and to oversee research that may be conducted within the area. vii. Integrate the roles of NGO and DENR staff in the operation of the area. viii. Document the processes involved in the establishment and management of the protected area, with particular reference to the development of relationships with cultural communities, tenured migrants, buffer zone residents and others in establishing effective protection of the area. Glean the lessons learned from this documentation and use them in future planning.

Regulatory -i. To act as peace officer for the purpose of maintaining peace and order within the protected area. As peace officer, he/she shall exercise police supervision therein, and may arrest any person found in any place within protected areas who is committing, has committed, or is about to commit an offense against the provision of the Act or this Order. ii. Enforce the rules and regulations established to protect the area and preserve the protected area from trespass, damage, injury, and illegal occupancy. iii. Require, when necessary, any person entering or passing across through or any part of the protected area under his jurisdiction, to give the following information: name, address, the proposed duration of stay inside the protected area and the portion which

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he/she intends to visit or has visited and such other information of a similar nature as may be referred to him. iv. Summarily remove or eject the area persons who have rendered themselves obnoxious by disorderly conduct or bad behavior or who have violated any of the regulations on the protected area.v. Require persons cutting and/or gathering forest products or hunting or fishing within the protected area to produce, upon demand, authority or permit to do so. vi. Seize and confiscate timer or other forest products, game birds, animals and fish including instruments, tools and conveyances used inside the protected area by unlicensed persons, or if licensed, in violation of protected area laws, rules and regulations and guidelines issued by the Secretary of the DENR concerning confiscation, seizure and disposition of illegally cut, gathered and transported forest products, and other natural resources and concerning confiscation, seizure and disposition of illegally cut, gathered and transported forest products, and other natural resources and confiscated wildlife.

As reflected in the General Management Plan (DENR-NIPAP 2000), the desired staffing pattern of the PAO (Figure 54) comprises no less than 20 full time personnel to perform various functions that include information, education and communication, research, livelihood, law enforcement, and general office administration. However, due to inadequacy in funding and existing personnel positions within the DENR, the current staffing is limited to a PASu, an accounting clerk, and four park rangers. At present, the PASu is an ecosystems management officer detailed by the Protected Areas and Wildlife Service of DENR Cordillera Regional Office and is the only member of the staff holding a position on permanent status. The other five staffs are hired on a yearly basis and paid out of the Integrated Protected Areas Fund (IPAF). The Community Environment and Natural Resources Offices (CENRO) of Baguio and Buguias in Benguet Province, Aritao in Nueva Vizcaya Province, and Lamut in Ifugao Province provide occasional staff augmentation for reforestation and upland development projects.

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The General Management Plan of the Mt Pulag National Park (DENR-NIPAP 2000) includes six strategic options: (i) Ecosystem management – to protect, sustain and nurture ecological integrity and functions of the park through the establishment of management zones and areas for sustainable utilization of natural resources. Four management zones are identified and delineated within the park: strict protection zone, multiple use zone, sustainable use zone, and restoration zone (Figure 55). The strict protection zone includes the central

The Mt Pulag National Park staff has focused on three major operational priorities (DENR-NIPAP 2000): (1) Resource Management Priorities – law enforcement, community affairs relations, park facilities maintenance. (2) Visitor Management – visitor facilities maintenance, briefing and orientation for visitors on park rules and regulations, and (3) Program and PAMB affairs. These mainly refer to the day-to-day activities of the Protected Area Office.

Figure 54. Desired organizational structure and staffing pattern of the Mt Pulag Protected Area Office (DENR-NIPAP 2000).

5-3. Current Programs

5-4. Strategies

Protected Area Superintendent (PASu)

Assistant forField Operations Assistant PASu

Information,Education, &

Communication(IEC)

Research

EcosystemsManagement

Specialist

RuralDevelopment

OfficerPark

Rangers (9)

LivelihoodLaw

EnforcementPatrolling

AdministrativeOfficer

AccountingCleck

Clerk

Utility

Driver

InformationOfficcer

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portion of the park, mostly the upper montane (mossy) forests, the grassland summit, and sacred areas which are closed to human activities except for scientific studies and/or religious rites of the indigenous communities. The multiple-use zone covers the settlement sites, agricultural production areas, pasture lands, and areas available for income-generating or livelihood activities. The sustainable use zone includes some areas with mossy forests, pine forests, and grasslands where limited collection and utilization of natural resources using traditional sustainable methods are permitted. The restoration zone covers degraded areas in the mossy forest section where forest restoration activities are earmarked in order to help revert back the areas to strict protection zone. In addition, buffer zones, administrative zones, and recreational zones where ecotourism activities may be permitted (like hiking trails, campsites, and ranger stations) are identified.

Figure 55. Management zones in the Mt Pulag National Park (DENR-NIPAP 2000).

BallayGusaran

Poblacion

Duacan

Strict protection zone

PA boundaryMultiple use zone

Restoration zone

Sustainable use zone

Eddet

Bashoy

Ekip

Lusod

Tawangan

Amiimay

Catlubong

Balete

Mt Pulag

BallayGusaran

Poblacion

Duacan

Strict protection zone

PA boundaryMultiple use zone

Restoration zone

Sustainable use zone

Eddet

Bashoy

Ekip

Lusod

Tawangan

Amiimay

Catlubong

Balete

Mt Pulag

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al Park(ii) Protection and law enforcement – to protect the natural resources and biodiversity of the park; from forest fires and illegal resource extraction activities. In collaboration with PAMB members and local government units, local ordinances on protection or resource use are being promulgated and enacted. Further assistance on patrolling and compliance of the park policies and regulations are provided by local police and civil authorities.(iii) Research and monitoring – to conduct research and monitoring activities that can aide in the review and updating of park management. Topics being studied include distribution and abundance of species and natural resources, indigenous land use and ecosystem management practices, and resource valuation.(iv) Stakeholder awareness and community relations – to educate, inform and mobilize all stakeholders and the surrounding communities of their responsibilities for the protection and sustainance of the park’s ecosystems. Local constituents of adjacent communities are provided capability development training towards community-based management strategies. Public information and advocacy campaigns in village assemblies and school based activities are being conducted with the support of non-government organizations and volunteer groups(v) Tourism and visitor management – to institute tourism and visitor management that highlights information the park’s biological, natural, and cultural values and their conservation. Ecotourism, as practiced and recognized worldwide, involves the promotion of responsible travel in natural parks and wildlands in order to appreciate nature and contribute positive actions for conservation (TIES 2010). Visitor activity management (Figures 56 and 57) measures are in place to allow ecotourism, and subsequently, resource generation without compromising the ecological integrity of the park. The Mt Pulag National Park is a prime example of how ecotourism provides the much needed funding to support protection of biodiversity and natural resources.

Figures 56 and 57. Visitors at the Babadak Ranger Station. Photos: Edwino S. Fernando & Roberto P. Cereno

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(vi) Institutional control, organizational management and f inancial sustainability – to institute a community-based park management system and to achieve self reliance in the park’s management and operations. Networking and collaboration with regional and national agencies, institutions, organizations and volunteer groups are also being pursued to ensure park protection.

Funding for the park’s management and operations is generated mainly from the ecotourism program, primarily from entrance and camping fees that are collected and remitted to the Integrated Protected Area Fund (IPAF). The park gets a 75% share of the revenues which is spent for the wages of its staff for maintenance and other operating expenses.

Mt Pulag National Park’s unique features, e.g. highest peak in Luzon, unique vegetation types from pine forest to mossy forest, to grassland at the summit, the cool climate, and relatively easy access from Baguio City make the park a popular ecotourism destination. The park has already been featured in the illustrated color books on protected areas in the Philippines by DENR-PALF-FPE (1998) and Hicks (2002). Although the park is regarded only as one of several ‘emerging and potential ecotourism sites’ in the Philippine National Ecotourism Strategy (DOT-DENR-NZAID 2002), it is, in fact, already a frequently visited site for many Filipinos and foreigners alike (Figure 58).

5-5. Ecotourism

Figure 58. Visitors trekking through the mossy forest on the Babadak Trail. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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al ParkThe park offers outstanding attractions and opportunities for nature-based tourism and adventure travel activities. Foremost is the chance to hike and reach the highest point of Luzon at 2,922 m above sea level (Figure 59) and experience trekking, camping (Figures 60 and 61), panoramic viewing, and nature photography in an ecotourism destination famous for its very unique ecosystems and wildlife resources.

Figure 59. A group of tourists on an early morning on the summit of Mt Pulag. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

Figure 60. Camping near the edge of upper montane or mossy forest. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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On fine days at the summit, the surrounding views are unparalleled. Seas of clouds cover the landscape, except the highest points in the Cordilleras. Mt Amuyao rises very distinctly northeast, the twin mountains of Kapiligan and Napulauan at NNE. Mt Tabeyoc (N) and Mt Pulag are separated by Mt Panotoan (N) (Figure 62). The mountains of Tenglawan and Kibungan (NW), and Mt Timbak, Luzon’s third highest point (WNW) where the Halsema national road passes. In this range, one can also see Mt Pawoi (W). Beyond this, farther west, is already the Ilocos region. Baguio City and Mt Sto. Tomas continue the visual circle (WSW).

Figure 62. Mt Panotoan (2650 m) viewed from the Mt Pulag summit. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

Figure 61. Camping at the edge of grassland. Photo: Edwino S. Fernando

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al ParkVisitor information and guiding. All visitors are required to attend an orientation briefing at the Protected Area Office in Ambangeg regarding rules and regulations about conservation and management of the Mt Pulag National Park. There is a required payment of entrance fees before being allowed to hike and camp. Entry fee is currently at PhP100 per person; foreign visitors are asked to pay USD15 per person. An additional amount of PhP25 per person is imposed as “green fee” by the local government of Kabayan. Guides and porters belonging to the Mt Pulag Indigenous Guides Association are assigned to accompany visitors (Figure 63). As for guides, the rate is PhP500 per guide for a five-person group, and PhP100 for each additional person. Porters may also be secured each at PhP300 per day. Tents are available for rent at the ranger station at PhP75 each.

Trekking and camping. There are four trekking routes up the summit: the Babadak (Figure 64), Akiki (Figure 65), and Tawangan trails from Benguet, and the Ambaguio trail from Nueva Vizcaya. Depending on which trail and the weather, trekking may take 1-4 days.

Figure 63. Ecotour guides at the Babadak Ranger Station. Photo: Roberto P. Cereno

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JUMP OFF PT.

EDDET RIVER

CAMPSITE

WAITING

WAITINGGATE

SCHOOL

MARLBORO COUNTRY

COW COUNTRY

SADDLECAMP SITE

SUMMIT

SPRING1 2

Figure 64. The Babadak Trail to the Mt Pulag Summit (DENR-CAR 2007).

Figure 65. The Akiki Trail to the Mt Pulag Summit (DENR-CAR 2007).

BABADAK TRAIL

AKIKI TRAIL

CAMP 1

BABADAK LAKE

TO AMBANGEG

TO APUNAN

PROTECTED AREA OFFICE / VISITORS CENTER

CAMP 2

MT PULAG SUMMIT

LONE PINE TREE TO TAWANGAN

TO LUSOD

VIEW POINT

WAITING SHED

WATERSOURCE

JUMP OFF PT. - EDDET RIVER

EDDET RIVER - MARLBORO COUNTRY

MARLBORO COUNTRY - COW COUNTRY

COW COUNTRY - SPRING 2

SPRING 2 - SADDLE

SADDLE - SUMMIT

SUMMIT - CAMP 2

2 HRS

3 HRS

2 HRS

110 MIN

2 HRS

30 MIN

1 HR

RANGER STN - VIEW POINT

VIEW POINT - CAMP 1

CAMP 1 - WATER SOURCE

WATER SOURCE - LUSOD JUNCTION

LUSOD JUNCTION - CAMP 2

CAMP 2 - TAWANGAN JUNCTION

TAWANGAN JUNCTION - LONE PINE TREE

LONE PINE TREE - SUMMIT

DISTANCERANGER STN - CAMP 1CAMP 1 - CAMP 2CAMP 2 - SUMMIT

- 2 km- 3.6 km- 1.7 km

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al ParkThe Babadak route (Figure 64) is regarded as an easy hike, while the Akiki trail (Figure 65) is moderate to difficult and requires preparation and experience. At the Babadak trail, the popular trip itinerary comprises of two stages. Trekkers start on the first day from the ranger station to an overnight stop at Camp 1 which is within the mossy forest area (at 2500 m alt.) or at Camp 2 located at the edge of the mossy forest and grassland (2700 m alt.). Hiking from the ranger station to Camp 2 takes around three hours. Camp 2 is the most popular campsite, with rolling terrain, good views, and camping amenities. There is also another campsite which goes beyond the summit, on the way to the Akiki trail. This is Camp 3 or the saddle campsite and is preferred by those who want to get close to the summit. The second part of the trek is done next day. From Camp 1 or Camp 2, the summit assault is typically done either late afternoon (for the sunset) or very early morning before the daybreak (for the sunrise view). Visitors may opt to stay the whole day and camp for another night or return to the ranger station to wash up and travel back to Baguio City. On the Babadak trail, visitors can have an exposure and experience of tropical lower montane (pine) and upper montane (mossy) forest ecosystems. Gnarled oak trees, tree ferns, and colorful rhododendrons will greet visitors as they traverse ridges and gullies; and the dwarf bamboo colonies along the pathways leading to the summit.

The more challenging Akiki trail (Figure 65) provides its visitors a distinct sight of the rugged slopes covered with pine trees and wild grasses, as well, a strange introduction to the local culture as they cross the Eddet river and Manenchen cave, an ancient burial ground. The trek through this route takes two days and two nights starting from the ranger station at Kabayan to the ranger station in Babadak.

The third hiking route goes through the farming village of Ballay in Kabayan, Benguet via the Tawangan trail in the northwestern side of Mt Pulag. Here visitors can have the rare chance to trek the lower slopes of Mt Tabeyoc and visit three mountain lakes, including Lake Bulalacao (2420 m alt.) (Figures 2 and 3).

Scheduling of visit. The Mt Pulag National Park is open and accessible throughout the year, but the advisable time of visit is during the dry season between the months of December to early May. In 1997-1998, the average number of visitors to the park was only about 1,000 (Padilla 2000). In the last nine years, this has increased to an average of about 3,441 visitors, indicating a surge of 42.5% from 2001 to 2009, with February to April as the peak season averaging more than 500 visitors (Yawan 2010; Figures 66 and 67).

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Transportation and access points. The park may be reached by public utility jeepneys or buses that originate from Baguio City. The Visitor Center and Protected Area Office is at Ambangeg while the ranger stations are at the trail heads of Babadak, Akiki and Tawangan. Vehicle hire or jeepney service can be contracted from PhP8,000 to PhP10,000 per group of 15 to 20 persons. Another option is to take the bus from Baguio City at a cost of PhP120 per person. To reach Baguio City, air-conditioned buses are available from various terminals in Metro Manila. It is advisable to reserve tickets beforehand especially for large groups.

Facilities. Washrooms are available at the ranger station or at the Protected Area Office. There are latrines in Camp 2, and a water source is also present in the mossy forest just before the grassland stations. Mobile phone signal exists in many parts of the trail, including the ranger station, the campsite, and the summit.

Figure 66. Yearly total number of visitors to the Mt Pulag National Park, 2001-2009.

Figure 67. Mean monthly number of visitors to the Mt Pulag National Park, 2001-2009. 1-January, 2-February, 3-March, 4-April, 5-May, 6-June, 7-July, 8-August, 9-September, 10-October, 11-November, 12-December.

No.

of V

isito

rs

Year

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

02001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

No.

of V

isito

rs

500

600

400

300

200

100

01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Month

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al ParkHealth and safety. The extreme weather condition of Mt Pulag is a health and safety concern for visitors. Hypothermia is a common complication at high altitudes even as temperature very rarely goes subzero. Likewise, there is less oxygen available, hence persons with asthma or other pulmonary conditions must seek medical advice before their visit. When scaling Mt Pulag from December to February, hikers should prepare for weather extremes by bringing in appropriate outdoor clothing and equipment.

The Mt Pulag National Park Ecotourism Development Plan was prepared and completed in 2007 (Yawan & Tamiray 2008). The park’s ecotourism program is for generation of income to support conservation and management projects (75% share of the Integrated Protected Area Fund), and enhance environmental awareness among the general public. The ecotourism program also allows for provision of livelihood opportunities for the indigenous communities and their participation in visitor management and law enforcement by organizing and engaging them as official ecotour guides.

6. Conclusions

The Mt Pulag National Park is a significant cultural, natural, and biological resource for the Philippines and for the world. It has many unique features such as lower montane or pine forests, misty lakes, dense upper montane or mossy forests with oaks, rhododendrons, tree ferns, and rare cloud rats, and rolling grasslands with dwarf bamboos. With 11,500 hectares, the park is one of the largest in the Philippines. It is one of the most popular mountain ecotourism sites, as well as, a recognized Center of Plant Diversity, a Priority Important Bird Area, Biodiversity Conservation Priority Area, and Key Biodiversity Area. Its prominence as having the highest mountain summits of Luzon Island equally requires the highest attention in protected area management from all stakeholders.

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al ParkStrategy and Action Plan Final Report. 113p. DENR, CI-Philippines, and FPE. Quezon City, Philippines.[DENR-NIPAP] National Integrated Protected Areas Programme & Department of Environment and Natural Resources. 2000. Mt Pulag National Park General Management Plan, Vol. 1. Description, Analysis and Prescription. 90p. Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Quezon City, Philippines.[DENR-PALF-FPE] Department of Environment and Natural Resources - Philippine Airlines Foundation-Foundation for the Philippine Environment. 1998. Our Heritage: The Protected Areas of the Philippines. 202p. [DENR-UNEP] Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines – United Nations Environment Programme. 1997. Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Action Plan. 298p. Bookmark Inc., Makati, Philippines.Dickerson, R.E. 1928. Distribution of Life in the Philippines. 322p. Bureau of Science Monograph 21. Bureau of Printing, Manila.[DOT-DENR-NZAID] Department of Tourism- Department of Environment and Natural Resources-New Zealand Agency for International Development. 2002. National Ecotourism Strategy Philippines. 122p. Manila.Fernando, E.S., M.H. Suh, J. Lee, & D.K. Lee. 2008. Forest Formations of the Philippines. 232p. ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Unit, Seoul National University, Korea.GRAIN & Kalpavriksh. 2002. Traditional Knowledge of biodiversity in Asia Pacific: Problems of Piracy and Protection. 29p. Genetic Resources Action International, New Delhi, India.Heaney, L.R., D.S. Balete, M.L. Dolar, A.C. Alcala, A.T.L. Dans, P.C. Gonzales, N.R. Ingle, M.V. Lepiten, W.L.R. Oliver, P.S. Ong, E.A. Rickart, B.R. Tabaranza Jr., & R.C.B. Utzurrum. 1998. A synopsis of the mammalian fauna of the Philippine Islands. Fieldiana: Zoology n.s. 88: 1-61.Heaney, L.R., D.S. Balete, & J.B. Sarmiento. 2008a. Final Report on a Mammal Survey of Mt Pulag, Benguet Province, Luzon, March-April 2008. 12p. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Heaney, L.R., D. Balete, G. Rosell-Ambal, B. Tabaranza, P. Ong, L. Ruedas, & W. Oliver. 2008b. Crateromys schadenbergi. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Accessed on 12 January 2011.Hicks, N. 2002. The National Parks and Other Wild Places of the Philippines. 176p. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd., London.Hipol, R.M., D.B. Tolentino, E.S. Fernando, & N.M. Cadiz. 2007. Life strategies of mosses in Mt Pulag, Benguet Province, Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science 136(1): 11-18.Jacobs, M. 1972. The Plant World on Luzon’s Highest Mountains. 32p. Rijksherbarium, Leiden.Jacobs, M. 1974. Luzon’s highest mountains - conservation proposed. Environmental

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Conservation 1(3): 232-233. Jensen, A., M.K. Poulsen, J. Accos, O.F. Jakobsen, C.Y. Andersen, & L.A. Viray. 1994. Conservation of Biological Diversity of Mount Pulag National Park, The Philippines. DENR, Birdlife International, and DOF Copenhagen.Lowe, S., M. Browne, S. Boudjelas, & M. De Poorter. 2000. 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: A Selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group, IUCN, Hollands Printing Ltd., New Zealand.Mallari, N.A.D., B.R. Tabaranza, & M.J. Crosby. 2001. Key Conservation Sites in the Philippines. 485p. Bookmark Inc., Makati, Philippines.Merrill, E.D. & M.L. Merritt. 1910. The flora of Mt Pulog. Philippine Journal of Science 5(4): 287-403.Merrill, E.D. 1926. An Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants. Vol. 4. Bureau of Printing, Manila.Nicholson, R. 1998. Light in a bottle: Plant collecting in the Philippines. Arnoldia (Spring) 20-26.Padilla, J.E. 2000. Manual for the Implementation of the Fee System Guidelines in Protected Areas. ENRAP IV Technical Paper. USAID and DENR, Manila.Perez, P. & T. Minter. 2004. Indigenous rights and resource management in Philippine protected areas. International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter No. 35, p. 9.Prill-Brett, J. 2002. Changes in Common Property Regimes and Development Policies in the Northern Philippines. University of the Philippines – Baguio, Baguio City.Pinel, S.L. 2007. Planning partnerships for indigenous cultural landscapes: Conditions for conflict and cooperation at Mt Pulag National Park, the Philippines. International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability 2(6): 35-50.Pinel, S.L. 2009. Collaborating to compete – the governance implications of stakeholder agendas at Mount Pulag National Park, the Philippines. Planning Theory & Practice 10(1): 105-129.Queaño, K.L., J.R. Ali, J. Milsom, J.C. Aitchison, & M. Pubellier. 2007. North Luzon and the Philippine Sea Plate motion model: insights following paleomagnetic, structural, and age-dating investigations. Journal of Geophysical Research 112: 1-44.Rickart, E.A., D.S. Balete, R.J. Rowe, & L.R. Heaney. 2011. Mammals of the northern Philippines: tolerance for habitat disturbance and resistance to invasive species in an endemic insular fauna. Diversity and Distributions 17(3): 530-541.Santos, J.V. 1979. Observations on the dwarf bamboo of Mt Pulag, Benguet, Philippines. Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology 8: 101-107.Tan, B.C. & Z. Iwatsuki. 1991. A new annotated Philippine moss checklist. Harvard Papers in Botany 3: 1-64.[TIES] The International Ecotourisn Society. 2010. What is Ecotourism? <www.

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Natural Resource and Management of

Upo Wetland Protected Area in KoreaSaerom Han, Tae Bong Choi and Jae Ho Lee

National Institute of Environmental Research, Korea

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1. IntroductionUpo Wetland is the largest and oldest natural marsh in Korea. It is an important habitat for a number of wildlife including rare and endangered species. It is also famous as a stopover site of migratory birds. It was added to the RamsaR Wetland list and designated as Wetland Protected area and the Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation area due to its ecological importance (Cho et al. 2008, Choi and Yook 2008).

Upo Wetland is located on the downstream side of the Nakdong River in the south-eastern part of the Korean Peninsula (N 35°33´ 02´´, E 128° 24´ 48´´) (Figure 1). It extends from Daehap-myeon to Yueo-myeon of Changnyeong-gun (county), Gyeongsangnam-do (province), the Republic of Korea. The total protected area of Upo Wetland is 8.54 km2 including 2.14 km2 of water surface (Choi and Yook 2008). It is estimated that the wetland was formed about 6,000 years ago. at that time, much of the land was wet: the sediment, which was repositioned due to river-flooding, created levees around the Nakdong River. Inside the natural banks, a lake was formed within a flood basin that includes Upo, mokpo, sajipo, and Jokjibeol (Figure 1) (Choi 2009). Upo goes by the name “sobeol” among the locals, since its geographical features remind them of the shape of an oxbow. “so” of the word “sobeol” and “U” of “Upo” both mean an ox or cow in Korean (Choi 2009).

Upo Wetland is a protected area in and around which local residents live. Like many other protected areas inhabited by people, Upo Wetland has been under heavy pressure of development and served as a source of conflict between the government and local communities. Thanks to continued efforts by the authorities and stakeholders along with growing public awareness, however, Upo Wetland has become one of the best managed protected areas in Korea.

Figure 1. Location and satellite image of Upo Wetland (http://kr.gugi.yahoo.com).

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2. Status and Use of Natural ResourcesUpo Wetland is a shallow and large area which provides good nutritive conditions and sufficient amounts of sunlight to wildlife. such an ideal environment greatly contributes to the survival of many species which rely on rich food sources.

as the biggest inland marsh in Korea, Upo Wetland contains various types of ecosystems such as aquatic life, transition sites and adjacent forests. Furthermore, it shows seasonal changes in its environmental conditions (Figures 2,3,4 and 5). These characteristics enable Upo Wetland to possess rich biological resources (Table 1).

Upo Wetland has conserved unique ecosystems as the largest natural wetland in Korea. It also consists of four marshes that have different environments and resources, which makes this wetland a popular site for eco-tour and education. The National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) of Korea conducted research to identify and list up the ecological and hydrological landscapes of Upo Wetland (Figure 6) (moE and NIER 2006, 2009).

Upo Wetland has a constant water level even in the dry season, while extensive flooding occurs in surrounding areas during the rainy season. Its biological mat composed of various aquatic floras and micro-organisms filters suspended solids and absorbs heavy metals, which contributes to improving the water quality of this area (Figure 7) (Cho et al. 2008). Floods are controlled thanks to this large wetland which has developed behind the Nakdong River (moE 2002).

* Numbers in parenthesis indicate the number of species found in one of the latest surveys but not in this survey

2-1. Landscape Resources

Table 1 The number of species found in the Upo Wetland Protected Area (MoE and NIER 2006)

2-1-1. Status

Class Number of species Number of endangered species

Plants 344 1

mammals 14 1

Birds 76 6 (8)

Fishes 13 -

amphibians 10 1

Reptiles 13 1

Terrestrial insects 121 -

Bentic macroinvertebrates 25 (1)

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Figure 3. Upo Wetland with green hydrocarpet in summer. Photo: S. Han

Figure 2. Sprouting willow trees in spring. Photo: S. Han

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Figure 4. Landscape resource in autumn. Photo: S. Han

Figure 5. Winter landscape resource. Photo: M. H. Suh

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Figure 7. Willows (Salix glandulosa) and aquatic plants. Photo: S. Han

Figure 6. Distribution of landscape resources in Upo Wetland (MoE 2009).

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Figure 8. Harmony of flora and founa. Photo: S. Han

With its high biodiversity and plenty of beautiful natural views, Upo Wetland is recognized as one of the most popular for ecological tourism and education (Figure 8). It is also selected as one of Korea’s top ten eco-tourism sites in 2009. The general public, researchers and students visit this wetland to observe and experience its ecosystem. Two observatories for bird-watching (Figures 9 and 10) and one observation tower (Figures 11 and 12) have been installed to help tourists and students experience various landscapes and biological resources of Upo Wetland.

Four trails are made around four marshes of the wetland. Each trail provides good views of different landscapes, migratory birds, various aquatic species and communities of willow. One of the trails is also used for riding bicycles or traditional oxcarts (Figure 13).

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Figure 9. Bird watching observatory. Photo: S. Han

Figure 10. Birdwatching hide and students. Photo: S. Han

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Figure 11. Observation tower on the hill. Photo: M. H. Suh

Figure 12. Telescopes in observation tower. Photo: Y. K. Shin

Figure 13. Bicycle riding around Upo Wetland. Photo: S. Han

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To conserve the unique plant resources of Upo Wetland, a number of surveys and monitoring have been done (moE 1987, moE 2002, moE and NIER 2006). according to a survey conducted in 2006 by moE and NIER, the wetland’s habitation consists of 80 families, 221 genera and 344 plant species. There are 11 types of vegetation identified in Upo wetland (moE and NIER 2006; Table 2; Figure 14). The Zizania latifolia community is recorded as the dominant vegetation (Figure 15). The other types include Floating Watermoss (Salvinia natans, Figure 16), Water Chestnut (Trapa japonica, Figure 17), Duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza, Figure 18), Frogbit (Hydrocharis dubia, Figure 19) and Fringed Water-lily (Nymphoides peltata), which are found along creeks and watersides. Willow (Salix chaenomeloides) is widely distributed on levees, while Triangular Bulrush (Scirpus triqueter) is common in the central part of the wetland.

Gorgon plant (Euryale ferox, Figure 20) is an endangered species designated by the ministry of Environment. It is a living fossil plant and its leaves are up to two meters in diameter. It was abundant in the past, but is now becoming a rare plant as the area of wetlands decreases. Frogbit (Hydrocharis dubia, Figure 19), and bladderwort (Utricularia japonica) in Upo Wetland are also rare species designated by the Korea Forest service.

2-2. Plant Resources

Life type Vegetation type

Emergent plants

Phragmites communis community

Zizania latifolia community

Miscanthus sacchariflorus community

Free-floating plants

Spirodela polyrhiza community

Salvinia natans community

Hydrocharis dubia community

Floating-leaved plantsTrapa japonica community

Nelumbo nueifera community

Trees

Salix gilgiana community

Salix glandulosa community

Populus euramericana afforestation

Table 2 Vegetation types of Upo Wetland

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Figure 14. Vegetation map of Upo Wetland (MoE and NIER 2006).

Tj-Hd : Trapa japonica-Hydrocharis dubiasp-sn : Spirodela polyrhiza-Salvinia natansCt-Zl : Carex thunbergii var. appendiculata-Zizania latifolia

Zl-sf : Zizania latifolia-Scirpus fluviatilisZl-Hd : Zizania latifolia-Hydrocharis dubia

W : WaterBa : Bare areaCf : Crop fieldsg : Salix glandulosaTj : Trapa japonicaZl : Zizania latifolia

sf : Scirpus fluviailissp : Spirodela polyrhizasn : Salvinia natansNn : Nelumbo nueiferaEc : Echinocholoa crusgalli

var. oryzicola

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Pc : Phragmites communisms : Miscanthus

sacchariflorusNp : Nymphoides peltata

sa : Salix giligianaac : Acorus calamus var.

angustatusPe : Populus euramericanaEf : Euryale feroxHd : Hydrocharis dubia

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Figure 17. Water Chestnut (Trapa japonica). Photo: H. C. Shin

Figure 16. Floating Water Moss (Salvinia natans). Photo: S. Han

Figure 15. Manchurian Wild Rice (Zizania latifolia). Photo: H. C. Shin

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Figure 20. Gorgon plant (Euryale ferox). Photo: S. Han

Figure 18. Duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza). Photo: J. H. Tho

Figure 19. Frogbit (Hydrocharis dubia). Photo: S. Han

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Upo Wetland has served as a living ground for the locals over a long period of time. The surrounding communities have adapted to the wetland’s biological resources and naturally benefited from them. Euryale ferox, for example, is one of the most commonly used plant resources. The seed of Euryale ferox, which is called “Gam-sil” in Korean, has been traditionally used for medicinal purposes. It is especially good for stomach upset, diarrhea, dysentery and infantile asthma. It is also a good tonic medicine and effective for improving kidney functions or preventing prostatitis ( Jang 2009). The seed of Euryale ferox, therefore, used to be traded as a medicine in the past. after the plant was designated as an endangered species by moE, however, collecting it has been prohibited. The fruit of Trapa japonica, which is edible, used to serve as a substitute for food to relieve famine. so did the roots of Zizania latifolia, which are good for inflammation, dieresis, fever, poisoning with heavy metals and diabetes when taken as tea or medicine. many other plants in Upo Wetland were also consumed by the locals to treat diseases in the past, but now they are mostly used for ornamental purposes. In fact, the value of species such as Nymphoides peltata, Scirpus maritimus and Hosta plantaginea is now being recognized as important in terms of ornament. In this context, the local government plans some project to utilize such floral resources for medicinal and ornamental purposes.

Upo Wetland has ample food sources for birds, fish and insects. It is particularly important for many birds including rare and endangered birds (Figure 21). among dominant species are Coot (Fulica atra), Rook (Corvus frugilegus), Bean Goose (Anser fabalis, Figure 22), Greater White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons), Common Teal (Anas crecca), Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Gadwall (Anas strepera), Indian spot-billed Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha), and Vinous-throated Parrotbill (Paradoxornis webbianus). Endangered species include Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus, Figure 23), Tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus), Baikal Teal (Anas formosa, Figure 24), Eurasian Hobby (Falco subbuteo), and Long-billed Plover (Charadrius placidus).

2-3. Animal Resources

2-2-2. Uses

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Figure 22. Bean Goose (Anser fabalis). Photo: J. Y. Park

Figure 21. Waterfowls in Upo Wetland. Photo: S. Han

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Figure 24. Baikal Teal (Anas formosa). Photo: J. Y. Park

Figure 23. Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus). Photo: J. Y. Park

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Figure 25. Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis). Photo: T. Y. Choi

There are 14 mammal species living in Upo Wetland including Raccoon Dog (Nyctreutes procyonoides), siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica), Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis, Figure 25), and Japanese mole (Mogera wogura), Korean Hare (Lepus coreanus, Figure 26). Leopard Cat (Prionailrus benglensis, Figure 27) was the only endangered mammal species in the wetland.

Figure 26. Korean Hare (Lepus coreanus). Photo: T. Y. Choi

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Upo Wetland has 45 fish species. Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio, Figure 28) is the dominant species while Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) is one of the subdominant ones. Endemic fish include Korean Oily shiner (Sarcocheilichthys nigripinnis morii, Figure 29), Korean Gudgeon (Squalidus chankaensis tsuchigae) and Korean slender Gudgeon (Squalidus gracilis majimae). In the past, many korean native fish species used to live there, but only five endemic species remain today. The number of fish has dropped since the 1990s. The population of alien species has recently been growing, posing a threat to endemic species.

In Upo Wetland, ten amphibian and 13 reptile species were identified. among the amphibian species were Hynobius leechii (Figure 30), Bombina orientalis, Bufo gaugauizans, Hyla japonica, Rana nigromaculata (Figure 31), Rana amuriensis coreana, Rana rugosa, Rana huanrenensi, and Rana catesbeiana. Reptile species include Pelodiscus sienesis, Trachemys scripta elegans, Takydromus auroralis, Takydromus amurensis, Takydromus wolteri, Elaphe rufodorsata, Elaphe dione, Rhabdophis tigrinus tigrinus, Dinodon rufozonatus rufozonatus, Zamenis spinalis, Agkistrodon ussuriensis (Figure 32), and Agkistrodon brevicaudus. Narrow-mouth Frog (Kaloula borealis) and Reeve’s Turtle (Geoclemys reevesii) are among the endangered species in the wetland.

Figure 27. Leopard Cat (Prionailrus benglensis). Photo: T. Y. Choi

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Figure 28. Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio). Photo: M. S. Byeon

Figure 30. Korean Salamander (Hynobius leechii). Photo: H. J. Jang

Figure 29. Korean Oily Shiner (Sarcocheilichthys nigripinnis morii). Photo: M. S. Byeon

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Figure 31. Dark-spotted Frog (Rana nigromaculata). Photo: H. J. Jang

Figure 32. Agkistrodon ussuriensis. Photo: H. J. Jang

meanwhile, 121 terrestrial insects have been identified (moE and NIER 2006), including ten species of order Odonata, one species of order mantodea, 16 species of order Orthoptera, 24 species of 15 order Hemiptera, four species of order Homoptera, 28 species of order Coleotera, 13 species of order Hymenoptera, 14 of order Diptera, and 11 species of order Lepidoptera (Figures 33, 34 and 35). Dominant aquatic insects include small King Dragonfly (Anax Parthenope), Firefly (Lychnuris rufa)

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Figure 33. Asian Comma (Polygonia c-aureum). Photo: J. K. Choi

Figure 34. Agapanthia pilcornis. Photo: J. K. Choi

and Korean Water Bug (Muljarus japonicas). In 2006, 25 benthic macroinvertebrates including 22 arthropods, two mollusks, and one annelid were identified (moE and NIER 2006) and the results of further surveys identified 135 species (Bae et al. 2004). among these species, Diplonychus sp., Parafossarulus manchouricus, and Hippeutis cantor were major macroinvertebrates.

Figure 35. Dolycoris baccarum. Photo: J. K. Choi

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Figure 36. Freshwater snail gathering. Photo: S. Han

The locals in Upo Wetland used to fish and gather shrimp and shellfish before it was designated as a protected area (Figures 36 and 37). after the designation, however, only nine residents were allowed to fish with limited kinds of fishnets and boats for conservation of the wetland ecosystem (Figures 38 and 39). major species caught for contributing to local income include Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio, Figure 28), Crucian Carp (Carassius auratus), snakehead (Channa argus, Figure 40), and River snail (Cipangopaludina chinensis, Figure 41). The volume of Crucian Carp, Common Carp, snakehead, and Catfish caught there is estimated to be 93,600, 4,680, 4,680 and 4,680 kg respectively. The total production amounts to 2,492 million won/year (UsD 2,239,000/year) (KEI 2008). Few resources have so far been exploited even though the wetland provides many valuable ecosystem services. The main reason might be the restrictions on fishing and gathering that have been imposed since it was designated as a protected area (Figure 42). Thus, the government is looking for ways to boost the local economy by developing ornamental species among fish and insects, including Korean Rose Bitterling, Round-tailed Paradise Fish, butterflies and dragonflies, rather than fishing and gathering them.

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Figure 37. Fishing. Photo: S. Han

Figure 38. Fishboat. Photo: S. Han

Figure 39. Fishnet. Photo: S. Han

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Figure 40. Snakehead (Channa argus). Photo: M. S. Byeon

Figure 41. River Snail (Cipangopaludina chinensis). Photo: Y. J. Park

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Figure 42. Fishing prohibition board. Photo: S. Han

The number of introduced alien species has recently risen due to an increase in global trade, transport and travel. Invasive alien species could outnumber native species and disturb natural habitats in an area. In particular, alien species in protected areas often pose serious threats to endemic wildlife.

Currently, eight invasive alien species designated as ecosystem disturbing species by moE are identified in Upo Wetland (Table 3). all of the 5 invasive animal species including Red-eared slider (Tracgemys scrigta, Figure 43) and Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana, Figure 44), and 3 invasive plant species inhabit in Upo Wetland. alien plant species in wetland were introduced intentionally or unintentionally by plantation. Non-indigenous species including Populus deltoids, Populus euramericana, and Platanus occidentalis need to be removed in order to conserve original wetland vegetation. some species such as Ambrosia artemisiifolia and A. trif ida began to dominate the area, becoming more competitive and posing a serious threat to native species. some alien species like A. artemisiifolia and A. trif ida have been eliminated from Upo Wetland, since they were not only invasive but also playing a vector of allergic and respiratory diseases to humans.

The aquatic ecosystem in Upo has also suffered from alien species such as Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) and Blue Gill (Lepomis macrochirus). These two species preyed vast amounts of fish and disrupted the food chain in the wetland. Nutria (Myocastor coypus), a semiaquatic rodent, also eats plants and animals randomly, seriously affecting the Upo wetland biota.

3. Threats to Natural Resources

3-1. Alien Species

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Figure 43. Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta). Photo: H. J. Jang

Figure 44. Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). Photo: H. J. Jang

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Table 3 Alien species designated as ecosystem disturbing species by MoE in KoreaClass species Upo wetland

mammal Nutria (Myocastor coypus molina) O

amphibian Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana shaw) O

Reptile Red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) O

FishBlue Gill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque) O

Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) O

Plant

Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) O

Buffalo Weed (Ambrosia trifida L.) O

White snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum Houtt.)

Knotgrass (Paspalum distichum var. indutum shinners)

Knotgrass (Paspalum distichum L.)

Horsenettle (Solanum carolinense L.)

sheep's sorrel (Rumex acetosella L.)

Burr Cucumber (Sicyos angulatus L.) O

Catsear (Hypochaeris radicata L.)

Frost aster (Aster pilosus Willd.)

Late Goldenrod (Solidago altissima L.)

While roads and banks were built around Upo Wetland as part of a construction project during the 1970s, its ecosystems with potentially huge benefits were severely damaged or disappeared.

Newly constructed water supply plants contributed to changes in hydrologic regimes and wildlife. Waste released from cattle farms and facilities including manure, sewage and pesticides seriously polluted the area. This led to a sharp decline in the wetland’s aquatic resources and habitats. In addition, agricultural activities and fires encouraged the wetland’s terrestrialization.

3-2. Hydrological Problems

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Compared to the year of 1916, based on map data, the total area of Upo Wetland and adjacent marshes has decreased (Figure 45). The main reason behind it is the reclamation of this area to utilize it as rice paddies in addition to embankment. some areas around Upo Wetland are used as fields (19.1%) and rice paddies (15.5%), while some remain as forests (46.5%) (Figure 46). The vegetables produced around the wetland including garlic and onions are worth about 23,125 million won (approximately UsD 20 million) a year. The annual production of rice and barley amounts to 60,878 million won (roughly UsD 60 million) and 2,003.8 million won (around UsD two million), respectively (KEI 2008).

Figure 46. Land use status around Upo Wetland (MoE 2002).

3-3. Land Use

Ricepaddies15.5%1,953 ha

Forest land46.5%

5,858 ha

Residentaland others

18.9%2,380 ha

Field19.1%

2,411 ha

Figure 45. Maps of Upo Wetland in 1916 (left) and in 2004 (right).

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In the 1970s and 1980s, Upo wetland had not been properly managed, it was regarded as useless and the government policies only focused on its reclamation for use as water reservoirs and rice paddies. In this period, intensified industrialization, urbanization and reclamation led to the building of banks along the Nakdong River and Topyeong stream. Large and small wetlands such as samolpo and Yongho were altered into rice paddies. The rest part of the wetland was also planned for reclamation, though it was not implemented because of the lack of technology and funds. In addition, the embankment placed between Upo and mokpo Wetlands in 1967 blocked the passage for the animals and plants on both sides. In 1993, there was an attempt to build a landfill near mokpo. The area of Upo Wetland has eventually shrunk and the characteristics of its landscapes and ecosystem have been largely changed before it was designated as a protected area.

as Upo Wetland become more popular and the number of visitors increases, concerns are growing about possible problems posed to its ecosystem. In 2008 and 2009, about 1.5 million and 700,000 people respectively visited the wetland. since Upo Wetland is not fenced around, visitors have indiscreetly created many new trails and dumped wastes, bringing negative effects to the ecosystem. such trails, particularly near the wetland’s water surface, pose a threat to birds living or visiting there.

3-4. Visitors

since Upo Wetland was designated as a protected area, the use of its resources by the locals has been restricted. In fact, the local community had strongly opposed the designation for fear of additional limitations on land use. Facing harsh complaints from the residents, the authorities tried to convince them to participate in the protection of the wetland area and allowed only a limited number of people to fish or construct facilities there. after the wetland became a protected area, stakeholders recognized its significance and made various efforts for its conservation.

3-5. Conflict with Local Resident

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While economic development threatened the ecosystem of Upo Wetland, conservation efforts were also made on the other hand. In the 1930s and 1940s, after Daedae bank was constructed, about one third of the wetland area was converted into rice paddies through reclamation. many marshes around Upo Wetland were also reclaimed. In 1962, in recognition of its value as an important stopover site for migratory birds, Upo Wetland was designated as Natural monument No. 15 by Korea’s Cultural Heritage administration according to the Cultural Properties Protection Law. In the following years, however, the number of migratory birds decreased and the designation was revoked in 1973. migratory birds were perceived to be more important than wetlands at that time, which explains why no protective measures were taken for this area during the period.

In July 1997, Upo Wetland was finally designated as a “Natural Ecosystem Conservation area” by Korean ministry of Environment according to the Natural Environment Conservation act1⁾. The designation came after the government as well as non-governmental organizations made great efforts to convince the locals to conserve the ecosystem. In march 1998, the wetland was officially designated as a RamsaR site for the second time in Korea (Table 4). In august 1999, the ministry of Environment designated a part of Upo Wetland (8.54 km2) as the third Wetland Protected area under the Wetland Conservation act2⁾ (Figure 47). In 2004, the “Natural Ecosystem Conservation area” changed to the“Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation area” as the value of ecosystems and landscapes became more important. In 2008 the 10th meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetland was held in Changnyeong-gun, the administrative district where Upo Wetland is located. The meeting drew global attention to this Korean marsh area. Korea’s Cultural Heritage administration applied to UNEsCO for listing Upo Wetland as a World Heritage site in 2010, and designated another part of it (3.4 km2) as a Natural monument No. 524 again in 2011 (Table 5).

4. Management of Natural Resources

4-1. Legal Framework

1⁾ The Natural Environment Conservation act (article 12) designates an area as a Ecosystem

and Landscape Conservation area, where its natural status is well maintained; which greatly

merits conservation and scientific research because of its high biodiversity; where topographic

or geological features need to be conserved or natural landscapes need to be protected; which

represents diverse ecosystems or a specimen of an ecosystem; or which by the Presidential Decree

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Table 5 History of Upo Wetland being designated as a protected area

Table 4 Ecological importance of Upo Wetland and RAMSAR criteria (Choi and Yook 2008)

Figure 47. Boundary of Upo Wetland Protected Area. Map: T. B. Choi

needs to be particularly conserved because of its beautiful natural landscapes such as rivers and

mountain valleys.

2⁾ The Wetland Conservation act (article 8) designates an area as a Wetland Protected area,

which has primitive nature and biodiversity; which rare or endangered wildlife inhabit; or which

has special values in terms of scenery, topography and geology.

Classification of wetland (according to IUCN and RamsaR Convention) Ecological Character

IUCN Category IV (Habitat/species management area)

RamsaR criteria and its justification

Criterion 1 The largest undisturbed marsh in Korea..

Criterion 2 Endangered and rare species have been observed.

Criterion 3 It is an important area for maintaining the biodiversity.

Criterion 4 main habitat of migratory birds in winter.

Year Designation authorities Law or convention

1962 Natural monument No. 15. (Revoked in 1973)

Cultural Heritage administration the Cultural Properties Protection Law

1997 Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation area

ministry of Environment The Natural Environment Conservation act

1998 RamsaR Wetland for the second RamsaR site in Korea

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat

1999 Wetland Protected area ministry of Environment The Wetland Conservation act

2011 Natural monument No. 524. Cultural Heritage administration the Cultural Properties Protection Law

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Table 6 Management plan on Upo Wetland conducted by the Ministry of Environment

Governance of protected area is a concept addressing who makes management decisions and how in the area; management is about addressing what is done (Lockwood 2006). since the establishment of Upo Wetland as a protected area, governance for its conservation and sustainable use has been settled. Central and local government agencies, non-governmental organizations and local communities are involved in the governance settings of the Upo Wetland Protected area (Table 6). The ministry of Environment decides and oversees management policies while local governments set specific management plans. Communities living in and around the areas are the main party who carries out the plans. NGOs check managing bodies and monitor effects on protected areas.

The ministry of Environment (moE) is in charge of designating an area as a reservation based on ecosystem surveys. Investigation is carried out into the ecosystems of candidate areas which meet the criteria. after the investigation, designation plans are established and opinions are collected from stakeholders. Based on the opinions and discussions from related organizations, moE designates and announces Protected areas. For effective conservation and management, moE supports local governments to acquire private land.

Conservation efforts started in earnest after the value of Upo Wetland was assessed based on research and surveys in the 1990s. moE’s Nature Conservation Bureau establishes management plans for each protected area on the basis of research by the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) (Table 7). major activities implemented under the Upo Wetland management plans in 2002 are as follows:√ Conducting surveys and analyses of natural and social environment√ Establishing a master plan for conservation, utilization, and management of the

4-2. Governance and Management

4-2-1. Ministry of Environment

management plan agent Year

management Plan for Ecosystem Conservation area ministry of Environment 1999

management Plan for Upo Wetland Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation area ministry of Environment 2002

management Plan for Upo Wetland Protected area ministry of Environment 2003

management Plan for Wetland Protected area ministry of Environment 2006

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Table 7 Researches on Upo Wetland

Local government – The local authorities of Gyeongsangnam-do and its administrative district Changnyeong-gun established a management framework (Table 8). as Gyeongsangnam-do held the 2008 RamsaR Convention, it raised public awareness of the wetland’s ecosystems and conservation. The local authorities make efforts to manage Upo Wetland sustainably, including constructing a eco-park and a wetland center and planning restoration projects such as the Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon) project.

In 2007, the local government carried out various policies based on its management framework, which includes restoration plans (wetland ecosystem rehabilitation, major species rehabilitation, habitation management), the establishment of a National Wetland Center, support programs for local residents, and fundraising for wetland conservation.

4-2-2. Local authorities

Upo Wetland Protected area√ making basic plans and presenting how to raise funds and secure resources for

the establishment of management facilities√ suggesting solutions to minimize the locals’ inconvenience√ monitoring and maintaining the protected area

The ministry of Environment (moE) designated Upo Wetland as a natural ecosystem monitoring site of the Nakdong River Basin Environmental Office in 1996. since then, the monitoring of this wetland has been conducted by the office and NIER. The monitoring takes place four times a year in each season. Closely monitored acts include illegal gathering and taking rare flora and fauna. Eight natural ecosystem guides were employed to conserve the area. Efforts are also being made to eliminate invasive alien species such as Nutrias, Blue Gills, and Largemouth Basses. In 2009, the office captured 91 Nutrias, 50,748 Blue Gills, and 69,579 Largemouth Basses in the area. NIER has carried out detailed scientific research on the wetland.

Ecosystem survey agent Year

survey on Ecosystem of Upo Wetland ministry of Environment 1987

survey on Natural Resources of Upo Wetland ministry of Environment/ National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) 2006

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Figure 49. Nutria caught by rangers. Photo: S. Han

although Changnyeong-gun is a very small district, it is the only local county in Korea that runs its own ecotourism department, which indicates that Upo Wetland possesses a high value as an eco-tourism site. This could be a good opportunity for the authorities to promote the local tourism industry and develop related projects.

Changnyeong-gun purchases private land within the protected area with support of moE. To manage it effectively, six rangers and guards work on a regular basis while wetland cleaning boats are operated (moE 2003, Gyeongsangnam-do 2007, Choi 2008).

The local authorities (Gyeonsangnam-do and Changnyeong-gun) have made efforts to get rid of alien species. The locals are offered compensations for capturing Largemouth Bass and Blue Gills (Figure 48). Nutrias are one of the target species that Upo Wetland rangers should catch (Figure 49).

Figure 48. Encouraging local people to fish Largemouth Bass and Blue Gill. Photo: S. Han

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The population of Changnyeong-gun has been decreasing since the 1980’s, only to be 61,603 in 2009 (Changnyeong-gun 2009). Local residents cultivate rice using introduced greenfarming techniques (40% of adjacent rice paddy areas) which apply husks of rice instead of fertilizer (Figure 50).

Because most of the land surrounding Upo Wetland is in the form of rice paddy, the high amount of fertilizer used in those areas may pollute adjacent areas seriously. Eco-friendly cultivation techniques would be less harmful to this wetland’s biota. Certificated organic rice could also boost the locals’ income.as for fishing, only nine residents are permitted in an effort to minimize possible damage by overfishing to the aquatic ecosystem. The local communities also actively participate in various eco-tourism activities such as helping visiting students experience fishing boat rides and craft art with rice straws.

Residents also participate in conservation of Upo Wetland as a ranger (Figure 51). They monitor illegal capturing of wildlife such as fish and river snails, dumping waste, and damaging forests and rivers around the wetland.

Table 8 Research on Upo Wetland conducted by the local government

4-2-3. Residents

Figure 50. Greenfarming area. Photo: S. Han

activities on Upo Wetland agent Year

Upo Wetland Ecopark Plan Changnyeong-gun 1999

masterplan for Upo Wetland Conservation and Rehabilitation Gyeongsangnam-do 2007

Wetland Protection Plan of Gyeonsangnam-do Changnyeong-gun 2006

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Figure 51. Local residents participating in Upo Wetland conservation. Photo: S. Han

The Korea Federation for Environmental movements Changnyeong (KFEmC) has been worked for Upo Wetland ecosystem conservation since the 1990s. KFEmC activities are making efforts such as observation of illegal poaching, education of environment conservation and wetland ecology. The KFEmC plays a role in higher awareness of the Upo Wetland value and holding discussions with stakeholders (Gyeongsangnam-do 2007).

Green Upo Friends was established to conserve Upo Wetland in 1997. major activities are patrolling around wetland, publishing materials of environment protection, feeding migratory birds, and operating education programs for students and tourists. Green Upo Friends has carried out educational programs with the wetland’s nature learning centers (Figure 52). Water gardens to observe aquatic plants, wetland experience fields, and audiovisual education rooms are provided to raise awareness of Upo Wetland’s formation, ecology, and plants and animals (http://www.woopoman.co.kr).

supporter’s association for Rehabilitation of Crested Ibis has conducted activities for reintroduction of Crested Ibis 2007. It has also urged businesses to participate in wetland conservation to build environmental infrastructure. This NGO’s major activities include supporting the establishment of habitats for Crested ibis and other birds, cleaning up trashes, developing eco-tour projects for children and purchasing agricultural projects from Upo Wetland (Gyeongsangnam-do 2007).

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Figure 52. Upo Wetland’s nature learning centers operated by Green Upo Friends (http://www.woopoman.co.kr).

Figure 53. Development of brand for local product (Crested Ibis rice) (http://www.daogissal.com).

The local government helps the purchase of rice by increasing brand awareness (Figure 53). It encourages the eco-friendly farming and gives incentives to residents. The plan made by the local government to promote the residents to use areas around Upo Wetland focuses on conserving the ecosystem. It includes organizing village festivals using rare wetland plants, developing tourism resources and products, applying valuable wetland biological resources, purchasing traditional food, running cooperative programs for stakeholders, operating eco-residence, offering systematical compensation to the locals, and introducing a biodiversity management system (Gyeongsangnam-do 2007).

The local authorities in Changnyeong-gun joined a project under the biodiversity management agreement to supply food and shelter to migratory birds (sep. 2008 - apr. 2009). according the project, efforts were made to reduce the use of pesticides and leave some rice straws to feed migratory birds during the winter.

4-3. Incentive Measures

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Biodiversity Management AgreementsContract concluded between ministry of Environment (or central/local government) and residents for conservation of biodiversity in ecologically valuable areas. Government compensates the residents’ loss following implementation of contract.

The Natural Environment Conservation act 37 (Biodiversity management agreements) contains the activities for biodiversity conservation as following:

1) change of cultivation methods2) decrease of chemical consumption3) creation of wetlands4) methods for management of land

and includes following areas:1) an area necessary for protection of endangered wild fauna and flora;2) an area where promotion of biological diversity is needed; and3) an area where biological diversity is peculiar or excellent.

aug. 1997 Foundation of Biodiversity management agreements2000-2001 Development of standard and details2002 Demonstrative contracts concluded in 3 cities/counties

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Figure 54. Upo Wetland Ecosystem Pavilion. Photos: S. Han (top) and Y. K. Shin (bottom)

most visitors to Upo Wetland visit its Ecosystem Pavilion (Figure 54). It was established as part of the Wetland Eco-Park project, and opened in January 2008. as the 10th COP of RamsaR was held in Gyeongsangnam-do, many people visited this pavilion, where various exhibitions are offered to show the wetland’s wildlife and ecosystem. Furthermore, education programs to help understand the ecosystem were developed for students (Figure 55). In 2008, 156,000 visitors came in, while 105,000 in 2009, and 107,500 in 2010 were reported. In 2008, the year of RamsaR COP 10, a relatively high number of people visited the pavilion. It is managed by Changnyeong-gun, and about 20 staff members are working there including one manager, one principal, one researcher and two government officers (http://www.upo.or.kr).

4-4. Education and Public Awareness

4-4-1. Upo Wetland Ecosystem Pavilion

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Figure 55. Education program for elementary students. Photo: S. Han

Figure 56. Upo Education Center. Photos: S. Han (top) and M. H. Suh (bottom)

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Figure 57. Wetland conservation education. Photos: M. H. Suh (top) and S. Han (bottom)

Upo Education Center was founded in 2007 to run learning programs of the wetland ecosystem (Figure 56). In 2008, it was reconstructed by the local education authorities. Because the center’s programs are included in public education, 18,000 elementary students per year come and learn about the ecosystem of Upo Wetland from the field experience course (Figure 57) (http://www.upo.or.kr).

4-4-2. Upo Education Center

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Literature cited

Bae, Y.J., S.I. Jo, D.H. Hoeng, H.G. Lee, & K.B. Na. 2004. Biodiversity and community composition of benthic macroinvertebrates from Upo Wetland. Korean Journal of Environmental Ecology 18(1): 75-91. Cho, D.S., T.B. Choi, H.Y. Heo, K.H. Yook, J.H. Lim, & W.H. Lee. 2008. Natural Protected Areas of Republic of Korea. 526p. Korean Protected areas Forum.Choi, T.B. 2009. The Upo Wetland. In: Ramsar Sites of the World. 97p., ministry of Environment (moE) Korea. Hansol Printing, seoul, Korea.Choi, T.B. & K.H. Yook. 2008. A Guide to Wetlands Protection Areas in Korea. 112p. ministry of Environment (moE) and ministry of Land, Transport and maritime affairs, Korea.Green Upo Friends (http://www.woopoman.co.kr)Gyeongsangnam-do. 2007. Masterplan for Upo Wetland Conservation and Rehabilitation.[KEI] Korea Environment Institute. 2008. Economic Value Assessment of Wetlands in Korea. UNDP/GEF National Wetland Center, Korea.Lockwood, M. 2006. management planning. In: Lockwood, m., G.L. Worboys, & a. Kothari (eds.), Managing Protected Areas- A Global Guide. 802p. Earthscan, London, UK.[MoE] Ministry of Environment, Korea. 1987. Survey Ecosystem of Upo Wetland.[MoE] Ministry of Environment, Korea. 1999. Research on Establishment of Management Plans of Protected Areas.[MoE] Ministry of Environment, Korea. 2002. management Plan for Upo Wetland Ecosystem Conservation Area.[MoE] Ministry of Environment, Korea. 2009. Ramsar Sites of the World. 97p.[MoE and NIER] Ministr y of Environment and National Institute of Environmental Research, Korea. 2006. Survey on Wetland Protected Areas (2006), 467p.[MoE and NIER] Ministr y of Environment and National Institute of Environmental Research, Korea. 2009. Survey on National Natural Landscape.Jang, J.G. 2009. Healthy Wild Herbs and Vegetables. 834p. Nexus Books, seoul, Korea.Upo Wetland Cyber EcoPark (http://www.upo.or.kr)Upo Education Center (http://www.upo.or.kr)

Mt Makiling Forest Reserve :Protected Area of Longest History of

Biodiversity Studies in the Philippines

Appendix Tables

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List of the different tree species surveyed in the MFRTable 1

Species MFR Subwatershed

M-D C Tigbi G. Sipit

Acmena acuminatissima - - - +

Aglaia edulis + - - +

Ahernia glandulosa - + - -

Alangium chinense - - + -

Alstonia macrophylla + - - -

Alstonia scholaris + - - -

Aphanamixis polystachya - - + -

Archidendron clypearia - - + -

Ardisia pyramidalis - + - -

Arenga pinnata - - + -

Artocarpus ovatus - + - -

Artocarpus rubrovenius + + + +

Astronia cumingiana - - - +

Balakata luzonica + - - -

Bischofia javanica - - + -

Canarium asperum - + - +

Canarium calophyllum - - + -

Canarium hirsutum + - - -

Canarium luzonicum + - + -

Carallia brachiata - + - -

Caryota rumphiana var. philippinensis - - + +

Celtis luzonica + + + -

Chisocheton cumingianus ssp. cumingianus + + + -

Chisocheton pentandrus ssp. pentandrus + + + -

Cinnamomum mercadoi - - - +

Clausena anisum-olens - - + -

Dillenia philippinensis + - + -

Dillenia reifferscheidia - - - +

Diospyros blancoi + + -

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa + + - -

Diplodiscus paniculatus + + + +

Dracontomelon edule - + - -

Drypetes maquilingensis + - - -

Dysoxylum arborescens - - + +

Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum - - + -

Dysoxylum mollissimum subsp. mollissimum - - + -

Elaeocarpus monocera + - - -

Eleocarpus cumingii - - - +

Euonymus javanicus + - - -

Evodia confusa - + - -

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Ficus ampelas - + - -

Ficus botryocarpa + - - +

Ficus gul - + - -

Ficus irisana - + - +

Ficus linearifolia + - - +

Ficus magnoliifolia + - - -

Ficus nervosa + + + -

Ficus nota - - + -

Ficus satterthwaitei - + + +

Ficus septica - + - +

Ficus subcordata + + - -

Ficus variegata - - - +

Ficus variegata var. sycomoroides + + - -

Flacourtia rukam + - + -

Garcinia binucao - - + -

Garcinia dulcis - - + -

Gomphandra cumingiana - - - +

Gomphandra luzoniensis + - + -

Horsfieldia costulata - + - -

Kibatalia gitingensis - - - +

Kleinhovia hospita - + + -

Knema glomerata + + + -

Laportea luzonensis - + + +

Lithocarpus llanosii - - - -

Lithocarpus sulitii + - - -

Litsea garciae + - - +

Litsea glutinosa - + - -

Macaranga bicolor + - - -

Mangifera indica - - + -

Maranthes corymbosa - + - -

Mastixia philippinensis - + - -

Melanolepis multiglandulosa - + - -

Meliosma pinnata + + - -

Meliosma pinnata ssp. macrophylla - - -

Microcos stylocarpa - - + -

Mishocarpus sundaicus - + - +

Mitrephora lanotan - - + +

Myristica elliptica + - - -

Myristica philippinensis - + + +

Neolitsea microphylla - - + -

Neolitsea vidalii - - - +

Neonauclea bartlingii + - - -

Neonauclea calycina + - - -

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Neotrewia cumingii - + + +

Nephelium rambutan-ake + - - -

Oroxylum indicum - - + -

Osmelia philippina - - + -

Palaquium foxworthyi - - + +

Palaquium philippense - + + +

Papualthia lanceolata - - + -

Parashorea malaanonan + + - -

Pavetta indica - - - +

Pertusadina multifolia - - - +

Phaeanthus ebracteolatus - + - -

Pinanga insignis - - + -

Pisonia umbellifera + - - +

Platymitra arborea + - - -

Polyscias nodosa - + + -

Pometia pinnata forma repanda + - - -

Pouteria duclitan + - + -

Premna cumingiana - - - +

Prunus grisea + - - -

Pterocymbium tinctorium + + + +

Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus - - - +

Pterospermum obliquum - - - +

Sandoricum koetjape + - - +

Saurauia latibractea - + - +

Semecarpus cuneiformis - - + -

Semecarpus longifolius - + - -

Semecarpus philippinensis - + - -

Shorea guiso + - - -

Shorea polysperma - + - -

Sterculia comosa - + + -

Sterculia oblongata - - + +

Sterculia rubiginosa var. rubiginosa - - + -

Strombosia philippinensis + - + -

Swietenia macrophylla + - - +

Syzygium calubcob - - + +

Syzygium maquilingense - - - +

Syzygium nitidum - - + -

Syzygium subcaudatum - + - -

Toona calantas - + + -

Turpinia ovatifolia - + + +

Villebrunea trinervis - + + +

Voacanga globosa - - + -

Legend: M-D - Molawin-Dampalit, G. Sipit - Greater Sipit, C - Cambantoc,Red highlight - critically endangered, Orange highlight - vulnerable

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Summary of all undergrowth species in the MFRTable 2

Species MFR Subwatershed

M-D Cambantoc Tigbi G. Sipit

Aglaia argentea + - - -

Aglaia edulis + - + -

Aglaia elliptica - - - +

Aglaia rimosa - + + +

Ahernia glandulosa + - - -

Alocasia zebrina + + + -

Alpinia elegans - + - -

Amorphophallus konjac + + - -

Amorphophallus phaeniifolius - - + -

Amphineuron terminans - + + +

Anamirta cocculus + + + -

Anaxogorea luzonensis + - - +

Antidesma pleuricum - - - +

Aphanamixis polystachya + - - -

Arcangelisia flava - + - -

Ardisia clementis - + - -

Ardisia pyramidalis - + - +

Arenga pinnata + + + +

Artocarpus rubrovenius - + + +

Asplenium nidus - - - +

Astronia cumingiana - - - +

Begonia sp. + - - -

Buchanania nitida + - - -

Calamus merrillii + - + +

Calamus ornatus + + + -

Calamus usitatus + - - +

Calopogonium sp. - + - -

Caryota cumingii + - - -

Caryota rumphiana var. philippinensis + - - -

Celtis luzonica + + + +

Chisicheton cumingianus ssp. cumingianus + + - -

Chloranthus erectus + - - +

Cinnamomum mercadoi - - + +

Cleidion spiciflorum - + - -

Clerodendron quadriloculare - + - -

Coffea arabica - + - +

Connarus semidecandrus + + + -

Corymborkis veratrifolia - - - +

Cyanotis axillaris - + - -

Cyathea contaminans - - - +

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Cyclopeltis crenata - + + +

Cynometra ramiflora - - - +

Cyperus kyllingia - + + -

Daemonorops orchrolepis + - - -

Decliptera sp. - - + -

Dimorphocalyx luzoniensis + - - -

Dinochloa acutiflora - + + +

Dinochloa luconiae + - - -

Diospyros pilosanthera - - - +

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa + - -

Diplodiscus paniculatus - + + +

Donax cannaeformis + + + +

Dryptes maquilingensis + + - -

Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum + - - -

Dysoxylum arborescens + - - +

Dysoxylum mollissimum ssp. mollissimum - - + -

Elastostema sp. + - - -

Elatostema angustatum - - - +

Elatostema longifolium - - - +

Erythropalum scandens + - - -

Euonymous javanicus + - + +

Ficus ampelas - - + -

Ficus gul - + - -

Ficus nervosa ssp. pubinervis + - -

Ficus sp. - + + +

Freycenetia multiflora - - - +

Garcinia dulcis - - - +

Globba campsophylla + - - -

Gomphandra luzoniensis + - -

Grewia multiflora - + - -

Gymnacranthera farquhariana var. paniculata + - - -

Helmintostachys zeylanica - - - +

Heterospathe elata + - -

Homalomena philippinensis + + + +

Ixora longistipula + - - -

Laportea mayeniana - - + -

Leea aculeata - + - -

Leea philippinensis - - + -

Leea quadrifida - - - +

Leucosyke capitellata - + - -

Litsea garciae - - - +

Macaranga bicolor + - - -

Malaisia scandens - - - +

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Maranthes corymbosa - - - +

Medinilla setigera - - - +

Microcos stylocarpa + - + -

Micromelum minutum - - + -

Microsorium longissmum - + - +

Mikania cordata - + - -

Mucuna sericophylla + - - -

Neolitsea vidalii - - - +

Neotrewia cumingii + + + +

Nephelium rambutan-ake + - - -

Palaquium foxworthyi + - - +

Palaquium luzoniense - + - +

Palaquium philippense - - + +

Papualthia lanceolata + + + -

Parashorea malaanonan + + - -

Photos hermaphroditus + - - -

Pinanga insignis - - - +

Pinanga speciosa - + - -

Piper arborisedens - + - +

Piper interruptum var. loheri + + - +

Pisonia umbellifera - - + -

Planchonia spectabilis - - + -

Pneumatopteris nitidula + - - -

Pollia secundifolia - + + -

Portulaca oleracea - + + -

Pseuduvaria macgregori + - - -

Pteris ensiformis - + - -

Pterocymbium tinctorium + - -

Pterospermum celebicum - + + -

Raphidophora merrillii + + - -

Rodermachera pinnata - + - -

Schefflera blancoi + - - -

Selaginella cuppressina + - + +

Selaginella plana + + + +

Semecarpus cuneiformis - - + -

Shorea guiso + - - -

Strombosia philippinensis + + + +

Strophantus cumingii + - - -

Strychnos colubrina + - - +

Swietenia macrophylla - + - +

Symphorema luzonicum + - - -

Syzygium calubcob - - + -

Syzygium maquilingense - - - +

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Syzygium nitidum + - + -

Syzygium sp. + - - -

Terminalia foetidissima - - - +

Tetracera scandens - + + -

Tetrastigma harmandii + - + +

Tetrastigma loheri - - + -

Toona calantas + - - -

Trigonostemon philippinensis + - - -

Turpinia ovatifolia - - + -

Ventilago dichotoma + - - -

Voacanga globosa - + - -

Wikstroemia polyantha - + - -

Legend: M-D - Molawin-Dampalit, G. Sipit - Greater Sipit,Red highlight - critically endangered, Orange highlight - vulnerable

Listing of all forest undergrowth species, their relative density, frequency and importance value in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershedTable 3

Common Name Scientific Name Number RelativeDensity

RelativeFrequency

ImportanceValue

Abuab bagin Strophantus cumingii 1 0.862 1 1.862

Alopayi Homalomena philippinensis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Amlong Raphidophora merrillii 1 0.862 1 1.862

Anang Diospyros pyrrhocarpa 3 2.586 3 5.586

Anolang Papualthia lanceiolata 3 2.586 2 4.586

Anuping Gymnacranthera farquhariana var. paniculata 1 0.862 1 1.862

Apanang Neotrewia cumingii 2 1.724 1 2.724

Ayo Tetrastigma harmandii 1 0.862 1 1.862

Bagang aso Anaxogorea luzoniensis 5 4.310 3 7.31

Bagtikan Parashorea malaanonan 3 2.586 1 3.586

Balingayo Erythropalum scandens 1 0.862 1 1.862

Balitantan Buchanania nitida 1 0.862 1 1.862

Balukanag Chisocheton cumingianus ssp. cumingianus 2 1.724 3 4.724

Bamban Donax cannaeformis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Baraw-baraw Chloranthus erectus 2 1.724 2 3.724

Begonia Begonia sp. 1 0.862 1 1.862

Bikal babui Dinochloa luconiae 1 0.862 1 1.862

Devil’s toungue Amorphophallus konjac 1 0.862 1 1.862

Dugtong Photos hermaphroditus 1 0.862 1 1.862

Dungo Ficus nervosa ssp. pubinervis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Elatostema Elastostema sp. 1 0.862 1 1.862

Fern Pneumatopteris nitidula 1 0.862 1 1.862

Gabing tigre Alocasia zebrina 1 0.862 1 1.862

Guijo Shorea guiso 2 1.724 2 3.724

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Hamindang Macaranga bicolor 1 0.862 1 1.862

Igyo Dysoxylon gaudichaudianum 1 0.862 1 1.862

Iloilo Aglaia argentea 1 0.862 1 1.862

Kalantas Toona calantas 1 0.862 1 1.862

Kalimutain Dysoxylum arborescens 1 0.862 1 1.862

Kamariang gubat Selaginella plana 2 1.724 2 3.724

Kamuling Microcos stylocarpa 1 0.862 1 1.862

Kangko Aphanamixis polystachya 1 0.862 1 1.862

Kaong Arenga pinnata 6 5.172 3 8.172

Kapulasan Nephelium rambutan-ake 1 0.862 1 1.862

Katap Trigonostemon philippinensis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Kulispakatan Dimorphocalyx luzoniensis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Ligtang Anamirta cocculus 3 2.586 3 5.586

Limuran Calamus ornatus 3 2.586 3 5.586

Litlit Piper interruptum var. loheri 1 0.862 1 1.862

Luya-luyahan Globba campsophylla 2 1.724 2 3.724

Mabunot Gomphandra luzoniensis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Magabuyo Celtis luzonica 5 4.310 3 7.31

Makaasim Syzygium nitidum 1 0.862 1 1.862

Malasaging Aglaia edulis 3 2.586 1 3.586

Malasangki Euonymus javanicus 1 0.862 1 1.862

Mayanman Ixora longistipula 1 0.862 1 1.862

Molawin bagin Symphorema luzonicum 2 1.724 2 3.724

Nipay Mucuna sericophylla 1 0.862 1 1.862

Oonog Ahernia glandulosa 1 0.862 1 1.862

Pakpak tutubi Ventilago dichotoma 3 2.586 3 5.586

Palasan Calamus merrillii 4 3.448 1 4.448

Panggaguason Pseuduvaria macgregori 1 0.862 1 1.862

Pugahan Caryota cumingii 1 0.862 1 1.862

Saguisi Heterospathe elata 1 0.862 1 1.862

Sainat Schefflera blancoi 1 0.862 1 1.862

Sandalino Connarus semidecandrus 1 0.862 1 1.862

Selaginella Selaginella cupressina 1 0.862 1 1.862

Strychnos vine Strychnos colubrina 1 0.862 1 1.862

Sumulid Daemonorops orchrolepis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Syzygium Syzygium sp. 1 0.862 1 1.862

Tagotoi Palaquium foxworthyi 1 0.862 1 1.862

Takipan Caryota rumphiana var. philippinensis 1 0.862 1 1.862

Taluto Pterocymbium tinctorium 1 0.862 1 1.862

Tamayuan Strombosia philippinensis 7 6.035 4 10.034

Tandulang parang Calamus usitatus 1 0.862 1 1.862

Tinaang pantai Drypetes maquilingensis 4 3.448 4 7.448

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Macrofungi recorded from sampling plots in Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed,June-July 2009Table 4

Sample Plot

Elevation(masl)

No. of Species

Fungal Species Encountered Morphological Description Ecological and Economic Function

1 315 4 Xylaria Finger like fruits otherwise known as dead man’s finger that is leathery, grayish to dark gray.

Decomposer of dead branches, stumps and logs.

Auricularia Light brown gilled mushroom, gelatinous ear- shaped with shiny, smooth, and slimy texture

Decomposer of woody material. Commercially produced as edible fungi.

Microsporus Leathery fruits with light brown cap having concentric circle on top. Basically smaller than Polystictus that has stalk attached to woody substrate and other forest litter.

Decomposer of woody forest litter.

Polystictus Quite similar with fruiting body of Microsporus, except for longer stalk that is attached to woody substrate.

Decomposer of woody substrate, leathery feature makes it a good decoration material.

2 295 5 Amanita Mushroom type fungi with brittle light gray stalk and whitish gray cap that has gills underneath.

Mycorrhizal fungi associated with dipterocarps and other non- dipterocarp species. It also decomposes some other forest litter.

Ganodermasp. 2

Leathery and shiny brownish stalk that is irregularly- shaped with whitish cap on its margin

Decomposer group of fungi but collected as well because of compounds that can be extracted and mixed in coffee as medicine.

Cookeina Cap-shaped and leathery sporocarp varying in color from yellowish to orange and reddish.

Decomposer of forest litter and aesthetically beautiful because of colorful leathery cup

Pleurotus White fan- shaped sporocarp with wavy margin forming into cluster.

Decomposer of dead branch; edible.

Lepiota Non convex whitish cap, flat to depressed cap, smooth on entire margin

Decomposer of soil litter and considered edible in some local community.

3 370 6 Marasmius Fungi that grow on soil or litter, with gills underneath a convex- shaped cap

Bio-luminous and decomposer of forest litter

Cookeina Leathery cup- shaped fruits in varying colors (yellow to orange and red) that has stalk attached to substrate.

Decomposer of forest litter and aesthetically beautiful because of colorful leathery cup.

Polyporus Light brown fleshy fruiting body with rather tough polypores with a clearly defined cap

Decomposer twigs and logs

Ganodermasp. 1

Leathery dark brown to black fruiting body with light concentric design on cap that is elevated with a stalk

Decomposer of woody substrate

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List of fungal genera and their distribution in the sampling transects in the four subwatersheds in Mt Makiling Forest ReserveTable 5

Mycena Light brown cap, distant short lamella, free attachment to the stem

Decomposer of leaf litter and twigs

Trichaptum Whitish fruits usually attached flatly on substrate.

Favors dead branches as substrate

Fungal Genera Molawin-Dampalit Cambantoc Tigbi Greater Sipit

Agaricus + + - +

Amanita + - - -

Armillaria + - - -

Auricularia + + - -

Cantharellus + - + +

Cercospora - + - -

Cookeina + - - -

Corticium + + + +

Craterellus - + + -

Daldinia - - + -

Dasycypha + - - -

Dacrymyces - + - -

Fomes - - + -

Favolus - + - -

Ganoderma sp. 1 + - + +

Ganoderma sp. 2 + - - -

Geastreum - - - +

Hesterium - + - -

Hymenocarpus - + - -

Hymenocybe - + - -

Lacaria + - - -

Lepiota + - - -

Marasmius + + - -

Microsporus + - - -

Mycena + - - +

Peziza + - - -

Pholiota + - - -

Pleurotus + - - +

Polyporus + + + +

Polystictus + + + +

Poria - + + +

Ramaria - - - +

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Sarcoscypha + - - -

Scleroderma - - - +

Schizophyllum - - + -

Stemonitis - + + -

Sterium - + + +

Tremella - + - -

Trichaptum + - - -

Xylaria + + + +

Total 22 18 13 14

Alien or exotic species in the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve Table 6Species Family Plant Habit Primary Use Occurence

Acacia auriculiformis Fabaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW

Acacia mangium Fabaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW

Aleurites moluccana Euphorbiaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW,CW

Amherstia nobilis Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Tree Nuts DMW

Annona atemoya Annonaceae Tree Fruit DMW

Annona muricata Annonaceae Tree Fruit AW

Annona reticulata Annonaceae Tree Fruit DMW,CW

Annona squamosa Annonaceae Tree Fruit DMW,CW

Antidesma bunius Phyllanthaceae Tree Fruit AW

Araucaria bidwillii Araucariaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Araucaria columnaris Araucariaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Araucaria heterophylla Araucariaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Archantophoenix alexandriae Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW

Artocarpus altilis Moraceae Tree Fruit DMW,CW

Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae Tree Fruit AW

Averrhoa bilimbi Oxalidaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Averrhoa carambola Oxalidaceae Tree Food condiments, Fruit

DMW,TW,CW

Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Bambusa blumeana Poaceae Bamboo Furniture AW

Bambusa spinosa Poaceae Bamboo Furniture AW

Bambusa vulgaris Poaceae Bamboo Reforestation sp. AW

Bauhinia blackeana Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Bauhinia monandra Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Bixa orellana Bixaceae Tree Food coloring DMW,TW,CW

Broussonetia papyrifera Moraceae Tree Fiber DMW,CW

Brownea grandiceps Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Butea monosperma Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

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Caesalpinia coriaria Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW,CW

Caladium bicolor Araceae Tree Ornamental DMW,TW,CW

Calliandra calothryrsus Fabaceae Tree Firewood DMW

Calliandra haematocephala Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Calliandra portoricensis Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Callistemon citrinus Myrtaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Canna coccinea Cannaceae Vine Ornamental DMW,CW

Carica papaya Caricaceae Herb Ornamental AW

Carludovica palmata Cyclanthaceae Herb Ornamental DMW

Cassia fistula Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Cassia fruticosa Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Cassia spectabilis Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Castilloa elastica Moraceae Tree Exudates DMW

Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae Herb Ornamental DMW,CW,TW

Cavanillesia hylogeiton Malvaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Cedrela odorata Meliaceae Tree Wood DMW

Ceiba pentandra Malvaceae Tree Fiber AW

Centrosema pubescens Fabaceae Vine Nitrogen fixing AW

Chloroxylon swietenia Rutaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Shrub Fodder AW

Cinnamomum camphora Lauraceae Tree Camphor DMW

Citrofortunella microcarpa Rutaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Clitoria racemosa Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Coccinea grandis Cucurbitaceae Vine Food DMW,TW,CW

Cochlospermum vitifolium Cochlospermaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Coffea arabica Rubiaceae Tree Coffee beans DMW,TW,CW

Coffea robusta Rubiaceae Tree Coffee beans DMW,TW,CW

Coix lachryma-jobi Poaceae Herb Ornamental DMW

Colocasia esculentum Araceae Herb Food AW

Crescentia cujeta Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Herb Food condiments DMW,TW,CW

Cyperus flabelliformis Cypreraceae Sedge Ornamental DMW,CW

Cyrtostachys renda Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW

Dalbergia conchinchinensis Fabaceae Tree Wood DMW

Dalbergia latifolia Fabaceae Tree Wood DMW

Delonix regia Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW,CW

Dieffenbachia amoena Araceae Herb Ornamental AW

Dieffenbachia maculata Araceae Herb Ornamental AW

Dillenia suffructicosa Dilleniaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW

Diospyros digyna Ebenaceae Tree Fruit DMW

Diospyros ehretioides Ebenaceae Shrub Wood DMW

Dracaena marginata Ruscaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW,CW

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Dracaena reflexa Ruscaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW,CW

Dracaena surculosa Ruscaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW

Dypsis lutescens Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW

Elaeis guineensis Arecaceae Palm Vegetable oil DMW

Enterolobium cyclocarpum Fabaceae Tree Tree DMW

Etlingera elatior Zingiberaceae Herb Ornamental DMW

Ficus benghalensis Moraceae Fig Ornamental DMW

Ficus pandurata Moraceae Fig Ornamental DMW

Flacourtia jangomas Salicaceae Tree Fruit DMW,CW

Garcinia mangostana Clusiaceae Tree Fruit DMW

Gliricidia sepium Fabaceae Tree Nurse tree AW

Gmelina arborea Lamiaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW,TW,CW

Grevillea robusta Proteaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW

Guazuma tomentosa Malvaceae Tree Fiber DMW

Hedychium coronarium Zingiberaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Heliconia angusta Heliconiaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Heliconia bihai Heliconiaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Heliconia humilis Heliconiaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Heliconia metallica Heliconiaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Heliconia plastachys Heliconiaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Heliconia psittacorum Heliconiaceae Herb Flower DMW, CW

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Malvaceae Shrub Ornamental AW

Hibiscus schizopetalus Malvaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW, CW

Hura crepitans Euphorbiaceae Tree Tree DMW

Hydnocarpus anthelminthica Achariaceae Tree Purgative seed DMW

Hymenaea courbaril Fabaceae Tree Tree DMW

Ixora chinensis Rubiaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW, CW

Jathropa curcas Euphorbiaceae Herb Biofuel additives DMW,TW,CW

Justicia brandegeana Acanthaceae Herb Ornamental DMW, CW

Justicia coccinea Acanthaceae Herb Ornamental DMW, CW

Lagerstroemia indica Lythraceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Lantana camara Verbenaceae Shrub Ornamental AW

Leucaena leucocephala Fabaceae Tree Firewood AW

Licuala grandis Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW

Ligustrum philippinensis Oleaceae Tree Wood DMW

Livistona chinensis Arecaceae Palm Ornamental AW

Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Tree Fruit AW

Manilkara sapota Sapotaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Maranta arundinacea Marantaceae Herb Food DMW, CW

Maranta arundinacea var. variegata Marantaceae Herb Food DMW

Mimosa pudica Fabaceae Herb Nitrogen fixing AW

Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Tree Food AW

Morus alba Moraceae Tree Sericulture sp. DMW, CW

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Muntingia calabura Muntingiaceae Tree Fruit AW

Musa ornata Musaceae Herb Ornamental DMW

Musanga cecropioides Urticaceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Nephelium lappaceum Sapindaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Nerium oleander Apocynaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Odontonema strictum Acanthaceae Herb Ornamental DMW, CW

Pandanus veitchii Pandanaceae Pandan Ornamental DMW

Parmentiera aculeata Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Parmentiera cereifera Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Passiflora edulis Passifloraceae Vine Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Paulownia tomentosa Pauloniaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW

Persea gratissima Lauraceae Tree Fruit AW

Philodendron lacerum Araceae Vine Ornamental DMW

Phoenix dactylifera Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW

Pilea microphylla Urticaceae herb Ground cover AW

Pisonia grandis Nyctaginaceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Tree Nuts DMW

Pithecellobium dulce Fabaceae Tree Fruit DMW

Platytcladus orientalis Cupressaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Plumiera rubra Apocynaceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Polyalthia longifolia Annonaceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Polyscias ornatum Araliaceae Shrub Ornamental DMW,CW

Pouteria rivicoa Sapotaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Tree Fruit AW

Ptychosperma macarthurii Arecaceae palm Ornamental DMW, CW

Punica granatum Lythraceae Tree Fruit DMW

Quassia amara Simaroubaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Rhapis excelsa Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW, CW

Rollinia mucosa Annonaceae Tree Fruit DMW

Roystonea regia Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW, CW

Ruellia tuberosa Acanthaceae Shrub Ornamental AW

Salacca zalacca Arecaceae Palm Ornamental DMW

Samanea saman Fabaceae Tree Wood DMW,TW,CW

Sandoricum koetjape Meliaceae Tree Fruit AW

Sanseviera trifasciata Ruscaceae Herb Ornamental DMW, CW

Sanseviera trifasciata var. laurentii Ruscaceae Herb Ornamental DMW, CW

Santalum album Santalaceae Tree Wood DMW

Saraca cauliflora Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Saraca declinata Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Schefflera actinophylla Araliaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Schizolobium parahybum Fabaceae Tree Ornamental DMW

Scindapsus aureus Araceae Herb Ornamental DMW,TW,CW

Sesbania grandiflora Fabaceae Tree Food DMW,TW,CW

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Siphokentia beguinii Arecaceae palm Ornamental DMW

Spathodea campanulata Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental AW

Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae Tree Wood DMW

Spondias purpurea Anacardiaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Swietenia macrophylla Meliaceae Tree Reforestation sp. AW

Swietenia mahogani Meliaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW

Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae Tree Fruit AW

Syzygium jambolana Myrtaceae Tree Fruit AW

Syzygium samarangense Myrtaceae Tree Fruit AW

Tamarindus indica Fabaceae Tree Fruit AW

Tectona grandis Lamiaceae Tree Reforestation sp. DMW,TW,CW

Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae Tree Wood DMW

Theobroma cacao Malvaceae Tree Fruit DMW,TW,CW

Thunbergia grandiflora Acanthaceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Tradescantia spathacea Commelinaceae Herb Ornamental DMW,TW,CW

Triplaris cumingiana Polygonaceae Tree Ornamental DMW, CW

Typhonium trilobatum Araceae Herb Ground cover AW

Urena lobata Malvaceae Shrub Fiber DMW,TW,CW

Zebrina pendula Commelinaceae Herb Ornamental DMW,TW,CW

Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Herb Spices DMW,TW,CW

Legend: AW – all subwatersheds, CW – Cambantoc subwatershed, DMW – Molawin-Dampalit subwatershed, TW – Tigbi subwatershed

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Alien/exotic species found only in the Molawin-Dampalit subwatershedTable 7Species Family Plant Habit Primary Use

Acacia auriculiformis Fabaceae Tree Reforestation sp.

Acacia mangium Fabaceae Tree Reforestation sp.

Amherstia nobilis Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Tree Nuts

Annona atemoya Annonaceae Tree Fruit

Araucaria bidwillii Araucariaceae Tree Ornamental

Araucaria columnaris Araucariaceae Tree Ornamental

Araucaria heterophylla Araucariaceae Tree Ornamental

Archantophoenix alexandriae Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Tree Ornamental

Bauhinia blackeana Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Bauhinia monandra Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Brownea grandiceps Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Butea monosperma Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Caesalpinia coriaria Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Calliandra calothryrsus Fabaceae Tree Firewood

Calliandra haematocephala Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Calliandra portoricensis Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Callistemon citrinus Myrtaceae Tree Ornamental

Carludovica palmata Cyclanthaceae Herb Ornamental

Cassia fistula Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Cassia fruticosa Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Cassia spectabilis Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Castilloa elastica Moraceae Tree Exudates

Cavanillesia hylogeiton Malvaceae Tree Ornamental

Cedrela odorata Meliaceae Tree Wood

Chloroxylon swietenia Rutaceae Tree Ornamental

Cinnamomum camphora Lauraceae Tree Camphor

Clitoria racemosa Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Cochlospermum vitifolium Cochlospermaceae Tree Ornamental

Coix lachryma-jobi Poaceae Herb Ornamental

Crescentia cujeta Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental

Cyrtostachys renda Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Dalbergia conchinchinensis Fabaceae Tree Wood

Dalbergia latifolia Fabaceae Tree Wood

Dillenia suffructicosa Dilleniaceae Shrub Ornamental

Diospyros digyna Ebenaceae Tree Fruit

Diospyros ehretioides Ebenaceae Shrub Wood

Dracaena surculosa Ruscaceae Shrub Ornamental

Dypsis lutescens Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Elaeis guineensis Arecaceae Palm Vegetable oil

Ap

pen

dix

Tab

les

238

Enterolobium cyclocarpum Fabaceae Tree Tree

Etlingera elatior Zingiberaceae Herb Ornamental

Ficus benghalensis Moraceae Fig Ornamental

Ficus pandurata Moraceae Fig Ornamental

Garcinia mangostana Clusiaceae Tree Fruit

Grevillea robusta Proteaceae Tree Reforestation sp.

Guazuma tomentosa Malvaceae Tree Fiber

Hura crepitans Euphorbiaceae Tree Tree

Hydnocarpus anthelminthica Achariaceae Tree Purgative seed

Hymenaea courbaril Fabaceae Tree Tree

Licuala grandis Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Ligustrum philippinensis Oleaceae Tree Wood

Maranta arundinacea var. variegata Marantaceae Herb Food

Musa ornata Musaceae Herb Ornamental

Nerium oleander Apocynaceae Tree Ornamental

Pandanus veitchii Pandanaceae Pandan Ornamental

Parmentiera aculeata Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental

Parmentiera cereifera Bignoniaceae Tree Ornamental

Paulownia tomentosa Pauloniaceae Tree Reforestation sp.

Philodendron lacerum Araceae Vine Ornamental

Phoenix dactylifera Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Tree Nuts

Pithecellobium dulce Fabaceae Tree Fruit

Platytcladus orientalis Cupressaceae Tree Ornamental

Punica granatum Lythraceae Tree Fruit

Quassia amara Simaroubaceae Tree Ornamental

Rollinia mucosa Annonaceae Tree Fruit

Salacca zalacca Arecaceae Palm Ornamental

Santalum album Santalaceae Tree Wood

Saraca cauliflora Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Saraca declinata Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Schefflera actinophylla Araliaceae Tree Ornamental

Schizolobium parahybum Fabaceae Tree Ornamental

Siphokentia beguinii Arecaceae palm Ornamental

Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae Tree Wood

Swietenia mahogani Meliaceae Tree Reforestation sp.

Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae Tree Wood

239

Ap

pen

dix Tab

les

Summary data on threatened flora in the MFRTable 8

1 : Only those trees located in the sampling plots in the subwatershed were used in the computation of Importance Value

Species NameConservation Status Respective Importance Value of Adult

Trees in the Different Subwatersheds1Importance Value as Undergrowth

DAO 2007-1

IUCN ver. 2.3

MolawinDampalit Cambantoc Tigbi GSW lowest

rangehighestrange

Tree Species

Aglaia edulis VU A1cd 2.599 - - 2.546 1.078 3.586

Artocarpus rubrovenius VU A1c VU A1d 2.627 12.365 6.646 2.541 1.078 1.637

Balakata luzonica VU A1cd VU A1cd 6.194

Celtis luzonica VU A1cd 29.976 36.404 10.975 - 1.184 16.489

Cinnamomum mercadoi VU A1c VU A1d - - - 6.385 2.142 3.999

Dillenia reifferscheidia VU A1c VU A1d - - - 10.94

Diospyros blancoi CR A1cd VU A1cd 10.836 3.619 -

Diospyros pilosanthera EN A1cd, B1+2ac

Diplodiscus paniculatus VU A1cd 46.442 92.273 44.364 12.13 5.793 23.399

Dracontomelon edule VU A1cd - 7.181 - -

Macaranga bicolor VU A1cd 2.994 - - - 1.862

Mitrephora lanotan VU A1c, B2c VU A1cd - - 1.754 2.635

Myristica philippinensis OTS VU A1c - 3.575 4.443 2.616

Palaquium philippense VU A1cd VU A1d - 2.478 1.754 9.042 1.078 3.551

Parashorea malaanonan CR A1cd 14.954 2.696 - - 1.637 3.586

Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus CR A1cd VU A1d - - - 10.5

Shorea polysperma VU A1cd CR A1cd - 5.784 - -

Shorea guiso CR A1cd 7.169 3.724

Syzygium nitidum CR A1cd

Toona calantas CR A1cd - 2.643 10.84 - 1.862

Undergrowth Species

Aglaia rimosa VU A1c - 4.486 1.078 1.632

Alocasia zebrina VU A1cd, B2c 1.862 1.636 1.078 -

Aphanamixis polystachya VU A1c VU A1cd 1.862 - - -

Asplenium nidus VU A1cd, B2c - - - 1.183

Cyathea contaminans VU A1cd - - - 2.367

Diospyros pilosanthera EN A1cd, B1+2ac - - - 1.183

Syzygium nitidum CR A1cd 1.862 - 1.078 -

Total Number of Species 12 11 11 14

240

Acknow

ledgements

Protected Areas in Southeast Asia – Rodrigo U. FuentesI thank Dr. Filiberto Pollisco Jr., Mr. Norman Ramirez, Dr. Monina Uriarte, and Ms. Rhia Galcim from the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity for their contributions, review of the manuscript, and for providing the photos for this chapter.

Protected Areas in Korea– Young Kyu Shin, Min Hwan Suh & Don Koo LeeWe are grateful to NIER colleagues, Dr. Jin Young Park, Mr. Huan Chuen Roh, Dr. Kwang Hee Choi, Dr. Jung Hyo Lee, Mr. Kwang-Sung Yun, Dr. Hee Nam Yoon, Ms. Yoonmi Kim and Mr. Pil Mo Jung for their courtesy of photos and information on protected areas. We want to express thanks to Jeju Special Self-Governing Province for their courtesy of nice photos of Jeju Island, a World Natural Heritage.

Mt Makiling Forest Reserve – Portia G. Lapitan, Nelson M. Pampolina & Manuel L. CastilloWe acknowledge the following for the support they provided during the conduct of the field surveys in the Mt Makiling Forest Reserve: Mr. Alfredo Alvarez, Mr. Tomas Bautista, and Ms. Susan Magsipoc from the Department of Forest Biological Sciences, CFNR; Mr. Nick Manlisis and For. Analyn Malayba from the Makiling Center for Mountain Ecosystems, and the field guides from Barangay Bagong Silang. Appreciation is also due to the following for the technical support: Dr. Ernesto Militante, Chair of the Department of Forest Biological Sciences and Mr. Manuel Baldovino and Mr. Phillip Alviola of the Museum of Natural History, UPLB.

Mt Pulag National Park – Edwino S. Fernando & Roberto P. CerenoWe are deeply grateful to the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR-CAR) of the Philippines, and its former and current Regional Executive Directors, Primitivo C. Galinato and Clarence Baguilat, respectively, and For. Reynald F. Yawan, DENR-CAR Regional Technical Director for Protected Areas and Wildlife Services for providing us assistance with this project. We give special thanks to Ms. Emerita B. Albas, Mt Pulag National Park Protected Area Superintendent (PASu) for helping facilitate our field research; Mr.

Acknowledgements

241

Ackn

owledgem

entsRoy Tello and Mr. Arlan Bugtong, Forest Rangers of the Mt Pulag National Park,

and the Mt Pulag Indigenous Guides Association, for their help with our field work. We especially acknowledge the following for allowing us to use their photographs of wildlife vertebrates from Mt Pulag: Mr. Danilo Balete (mammals), Mr. Nicky Icarangal (birds), and Mr. Adri Constantino (birds).

Upo Wetland – Saerom Han, Tae Bong Choi & Jae ho LeeWe want to express special thanks to Upo Wetland Ecosystem Pavillion, Upo Education Center, Changnyeong-gun, and Nakdong River Basin Environmental Office of MoE for preparing our visit and giving lots of information. We also thank the branch of Korea Federation for Environmental Movements in Changnyeong (KFEMC) and Green Upo Friends, and residents in Upo for their enthusiasm to conserve the ecosystem. We are also grateful to NIER colleagues, Mr. Hyun Chul Shin, Mr. Jae-Hwa Tho, Dr. Jin Young Park, Dr. Tae Young Choi, Dr. Myeongseop Byeon, Mr. Hoan Jin Jang, Ms. Jin-Kyung Choi, Mr. Sang Woo Jung and Mr. Youngjun Park for their courtesy of many plant and animal photos.

We are grateful to Dr. Seung-Joon Yoon, President of NIER and Dr. Gil-Jong Oh, Director General of Environmental Resources Research Department, NIER for their continuous interest and thoughtful consideration. We want to express thanks to Ms. Ji Seon Lee who helped us to finalize book printing. We also thank the other members of Nature Conservation Research Division, NIER for their help which made the authors concentrate on this project. Due appreciation is also given to Dr. Lucrecio L. Rebugio, Coordinator of AKECOP in the Philippines. We also thank our home institutions, the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER), Korea for allowing us time to work on this project.

242

Index Index

AAcacia auriculaeformis 99

Acacia mangium 99

Acerodon jubatus 150

Acmena acuminatissima 67

Acorus calamus var. angustatus 189

Actenoides 83

administrative zone 164

Agapanthia pilcornis 199

Agaricus 88

Ageratina adenophora 127, 158

Agkistrodon brevicaudus 196

Agkistrodon ussuriensis 196, 198

Aglaia edulis 53, 61, 62, 68

Aglaia elliptica 72

Aglaia rimosa 71

agroforestry 43

Ahernia glandulosa 55

Alcedo 83

Aleurites moluccana 99

alien pest species 153

Alocasia zebrina 68, 71

Amanita 87, 94, 95

Ambrosia artemisiifolia 203, 205

Ambrosia trifida 203, 205

Amerosporium 92

Amorphophallus 74

Amorphophallus paenifolius 72, 74

Amphinuerons terminans 66, 71

Ampullifera 92

Anamirta cocculus 68

Anas clypeata 192

Anas crecca 192

Anas formosa 192, 194

Anas platyrhynchos 192

Anas poecilorhyncha 192

Anas strepera 192

Anax Parthenope 198

Anaxogorea luzoniensis 66, 68

Anemone vitifolia 136, 146

Aniselytron agrostoides 147

Annona muricata 101

Anser albifrons 192

Anser fabalis 33, 192, 193

Anthocephalus chinensis 99

Antidesma bunius 101

Aphanamixis polystachya 65, 68

Apomys abrae 150

Apomys datae 150, 151

Apomys musculus 150

aquifers 51

Archboldomys kalinga 150

Arenga pinnata 66, 68, 75, 77, 78, 108

Armillaria 87

arthropod species 84

Artocarpus heterophyllus 101

Artocarpus rubrovenius 53, 57, 61-63, 65, 71, 72, 78

Ascodesmis 92

ASEAN Heritage Parks 15, 17-20

Aspergillus 92

Aster pilosus 205

Astronia cumingiana 67

Auricularia 87, 88, 91, 96

Azadirachta indica 99

BBaekdudaegan 25, 31, 32

Balakata luzonica 53

balobo-type forest 63

Bambusa blumeana 101

Bambusa spinosa 101

Bambusa vulgaris 101

Bauhinia monandra 99

Begonia oxysperma 72, 74

biodiversity conservation 15, 17, 122, 160, 216

biological diversity 15, 16, 216

biome 15

bioprospecting 106, 158

Biosphere Reserves 26, 34

biota 203, 213

bog 20, 131

Bombina orientalis 196

243

Index

Broussonetia papyrifera 100

Bubo philippensis 81, 116

buffer zone 43, 110, 160, 161, 164

Bufo 81

Bufo gaugauizans 196

Bullimus luzonicus 150

CCalamus merrillii 66, 71, 72

Caldera 19

Calotes marmoratus 81, 82

Canarium luzonicum 55, 65, 66

canopy 66, 68, 77, 78, 113

Cantharellus 91

Caprimulgus 83

Carassius auratus 200

Carex thunbergii var. appendiculata 189

Carica papaya 101

Carpomys melanurus 149-151

Cassia fistula 99

Castilloa elastica 99

Cedrela odorata 99

Ceiba pentandra 101

Celtis luzonica 53, 55-57, 63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72, 75, 77, 78, 114

Centrosema pubescens 101

Cephalosporium 92

Cervus mariannus 81, 82, 116, 150, 153

Channa argus 200, 202

Charadrius placidus 192

Chisocheton cumingianus ssp. cumingianus 55, 63, 64, 66

Chisocheton pentandrus 56, 66

Chisocheton pentandrus ssp. pentandrus 66

Chloranthus erectus 66, 72, 73

Chromolaena odorata 99-101, 158

Chrotomys silaceus 150, 152, 153

Chrotomys whiteheadii 150

Cinnamomum mercadoi 61, 62, 67, 72

Cipangopaludina chinensis 200, 202

Clethra canescens var. luzonica 136

closed canopy vegetation 72

Coccinea grandis 100

Coffea arabica 66, 71

Collocalia whiteheadii 154

Colocasia esculentum 101

Connarus semidecandrus 66

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 24, 38

Cookeina 87, 88, 96

Corticium 87-91, 93-96

Corvus frugilegus 192

County Parks 25, 26

Crateromys schadenbergi 149, 150

Critically Endangered (CR) / Critically Endangered species 53-55, 57, 61, 68, 76, 109, 114, 116, 122

Crocidura grayi 150, 153

crown gap 68

Curvularia 92

Cyathea contaminans 72

Cyathea fuliginosa 136, 143

Cygnus columbianus 192

Cygnus cygnus 192, 194

Cylindrocladium 92

Cynopterus brachyotis 84

Cyprinus carpio 196, 197, 200

Cyrtandra roseo-alba 72

DDacremyces 96

Dacrycarpus cumingii 135

Dacrycarpus steupii 135

Daeamsan (Mt) 28, 29

Daldinia 90

Danthonia oreoboloides 147, 148

Dasycypha 88

deforestation 15

Deschampsia flexuosa var. ligulata 147

Deyeuxia suizanensis var. stenophylla 147

Dicrurus balicassius balicassius 83

Dieffenbachia amoena 101

Dieffenbachia maculata 101

Dillenia reifferscheidia 58, 60-62, 67

Dinodon rufozonatus rufozonatus 196

Diospyros blancoi 53-55, 63, 65, 66, 114, 116

Diospyros pilosanthera 72, 116

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa 55, 66, 68

244

Index Ficus nervosa 56, 66

Ficus satterthwaitei 56, 66, 67

Ficus septica 58, 61, 66

Ficus subcordata 55, 56, 66

Fishery Resources Conservation Areas 25, 36, 37

Fomes 90, 94

Forest Genetic Resources Reserves 25, 35, 36

forest litter 86, 87, 93

Fulica atra 192

GGanoderma 87, 88, 90, 96, 97

Gaultheria borneensis 136, 145

Geastrum 94

genetic diversity 116

Geoclemys reevesii 196

Geotrichum 92

Gilmaniella 92

Gliocladium 92

Gliricidia sepium 99, 101

Gmelina arborea 99

Gnaphalium adnatum 136, 146

Gobius criniger 81

Gomphandra cumingiana 67

Grus japonensis 37

Gunnera macrophylla 136, 144

HHaplonycteris fischeri 81

Hedyotis microphylla 136

Hevea brasiliensis 99

Hexagona 90

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 101

Hippeutis cantor 199

Hipposideros ater 84

Hipposideros diadema 84

Hipposideros obscurus 84

holoparasitic plant 75

Homalomena philippinensis 77

Hopea foxworthyi 110

Horsfieldia costulata 56

Hosta plantaginea 192

Diplodiscus paniculatus 53, 55-58, 61-63, 65, 66, 71, 78, 108, 114

Diplonychus 199

dipterocarp species 55

DMZ 31, 36-38

Dolycoris baccarum 199

Donax cannaeformis 66, 71, 75, 77

Draco 81

Dracontomelon edule 57

Drypetes maquilingensis 66, 68, 70

dwarf bamboo 122, 131-133, 171, 173

EEchinocholoa crusgalli var. oryzicola 189

ecological network 31, 36

ecological stability 20Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation

Areas 25, 27, 28, 32El nino 87, 93, 110

Elaeocarpus argenteus 136, 140

Elaeocarpus cumingii 67

Elaphe dione 196

Elaphe rufodorsata 196

Elatostema angustatum 66, 72, 73

Elatostema longifolium 66, 72

Emballonura alecto 84

Emericeriopsis 92

Endangered (EN) / Endangered species 25, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 37, 58, 60, 68, 109, 122, 149, 180, 181, 188, 192, 196

Erythrura viridifacies 154

estuarine 19

estuary 37

Eupatorium rugosum Houtt 205

Eurotium 92

Euryale ferox 188, 189, 191, 192

ex situ 99

FFalcataria mollucana 99

Falco subbuteo 192

Favolus 91

Ficus 66, 71

Ficus botryocarpa 67

245

IndexIn

dex

Litsea garciae 67

Livistona chinensis 101

Lutra lutra 33

Lychnuris rufa 198

Lygosoma smaragdinum 81

MMacaca fascicularis 81, 150, 153

Macaranga bicolor 53, 67

macroinvertebrate 181, 199

Mangifera indica 51, 101

Marasmius 87, 88, 91, 96

marine 15, 19

marsh 19, 131, 180, 181, 185, 206, 208, 209

Medinilla cordata 136, 138

Medinilla magnifica 60, 72, 76, 109

Medinilla whitfordii 136, 137

Megaderma spasma 83, 84

Melastoma bensonii 136, 142

Micromelum minutum 66, 71

Microporus 87

Micropterus salmoides 196, 203, 205

Microsorium longissmum 66, 72

migratory bird 31, 180, 185, 208, 209, 214, 215

Mikania cordata 67, 99

Mimosa pudica 99, 101

Miniopterus australis 84

Miscanthus sacchariflorus 188, 189

Miscanthus sinensis 127

Mitrephora lanotan 61, 62

Mnesithea rottboellioides 127

Mogera wogura 195

Moniliela 92

Moojechineup 29

Moringa oleifera 101

Moschus moschiferus 37

Mt Akiki 122, 123, 126, 130, 134

Mt Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR) 16, 41

Mt Panotoan 122, 123, 127, 128, 130, 131, 134, 159, 168

Mt Pulag National Park 16, 121

Mt Tabeyoc 122-124, 128, 130, 131, 134, 157, 159

Mucor 92

Hura crepitans 99

Hydrocharis dubia 188, 189, 191

Hydropotes inermis 195

Hyla japonica 196

Hymenochaete 98

Hynobius leechii 196, 197

Hypericum pulogense 147, 148

Hypochaeris radicata 205

IImperata cylindrica 127

Imperata cylindrica 99

in situ 99

indigenous species 203

invasive alien species 14, 158, 203, 211

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 82

JJirisan (Mt) 26, 28, 31

Justicia brandegeana 100

Justicia coccinea 100

KKaloula borealis 196

Kleinhovia hospita 67

Knema glomerata 55, 56, 67

LLacaria 88

lacustrine 19

lagoon 19, 37

Lantana camara 67, 99, 101, 158

Laportea luzonensis 58, 63, 66

Lentinus 87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 97

Lepiota 87, 88

Lepomis macrochirus 203, 205

Leptospermum flavescens 136

Lepus coreanus 195

Leucaena leucocephala 99, 101

Lithocarpus jordanae 135

Lithocarpus luzoniensis 135

Lithocarpus woodii 135

246

Index Paradoxornis webbianus 192

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus 150

Parafossarulus manchouricus 199

Paraserianthes falcataria 99

Parashorea malaanonan 53, 54, 55, 66, 68, 70, 114, 116

Parus 83

Paspalum distichum 205

Paspalum distichum var. indutum 205

Pavetta indica 67

peat 131

Pelodiscus sienesis 196

Penicillium 92

Periconia 92

Persea gratissima 101

Peziza 87

Phapitreron 83

Philautus surdus 82, 83, 116

Phloeomys cumingi 81

Phloeomys pallidus 150, 153

Phragmites communis 188, 189

Phyllocladus hypophyllus 135

Phyllosticta 92

Phyton 81

Pilea microphylla 101

Pinus kesiya 126, 127, 135

pioneer element 136

Pipistrellus tenuis 150

Pisonia umbellifera 55, 66

Pitta kochi 154

Platalea leucorodia 192

Platalea minor 37

Platanus occidentalis 203

Pleurotus 87, 88, 94

Polygonia c-aureum 199

Polyporus 87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 95, 98

Polyscias nodosa 67

Polystictus 87, 88, 90, 91, 94-96

Populus deltoids 203

Populus euramericana 188, 189, 203

Poria 89-91, 96

Prionailrus benglensis 195, 196

Provincial Parks 25, 26

Prumnopitys amara 135

Mudspring 43, 44, 49, 53, 107

Muljarus japonicas 199

Muntingia calabura 101

Mussaenda philippica 74

Musseromys 150

Mustela sibirica 195

Mycena 87

Myocastor coypus 203, 205

Myristica philippinensis 57, 61-63, 65

NNaemorhedus caudatus 31

Nakdonggang (River) Estuary 28, 29

National Parks 20, 25, 26, 32

natural invasion 100

Natural Monuments 25, 33, 34

nature parks 25, 26, 32

Nature Reserves 25, 33, 34

Nelumbo nueifera 188, 189

Neolitsea megacarpa 136, 141

Neolitsea vidalii 67

Neotrewia cumingii 58, 63, 66, 72, 75, 77, 78

Nertera granadensis 136, 145

Nipponia nippon 211

Nyctreutes procyonoides 195

Nymphoides peltata 188, 189, 192

OOdontonema strictum 100

Oedecephalum 92

Omalanthus fastuosus 136, 139

ornamental species 200

PPachycephala 83

Paecilomyces 92

Palaquium foxworthyi 63

Palaquium philippense 57, 58, 61, 62, 64, 65

palustrine 20

Panus 90, 91, 98

Papilio benguetanus 154

Papilio chikae 154

247

Index

Russula 94

Ryssota otaheitana 81, 84, 86, 116

SSalix chaenomeloides 188

Salix gilgiana 188

Salix glandulosa 188, 189

Salvinia natans 188-190

Samanea saman 99

Sandoricum koetjape 101

Sarcocheilichthys nigripinnis morii 196, 197

Saurauia elegans 136, 140

Saurauia latibractea 67

scenic sites 25, 33, 34

Scirpus fluviailis 189

Scirpus maritimus 192

Scirpus pulogeuse 147

Scirpus triqueter 188

Scleroderma 94, 95

Scytallidium 92

Securinega fleuxosa 116

Selaginella plana 75, 77, 78

Senna spectabilis 99

Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index 114

Shorea guiso 55, 68, 116

Shorea polysperma 57

Sicyos angulatus 205

Solanum carolinense 205

Solidago altissima 205

Spathodea campanulata 101

Spathoglottis 74

Special Islands 25, 30, 31

Special Wildlife Protection Areas 32

Spirodela polyrhiza 188, 189, 191

spring 43, 50, 51, 123

Squalidus chankaensis tsuchigae 196

Squalidus gracilis majimae 196

Stachybotrys 92

Stachyris 83

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 67

Sterculia comosa 63, 67

Sterculia oblongata 67

Stereum 90, 97

Psidium guajava 101

Ptenochirus jagori 84

Pteridium aquilinum var. wightianum 127

Pterocarpus indicus for. indicus 58, 61, 62, 116

Pterocymbium celebicum 55

Pterocymbium tinctorium 56, 63, 65, 66, 78

Pteropus vampyrus 150

Ptilinopus marchei 153, 154

Pycnonotus 83

Pythium 92

RRafflesia manillana 75, 76, 77, 102, 109

Ramaria 94

RAMSAR 19-21, 29, 30, 38, 180, 208, 211, 217

Rana amuriensis coreana 196

Rana catesbeiana 196, 203-205

Rana huanrenensi 196

Rana magna 81

Rana nigromaculata 196, 198

Rana rugosa 196

Rattus everetti 150

Rattus exulans 153, 158

Rattus tanezumi 153, 158

recreational zone 164

reforestation 61, 98-101, 162

rehabilitation 61, 100, 125, 211, 213

Rhabdophis tigrinus tigrinus 196

Rhinilopus arcuatus 150

Rhinolophus arcuatus 84

Rhinomyias insignis 154

Rhipidura 83

Rhizoctonia 92

Rhizopus 92Rhododendron quadrassianum var.

rosmarinifolium 136, 142Rhododendron subsessile 136, 143, 144

Rhododendron taxifolium 136, 139

Rhyacornis bicolor 153-155

Rhynchomys soricoides 150, 152, 153

Rousetus amplexicaudatus 84

Ruellia tuberosa 101

Rumex acetosella 205

248

Index U

undergrowth species 66, 68, 69, 75-79

understory 68, 71-75

Upo Wetland 29, 181

Urusus thibetanus ussuricus 31

Utricularia japonica 188

VVaccinium indutum 136, 141

Varanus 81

Verticillium 92

Viburnum odoratissimum 136, 137

Viverra tagalunga 81

Vulnerable (VR) / Vulnerable species 53, 55, 57, 61-66, 68, 71, 81, 122, 149, 154

Vulpes vulpes 37

Wwatershed 31, 42, 58, 61, 102, 112, 123, 125

watershed management 112

Wetland Protected Areas 25, 29

Wildlife Protection Areas 25, 32, 33

World Conservation Congress (WCC) 24

XXylaria 87, 88, 90, 91, 95, 96

YYongneup of Daeamsan (Mt) 29

Yushania niitakayamensis 131, 147

ZZamenis spinalis 196

Zizania latifolia 188-190, 192

Sterium 89, 91, 94, 98

Strombosia philippinensis 66, 68, 71, 75, 77, 78

Strongylodon macrobotrys 45, 47, 68, 76, 77, 109

subwatershed 42, 43, 45, 49

Suncus murinus 150

Sus philippensis 150, 153

Sus philippinensis 81, 82, 116

sustainable development 160

sustainable management 17, 112

Swietenia macrophylla 58, 61, 66, 99, 100, 101

Swietenia mahogani 99

Syzygium alvarezii 58, 67

Syzygium besukiense 136

Syzygium cumini 101

Syzygium jambolana 101

Syzygium maquilingense 58, 59, 66, 67, 114, 116

Syzygium nitidum 63-65, 68, 116

Syzygium samarangense 101

TTakydromus amurensis 196

Takydromus auroralis 196

Takydromus wolteri 196

Tamarindus indica 101

Taxus sumatrana 135, 158

Tectona grandis 99

terrestrial herb 136, 144

Tetrastigma harmandii 76, 77

Themeda triandra 127

Thunbergia grandiflora 100

Toona calantas 57, 63, 65-67, 114, 116

Torula 92

Tracgemys scrigta 203, 204

Trachemys scripta elegans 196, 205

Transboundary Protected Areas 16, 18

Trapa japonica 188-190, 192

Tremella 91

Trichoderma 92

Trigonostemon philippense 66

Triplaris cumingiana 99, 100

Turpinia ovatifolia 56, 58, 66

Typhonium trilobatum 101