barbados country assessment of living conditions 2010 vol 2

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Barbados Country Assessment of Living

Conditions 2010

Volume 2:

A Macroeconomic and Social Assessment

of Barbados: 1995-2010

Submitted to the Government of Barbados, National

Assessment Team (NAT) and The Caribbean Development

Bank (CDB) on behalf of the Team of Consultants (TOC)

Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies

(SALISES)

University of the West Indies

Cave Hill Campus, Barbados

July 2012

Barbados Macroeconomic and Social Assessment 2010

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research assistance provided by Annette Greene, Alice Walters and Doris Downes is greatly appreciated. The

comments provided by Dr Janice Cumberbatch, Colin Williams and the staff of the Caribbean Development

Bank and the Ministry of Social Care, the National Assessment Team (NAT), the steering committee, the various

Ministries and the general public at the various consultations were taken on board.


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Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions 2010:

A Macroeconomic and Social Assessment of Barbados: 1995-2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1

2. Development Strategies and Policies .......................................................................................... 3

2.1. Development Strategies ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.2. Policy Framework ................................................................................................................................ 5

3. Growth Performance and Structural Change ............................................................................... 8

3.1. Growth Performance ............................................................................................................................ 8

3.2. Structural Change ................................................................................................................................. 9

3.2.1 Agriculture and Fisheries .............................................................................................................. 9

3.2.2 Manufacturing ............................................................................................................................ 10

3.2.3 Tourism ...................................................................................................................................... 11

3.2.4 International Financial and Business Services ............................................................................. 12

4. Macroeconomic Environment .................................................................................................. 14

4.1. Balance of Payments .......................................................................................................................... 14

4.2. Fiscal Balance .................................................................................................................................... 14

5. Labour Market Dynamics ......................................................................................................... 16

5.1. Labour Supply .................................................................................................................................... 16

5.2. Employment ....................................................................................................................................... 18

5.3. Unemployment ................................................................................................................................... 21

6. Social Sector Developments ..................................................................................................... 23

6.1. Education Sector ................................................................................................................................ 23

6.1.1 A Historical Overview of Education in Barbados ........................................................................ 24

6.1.2 Expenditure on Education and Supporting Infrastructure ............................................................. 25

6.1.3 Physical Infrastructure ................................................................................................................ 26

6.1.4 Human Resources ....................................................................................................................... 27

6.1.5 School Curriculum and Enrolment .............................................................................................. 29

6.1.6 Output of the Education System .................................................................................................. 37

6.2. Health Conditions ............................................................................................................................... 42

6.2.1 Objectives of the Health Sector ................................................................................................... 42


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6.2.2 Health Infrastructure ................................................................................................................... 43

6.2.3 Public Expenditure on Health ...................................................................................................... 43

6.2.4 Human Resources ....................................................................................................................... 44

6.2.5 Pharmaceutical Program ............................................................................................................. 45

6.2.6 Family Planning Program ........................................................................................................... 46

6.2.7 Maternal Health .......................................................................................................................... 47

6.2.8 Infant and Child Mortality .......................................................................................................... 48

6.2.9 Immunization Coverage .............................................................................................................. 48

6.2.10 Dental Care................................................................................................................................. 49

6.2.11 Ophthalmic Care ......................................................................................................................... 49

6.2.12 Environmental Health ................................................................................................................. 49

6.2.13 Communicable Diseases ............................................................................................................. 51

6.2.14 Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases (CNCDs)......................................................................... 52

6.3. Housing .............................................................................................................................................. 55

6.4. Poverty and Social Welfare ................................................................................................................ 57

7. Crime and Violence ................................................................................................................. 63

8. Governance .............................................................................................................................. 64

9. Habitat Patterns and the Environment ....................................................................................... 66

10. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 69


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TABLES

Table 5.1: Labour Force, 1995-2010 .................................................................................................................. 17

Table 5.2: Labour Force Participation Rates by Sex, 1995-2010 ......................................................................... 17

Table 5.3: Employed Labour Force by Highest Level of Qualification 2002-2009, Both Sexes ........................... 18

Table 5.4: Employed Labour Force by Occupation, 2000-2009 (‘000 persons) ................................................... 19

Table 5.5: Employment in Barbados by Sex for Selected Years .......................................................................... 19

Table 5.6: Sectoral Distribution of Employment for Selected Years (‘000) ......................................................... 20

Table 5.7: Unemployment in Barbados, 1995-2010 ............................................................................................ 21

Table 6.1 Expenditure on Education in Barbados, 1994/95 - 2006/07 (Bds $million) .......................................... 25

Table 6.2: Distribution of Primary and Secondary Schools in Barbados by Parish .............................................. 26

Table 6.3: Primary School Teachers according to Level of Training 2001-2002 ................................................. 28

Table 6.4: Secondary School Teachers according to Level of Training 1999-2002 .............................................. 28

Table 6.5: Enrolment at the Pre-primary level, 1994/95 – 2000/01 ..................................................................... 30

Table 6.6: Enrolment in Government Primary Schools, 1995-2009 (‘000) .......................................................... 30

Table 6.7: Enrolment in Government Secondary Schools, 1996-2009 (‘000) ...................................................... 31

Table 6.8: Student Enrolment at the Samuel Jackman Polytechnic by Sex and Department: 1999-2000 - 2001-

2002 .................................................................................................................................................................. 32

Table 6.9: Enrolment at the Barbados Community College by Division and Sex 1999/2000 - 2001/2002 ............ 33

Table 6.10: Erdiston Teachers’ Training College: Full-time Enrolment by Course and Year, 1999/2000 - 2001/234

Table 6.11: Barbadian Undergraduate Students enrolled at UWI by Faculty 2007-8 - 2008-9 ............................. 35

Table 6.12: Student Enrolment at Tertiary Institutions in Barbados 2002/3 - 2008/9 ........................................... 36

Table 6.13: Summary of BSSEE Results, 1996-2004 ......................................................................................... 37

Table 6.14: National Mean of BSSEE by Gender 1999/2000 - 2001-2002 .......................................................... 37

Table 6.15: National CXC Examination Results: General/Technical Proficiency Level 1999/2000 – 2001/2002 . 38

Table 6.16: Passes at CXC General Proficiency Level Examinations, 1995-2007 ............................................... 39

Table 6.17: Number of SJPP Graduates, 1995-2007 (000) .................................................................................. 40

Table 6.18: Number of BCC Graduates by Sex, 1995-2007 (000) ....................................................................... 41

Table 6.19: Erdiston Teachers’ Training College Graduates, 1999-2002 (number) ............................................. 41

Table 6.20: Number of UWI Graduates according to Sex, 1995-2007 ................................................................. 42

Table 6.21: Government Expenditure on Health 1994/95-2005/06 Bds$000 ....................................................... 44

Table 6.22: Barbados’ Health Expenditure per capita 2002-2006, (current US$)................................................. 44

Table 6.23: Selected Health Care Professionals in Barbados 1995 - 2007 ........................................................... 45

Table 6.24: Special Benefits Statistics for the year April 1994 to March 31, 2003 .............................................. 46

Table 6.25: Rates of Birth, Death and Natural Increase, 1995-2010 .................................................................... 46

Table 6.26: Medical and Clinical Services offered by the BFPA 1999-2001 ....................................................... 47


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Table 6.27: Infant and Child Mortality in Barbados 1990, 2000 and 2007........................................................... 48

Table 6.28: Immunization Coverage by Type 1996-2001. (%) ............................................................................ 48

Table 6.29: Population with Access to Improved Drinking Water Sources and Improved Sanitation (%) .......... 50

Table 6.30: Reported Cases of Six Leading Communicable and Notifiable Diseases, 2001-2003 ........................ 51

Table 6.31: Economic burden of Diabetes and Hypertension in selected Caribbean Countries, 2001 (US $)........ 53

Table 6.32: Ten principal causes of death with rates per thousand population, 2001-2003 .................................. 54

Table 6.33: Number of Dwelling Units constructed between 1995 and 2010 ...................................................... 56

Table 6.34: New Mortgages Extended to Housing, 1995 - 2007 ($m) Selected Institutions ................................. 57

Table 6.35: Requests made to Poverty Alleviation Bureau (PAB) ....................................................................... 61

FIGURES

Figure 3-1: Real GDP Growth (%) in Barbados 1995 to 2008 .............................................................................. 8


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Barbados Country Assessment of Living Conditions 2010:

A Macroeconomic and Social Assessment of Barbados: 1995-2010

1. Introduction

Barbados is a small developing country which, by international standards, has performed very well over the past

four decades. With a surface area of 432 square kilometers (166 square miles), a resident population of 276,300

in 2010 and a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of Bds $27,800 in 2010, the country has achieved a ‘very

high human development’ status according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)’s Human

Development Index (HDI). By 2007 Barbados had achieved four of the eight Millennium Development goals

(MDGs) in the areas of education, gender, child mortality and maternal health and had partially achieved the main

goal of poverty reduction. Progress still has to be made in the areas of HIV/AIDS, the environment and global

partnership arrangements.

The relative small land area means that the natural resource base of the country is limited. Indeed, the economic

activities undertaken in the country over the decades have been largely land-based: agricultural (mainly sugar

cane) production and tourism. The pockets of oil and natural gas have been exploited largely for domestic

consumption. The labour force accounts for about 67 percent of the adult population, namely, 142,300 persons in

2010. In effect, the range of specialist skills is limited and persons tend to be generalists with respect to their

skills set. The small domestic market size of the country means that international trade plays a significant role in

the economy. Over the years, Barbados has had important trading relations with the United Kingdom (UK),

United States of America (USA), Canada and the CARICOM member states.

In addition to significant economic progress, the country has witnessed a high degree of political stability and

social progress especially in the areas of health and education. The high ranking of Barbados in the UNDP’s

Human Development Index (HDI) reflects the great strides made on both the economic and social fronts in the

country. The HDI combines indicators of livelihood (per capita income), health (life expectancy at birth) and

education (mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling).

This study examines the nature of the economic and social development which has taken place over the period

1995 to 2010. In addition, it also examines the governance framework within which the socioeconomic

development of the country has taken place. In the next section, the development framework (strategies and

policies) established over the fifteen-year period is outlined. This framework is developed from development

plans, policy statements and budgetary provisions made by the Government of Barbados. In the third section, a

review of the growth performance and structural changes which occurred over the period is undertaken. Some of

the factors accounting for the changes are also identified. The macroeconomic policies and the regional and

international environment within which Barbados has had to operate are assessed in the fourth section of the

study. The nature of demographic change and labour market dynamics are examined in section five. The policies

and programs guiding the development of the human capital of the country are assessed in this section.

The social development of the country is analysed in section six. This section covers such areas as health,

education, housing and social services and social protection (including welfare and poverty alleviation/reduction

programs). Issues of crime and violence are discussed in section seven, while in section eight, the nature of

governance in Barbados is examined. The highly touted Social Partnership is examined in this section. The ninth

section gives an overview of habitat patterns, environmental and sustainable development challenges facing the


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country. The final section identifies the main features and lessons learnt from the development experience of

Barbados over the past 15 years, with a special focus on the nature of quality of life and living conditions

experienced by the population of the country.

The study builds on several studies which have been undertaken on the social and economic development of

Barbados. These studies include: Beckles (2006), Blackman (1998), Downes (2001), Downes and Carter (2001),

Howard (2006), Thomas (2002), Rojas-Suarez and Thomas (2006) and Worrell (1982, 1994/5). Comparative

studies involving Barbados and other CARICOM countries have also been undertaken: Brewster (1995), Da Costa

(2007), Grenade and Lewis-Bynoe (2011) and Henry and Miller (2009).

An important aspect of this study is to provide the background for examining changes in living conditions and

poverty since the study undertaken by the IADB (1998) on poverty and income distribution in Barbados during

the 1996 to 1997 period. The study attempts to identify the main factors which could have accounted for changes

in living conditions, poverty and the distribution of income over the 1995 to 2010 period.


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2. Development Strategies and Policies

Barbados has adopted a forward planning approach to development since the mid-1940s when the first

development plan entitled a “Ten Year Development Plan for Barbados: Sketch Plan of Development 1946 to

1956” was prepared. Barbados is the only country in the region that has consistently prepared development plans

since the 1940s [see Downes, 2000]. Development goals generally reflect the hopes and aspirations of the people

through the eyes of the government of the country.

During the period under review the Government of Barbados prepared a National Strategic Plan covering the

period 2006-2025 and a Medium Term Development Strategy for the period 2010-2014. In addition, the

provisions in the Development Plan 1993 to 2000 partly governed policy-making and programming during the

study period. The annual statements of financial and budgetary proposals and the estimates of expenditure

prepared by the Government, along with Central Bank reports and periodic statements of Government ministries

provide further information on the development framework adopted by the Government.

2.1. Development Strategies

Barbados can be regarded as a ‘social democratic’ country with the private sector being considered as the main

engine of growth in the economic sectors (agriculture, manufacturing and services), and the Government

facilitating the process and providing the necessary regulatory and legal framework. In addition, the role of the

Government has been the maintenance of economic, social and political stability, the provision of a social safety

net and the incentives needed for efficient resource allocation. The approach to development planning in

Barbados has therefore been largely ‘indicative’, “with the government providing the institutional, infrastructural

and policy framework and environment for the private sector to provide the stimulus for economic activity”

[Downes and Carter, 2001, p. 6].

The development strategy adopted by the Government in its 1993-2000 development plan was to focus on

increasing productivity, export competitiveness and growth in an era of trade liberalization. The early stage of the

Plan saw the Government trying to deal with the issues of structural adjustment and having just coped with an

economic crisis during the 1990-92 period. The crisis required the assistance of the International Monetary Fund

[see Haynes, 1997]. The first phase of the Plan, 1993/4 to 1996/7 focused on issues of structural adjustment in the

economy, while the 1997/8 to 1999/2000 period emphasized economic growth.

The main goals of the plan were: the achievement of balanced and sustainable growth to increase employment and

the promotion of a more equitable and cohesive society. Underlying these goals were the following objectives:

achieving a path of sustained economic growth through export growth, reducing unemployment especially among

the youth, promoting human resources development and the use of science and technology, reducing inequality of

income and wealth, promoting the effective delivery of social services, enhancing public sector performance and

protecting the physical environment as part of a sustainable development strategy.

The Government sought to generate economic growth through the expansion of agricultural production

(especially sugar cane, cotton and horticulture), the promotion of agro-industrial activity, tourism promotion and

the building of the international business and financial services sector.

The support of the labour unions and the private sector was enlisted by the Government in the formation of a

Social Partnership. The Partnership, which emerged from the economic crisis of 1990-92, has become a useful

model of governance in Barbados.


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The National Strategic Plan 2006-2025 contains the same basic goals/objectives as the previous development

plan, namely:

1. enhancing prosperity and competitiveness especially in the export services (tourism and international

business and financial services);

2. creating greater equity and social justice;

3. building social capital and promoting human resources development to create greater participation and to

reduce poverty;

4. maintaining social and political stability through democratic governance and good leadership;

5. improving the governance process and strengthening civil society;

6. building a “green economy” in the context of sustainable development.

The private sector is expected to be the driver of productive activity in the country with the Government creating

the enabling environment for growth, stability, innovation, entrepreneurship and providing a social safety net.

The central vision of the Strategic Plan is the achievement of a “fully developed society that is prosperous,

socially just and globally competitive by the end of the first quarter of this century” (p.1). As a long-term

strategic plan, it is expected that medium-term plans would be developed to account for changes in the social and

economic environment over time. With the increasing globalization and liberalization of the economies of the

world, the Strategic Plan recognizes the need to focus on global excellence while maintaining and/or promoting

core Barbadian traditions. As in previous plans, productivity growth and enhanced international competitiveness

are seen as vital to the achievement of the goal/vision of developed status by 2025. The Social Partnership is also

seen as a vital mechanism for achieving the stated goals and objectives of the Plan.

The Medium Term Development Strategy of Barbados 2010-2014 provides support to the long term vision of a

“fully developed and people-centred society”. The Strategy was developed in the context of a worldwide

recession (2007-9) which has adversely impacted the economy of Barbados. The production focus continues to

be tourism, international business and financial services supported by agriculture, energy and the small business

sector. Greater attention is paid to enhancing the social sectors of the country (education and training, health,

housing, transport, etc). As in the previous development plans the emphasis is placed on enhancing productivity

and competitiveness, promoting science and technology in all the productive sectors and taking full advantage of

relationships with trading partners and the existing trading agreements. As a small developing country seeking to

move to developed country status, these focal areas are critical to success.

In summary, the development strategy adopted by Barbados over the study period has involved the promotion of

exports (especially tourism and international business and financial services), the enhancement of productivity

and competitiveness as part of the export drive, the enlisting of the Social Partners in management of the

development process, the building of social capital and human resources development, the exploitation of trading

agreements and the strengthening of the social services. Development planning in the review period has been

aimed at preparing the country for the new liberalized trading arena; supporting the adjustments of the productive

sector as they reorganize and retool to meet the new international competition without the accustomed protection

at the border, as well as facilitating the search for new markets and products as traditional ones became closed to

the country. Planning has also been about maintaining the stability of the economy in an environment that has

been somewhat volatile over the past 15 years. The Government has therefore aimed to provide the enabling

environment to facilitate the development of entrepreneurship and private sector development.


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2.2. Policy Framework

The Government of Barbados has instituted policies and programs and established organizations to achieve

various development goals and objectives. The policy framework has provided incentives for private sector and

non-governmental organizations to expand their operations or shift their use of resources. The policy framework

consists of monetary, fiscal, trade, wages/incomes, social and environmental measures designed to achieve

specific outcomes.

Monetary policy has been designed to anchor the exchange rate parity between the Barbadian dollar and the USA

dollar. Barbados has maintained a fixed exchange rate parity of Bds $2 for US $1 since 1975 and has used this

nominal exchange rate policy anchor to maintain macroeconomic stability and predictability in the country. Its

currency however floats with other currencies which can have some small effect on economic activity.

Monetary policy has been generally ‘tight’ in order to avoid excessive credit creation which can result in balance

of payments (BOP) disequilibrium. Over the years, the Central Bank has relaxed the levers over which it

influences monetary policy in the context of financial liberalization. It maintains indirect control and moral

suasion in influencing the supply of money and credit creation.

Monetary policy has also been directed towards building the local capital market and financial institutions. The

Government has supported such financial development through incentives, such as tax allowances for investing in

mutual funds, credit unions and registered savings (retirement) plans. Financial support has also been provided

for initiatives taken to promote small and medium-sized enterprises and export-oriented firms, namely, special

loan facilities and lower interest rates. It has also created institutions to finance small enterprises (Fund Access)

and venture capital activities (Enterprise Growth Fund). These agencies were established after the closure of the

Barbados Development Bank. Invest Barbados was also established to encourage foreign direct investment in the

country and promote service exports from the country.

Fiscal policy measures have been used extensively by the Government to promote economic growth and

development through the key sectors in the economy: agriculture, manufacturing, tourism, international business

and financial services, cultural services and also small and medium-sized enterprises. A range of tax incentives

have been used - tax allowances, rebates, grants, price support, to name a few, in order to support economic

activity.

Over the study period, the Government introduced a major tax reform measure by introducing a value added tax

(VAT) in 1997 to replace a range of other indirect taxes. This tax reform measure was implemented to improve

the tax base of the Government and also the efficiency of the tax collection process. The base rate was 15 percent

with several items being exempted or zero-rated. Some areas of economic activity such as the hotel and guest

houses sector were subject to a lower VAT rate of 7.5 percent. The zero-rated items include exports, certain

agricultural supplies and educational materials while financial services are exempted.

The Government has sought to maintain a relatively low overall fiscal deficit as a percentage of gross domestic

product (GDP) over the period. Over the period 1995 to 2008, the fiscal deficit as a percent of GDP varied from

0.6 to 6.0, with a surplus recorded over the 1995 to 1997 period. The ratio however rose to 8.6 in 2009 and 8.8 in

2010 as a result of the economic recession as the Government adopted countercyclical policy measures.

Fiscal policy was also used to support the Government’s social development programme. The housing sector has

benefited from tax allowances (for example, mortgage interest, house repairs), while a reverse tax credit for low

income workers (those who earn $16,000 per annum or less) was introduced. Pensions were increased gradually


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over the period, while assistance was provided for the care of the elderly. The Government also provided funds to

assist young persons and those living “on the block” by way of Project Oasis.

In the area of wages and incomes policy, the Protocols among the Social Partners (Government, Labour Unions

and Employers) continued to form the basic framework. The first Protocol (1993-95) called for a wages freeze in

the public sector, with any wage/salary increases linked to productivity increases. Subsequent Protocols (1995-

97, 1998-2000, 2001-4, 2005-7 and 2011-13) have focused on wage restraint or moderation, with wages and

salaries linked to measures of organisational performance including productivity.

There is no national minimum wage in place. A minimum wage however exists for shop assistants. This wage

was increased from Bds $158 in June 1997 to Bds $200 per 40 hour week in December 2004.

In the area of trade policy, the Government has had to respond to the trade liberalization process taking place in

the international economy. As a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the Government has had to

replace non-tariff barriers to trade with tariffs (that is, the process of tariffication) and also to gradually reduce

these tariffs. In addition, as a member of the CARICOM integration movement it has had to relax restriction on

imports from members states and introduce other non-trade measures as the member states seek to create a single

market and economy.

Barbados’ trade policy has been designed to:

i. secure the necessary access to and make the best use of opportunities in overseas markets for Barbadian

goods and services;

ii. encourage the growth and further development of the productive sectors;

iii. encourage the entry of goods and services from other countries in a manner that would not undermine the

quality of life or increase the cost of living; and

iv. support strategies for economic growth and development.

[see Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade, 2006, p. 2].

The Government sought to promote the export of goods and services to both regional and international markets.

For example, several concessions have been granted to the tourism and international business and financial

services sectors, while the manufacturing sector has benefited from export and training grants and the agriculture

sector has received assistance from the export development fund. The Government has signed a number treaties

and agreements with several countries in order to promote the international business and financial sector.

In the area of social policy, the Government has sought to eradicate poverty through the establishment of an

institutional framework. The Rural Development and Urban Development Commissions were established to

promote micro-enterprises and to assist with housing and infrastructural community development. A Social

Investment Fund was established in 1997 to eradicate poverty through the development of small and medium

sized enterprises and to support rural and urban re-development. A Poverty Alleviation Programme was also

established to deal with abject poverty. Youth development has been the focus of such institutions as the

Barbados Youth Service (BYS), Youth Entrepreneurship Scheme (YES) and skills training programs in

established organisations such as the Barbados Vocational Training Board (BVTB) and the Samuel Jackman

Prescod Polytechnic (SJPP). Support for micro-enterprises is provided by Fund Access. The Government also

sought to reduce unemployment through the expansion of the economy.

The health sector was supported by an HIV/AIDS program which provided affected persons with free medication.

The main program in the education sector was the Education Sector Enhancement Programme ( the so-called


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EduTech programme) which has sought to enhance the teaching and learning function of the school system via

information technology, while at the same time improving the school plant.

The Government has also designed a housing policy to increase and improve the housing stock available through

the National Housing Corporation (NHC) using funds from its divestment program.

Government’s environmental policy framework involved a push towards sustainable development whereby

economic, social and environmental concerns would not be in conflict. The Government developed a sustainable

development policy to “ensure the optimization of the quality of life for every person by ensuring that economic

growth and development do not occur to the detriment of our ecological capital”. The revised National Physical

Development Plan and the National Strategic Plan 2006-2025 further emphasizes the need for sustainable

development in Barbados. The National Strategic Plan points to the achievement of a “green economy”. The

Government has sought to minimize the extent of squatting associated with poverty in other countries through a

rigorous control of human settlement in the country. It has accessed funds from international agencies such as the

IADB to finance a housing development program.

The Government’s policy framework has been designed to foster economic growth, to reposition the productive

sectors of the economy in light of changes in the global environment, to maintain macroeconomic stability, to

build social and human capital in order to eradicate poverty in the country and to put the country on a sustainable

development path. The private sector has been seen as the main engine of growth with the Government

facilitating the process through its policy measures and institutional initiatives.


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3. Growth Performance and Structural Change

3.1. Growth Performance

In 1995, Barbados recorded its third consecutive year of economic growth; this trend continued until the year

2000, averaging around 3% for that period. Real output had increased from $844.2 million to $973.4 million

based mainly on growth in the non-traded sector, in particular, construction.

The year 2001 proved difficult for the country. This was in the main due to the effects of trade liberalisation, a

global slowdown in the aftermath of the Asian financial crisis and especially the September 11 terrorist attacks on

the United States of America (USA). These events resulted in fall offs in both the tourism and international

business sectors and a decline of real GDP by 2.6% (see Figure 1). Counter-cyclical expenditure by the

Government as part of its National Economic Emergency and Financial Programme (NEEFP), which commenced

at the end of 2001, seems to have tempered the effects of the slowdown and Barbados returned to its growth path

in 2002, albeit at less than 1% with a real GDP figure of $954.4 million.

Figure 3-1: Real GDP Growth (%) in Barbados 1995 to 2008

Increases in output continued, with a rate of 2% recorded in 2003 and a high of 4.9% in 2004 when output

exceeded one billion dollar level for the first time, fuelled mainly by expansion of the tourism and wholesale and

retail trade sectors. The year 2004 was also the third successive year of growth for the tourism sector after the

decline of 2001. In 2005 however, the contribution of the tourism sector went into decline as oil prices started to

rise but real output continued its growth at 4.1%, a marginally slower rate than the previous year. The non-traded

sector had taken over the lead and construction expanded by about 13.5% as the country advanced its capital

infrastructure programme and home accommodation programme for ICC Cricket World Cup 2007. Continued

growth in the non-traded sector, especially construction, led the expansion of real GDP until 2007 when all major

projects concerned with the international cricket competition were completed. While the non-traded sector

continued to be the main contributor to output, construction gave way to wholesale and retail trade and the traded


9

sector which had been slowly recovering over the prior 2 years, grew 2.5% in 2007, supported mainly by a 3.3%

improvement in tourism.

High oil and commodity prices in 2008 in conjunction with a downturn in the global economy as the financial and

economic crisis in the USA unfolded caused a slowdown in tourist arrivals, the country’s largest income earner

and a slowdown in economic activity by 0.2 %. This caused the Government to introduce a Short and Medium-

Term Action Plan with policies designed to protect the Barbados economy during the economic and financial

crisis. The crisis had its most severe impact on the economy in 2009 when economic growth fell by 4.1 percent

with the non tradable sector falling by 6.1 % and the tradable sector by 4.2%. The Government in association with

the Social Partners agreed to protect jobs in the public sector, increase public sector capital expenditure within the

limits of the Government’s fiscal space, to avoid layoffs in the private sector by using alternative work and wage

arrangements and implement a program of social assistance to help the vulnerable in the society. The economy

has displayed a sluggish recovery as it hardly grew over the 2009 to 2010 period.

Gross Domestic Product per capita (in current prices) also grew steadily during the review period from $15,300

in 1995 to $27,800 in 2010, notwithstanding the reversals in the problem periods of 2001/2002 and 2008/9. Real

GDP per capita however rose from Bds$ 3193 in 1995 to Bds$ 3870 in 2010, that is an average growth rate of

approximately 2 percent per annum. While nominal GDP per capita declined from Bds$ 29,500 in 2007 to

Bds$27,800 in 2010, real GDP per capita fell from Bds$ 4032 in 2007 to Bds$3870 in 2010, that is 4 percent, as a

result of the decline in economic activity.

The differential between the two ratios (nominal and real) is due to the inflation effect. Inflation jumped from 2.4

in 1996 to 7.7% in 1997, much of which was attributable to the introduction of a 15% Valued Added Tax (VAT)

at the beginning of the year. The underlying rate was estimated to have remained in the region of 2.5% to 2.7%.

After a sharp correcting decline of 1.2% in 1998, inflation ranged from 0.2% to 2.8% for the next five years. The

rise in oil prices caused another jump from 1.4% in 2004 to 6.1% in the following year. By 2008 with continued

increases in the price of oil, inflation was estimated at 8.1%. There was some dampening of the inflation rate in

2009 and 2010 with the economic recession. In 2009 the inflation rate was 3.6%, while in 2010 it was estimated at

5.8 %. While the inflation rate is largely fuelled by external factors such as the increases in the price of food and

fuel, domestic factors can lead to periodic spikes in the rate, namely the VAT and increases in interest rates which

represent a cost element in the production process.

3.2. Structural Change

3.2.1 Agriculture and Fisheries

Successive administrations of Government have all articulated their intention to see a productive and profitable

agricultural sector. The focus of policy has been to preserve the rural environment, encourage food security,

upgrade and update the sector to modern technology and research and facilitate agro-processing in order to

expand and diversify the export base. To this end, farmers are eligible for concessions on the importation of

equipment and inputs, technical assistance as well as loans and grants through various agencies.

Agriculture as a whole faces problems associated with the vagaries of the weather, shortages of labour, high

production costs, outdated technology and management practices and declining interest. Programmes to provide

land to landless farmers, irrigation facilities and a sugar replanting scheme are also in place. Even so, in 2010, the

sector only employed 3,600 persons compared with the 5,100 it employed in 1995. Sugar production, after falling

to a new low of $16.5 million in 1995, recovered to reach a peak of $27.8 in 1997 or 3% of GDP, more in line


10

with its general trend of the early 1990’s. However by 2010, sugar sector’s share of output was reduced to an

estimated 1.0% of GDP. Non-sugar agriculture started the period (1995) at $36.7 million or 4.3% of GDP and

reverted to the same level in 2010, namely $36.6 or 3.4% of GDP.

The sugar industry which initially was the major foreign exchange earner of the country has been in decline.

Since 1995, fewer and fewer of acres of sugar cane have been planted, while approximately 18,500 acres were

under sugar cane production in 1995 that figure stood at 13,600 in 2008. Production costs, which stood at $1806

per tonne at a production level of 38,800 tonnes in 1995, reached $3450 in 2010 and production dropped to

25,500 tonnes. Although several attempts have been made to reorganize the sub-sector to boost productivity and

efficiency, it has not made the expected recovery.

The difficulties that beset the entire agricultural industry before 1995 are still evident for the review period. In

addition, the new world trading regime has put an end to the preferential access to guaranteed markets under

which sugar has previously been exported. The ruling of the WTO that preferential access to the European

market which the sugar of Barbados and other ACP countries enjoyed under the Cotonou agreement was in

contravention of the EU’s WTO responsibilities and the announcement by the EU of its intention to reduce the

guaranteed price by some 37% over a 4-year period created serious challenges for the industry. The

CARIFORUM-EC Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) which was signed in 2008 replacing Cotonou

Agreement ( the last in a series of the non-reciprocal trade agreements), now offers only duty free access to

Barbados’ sugar exports.

Two of the three factories in operation at the start of the review period are still in production by the end of the

study period. In 2006, a plan was approved for the building of a multi-purpose facility that would produce

specialty sugar for the local and export markets, refined sugar and ethanol for the local market as well as 30

megawatts of electricity. This facility was expected to replace both the Andrews and Portvale plants and funding

was provided to the BAMC for pre-investment activities, to re-capitalise the sugar replanting scheme and to bring

idle lands back into sugar production. Since then, Barbados sugar which in recent years was produced solely for

the export market became available for sale locally under the name Muscavado Gold. Also, the brand Plantation

Reserve was on sale in the UK at $17.00 per pound rather than the $1.00 per pound of bulk sugar. The plans for

the multi-purpose were put on hold in 2008 in the light of the global financial and economic crisis.

The Government supported non-sugar agriculture (vegetable, root-crop, cotton, livestock production and

fisheries) with a view to food security for the country and diversification of exports. Between 1995 and 2010,

contributions to GDP went fluctuated closely around the average of $34.8 million in real terms throughout the

entire period.

Attempts at preservation include prohibiting the change of use of a set acreage agricultural land, programmes to

interest young people such as the Youth in Agriculture Scheme and support to the 4-H Clubs. Also, 60% of

public procurement for the school meals programme, for instance, must be sourced locally and the BADMC has

been reorganised so that its services include facilitating investment in the sector.

3.2.2 Manufacturing

Manufacturing is made up mainly of garments/textiles, paint, paper and paper products, food processing,

furniture, beverages, chemicals and electronic components. Within the sector, food and beverage category

continues to expand and remains the sector’s greatest contributor to GDP, employment and exports. The paper

products and the printing and publishing sub-sector have shown increases as well.


11

The sector has not weathered the liberalization of trade very well. The majority of firms is small and produces

mainly for a local market heavily protected with a system of licences and import duties and taxes. High

production costs both in raw materials and labour, outdated technology, undercapitalization and the reality of

small local market size have been identified as some of the more pressing challenges of the sector.

Duties on raw materials were removed in 1994 but the initial boost to production between 1995 and 1998 faded

when the sector was faced with reduction of the Common External Tariff (CET), the removal of licences and

phasing out of the surtax on extra-regional imports required by agreement of both CARICOM and the WTO.

Even though the licences were replaced with high rates of duties and the sector retained some measure of

protection from extra-regional imports, it was still not competitive with its regional counterparts. The

introduction of VAT in 1997 brought further competition from reduced import prices.

In 2001, a $25 million fund was launched to assist the sector in re-organizing and retooling toward international

competitiveness and after the September 11, 2001 attack in the USA, the emergency measures undertaken by the

Government included a 60% surcharge on some extra-regional goods in an effort to protect the sector. In

addition, a drive to raise the profile of local goods in the form of a “Buy Local” campaign was initiated by the

Government in conjunction with the Barbados Manufacturers’ Association (BMA). The sector also benefits from

many assistance packages offering loans at concessionary rates, grants, technical assistance, tax and duty

exemptions as well as extra incentives directed at the exporting firms.

However, the sector as a whole has declined in real terms for the period under review from $ 81.4 million or 9.6%

of output in 1995 to $ 51.0 million or 4.8% of GDP by 2010 though closely clustered around an average of $ 62

million since 2001.

3.2.3 Tourism

Tourism is Barbados’ premier engine of growth. This is clearly recognized by the Government which expressed

its intention to continue improvements in the tourism product and to make major investments in this regard. Since

1995, the Government has taken over a group of small hotels on the South Coast that were heavily indebted to the

(then) Barbados Development Bank (BDB) to preserve accommodation capacity by rehabilitating and expanding

properties under the Gems of Barbados initiative. Investment has also gone into the Urban Rehabilitation

Programme, renovating and beautifying areas such as Bridgetown, St. Lawrence Gap and Oistins among others.

There have also been major product improvements in the sector: the Government rebuilt the Hilton hotel, the

Sandy Lane Hotel underwent extensive work and there was a general drive to upgrade various facilities in time for

the 2007 ICC Cricket World Cup.

The industry benefits from the Tourism Development Act which provides duty free importation of building

materials and a range of furniture and fixtures as well as income tax concessions to owners and investors. These

incentives are also available to all tourism related businesses including restaurants and recreational facilities.

The UK has accounted for the greatest number of long stay tourist arrivals since 1999 followed by the USA and

other CARICOM territories. While at the other end of the scale, Germany has been in decline for most of the

period and records the lowest number of visitors among all the categories. Visitor arrivals from Trinidad and

Tobago represent the largest number from among the CARICOM territories.

Tourism’s contribution to real GDP increased from $130.3 million in 1995 to $150 million in 2006 with major

interferences occurring during the 2001/2002 and 2005 periods. Since 2007 in the wake of the global financial

and economic crisis, there has been a reduction in the number of visitors to the island both long stay and cruise


12

ship arrivals. Even so, tourism has experienced a marginal reduction in its percentage contribution to GDP from

15.4% in 1995 to 12.3% in 2010.

The Government has dispensed financial assistance of about $ 25 million to support the sector as further declines

in the fortunes of its main markets are expected. In addition, the increase in the UK air passenger departure tax

(APD) to be implemented in 2009 was also expected to have a negative impact on the sector. Active lobbying

coupled with a change in Government in the UK was able to delay the implementation of the measure.

3.2.4 International Financial and Business Services

Barbados has shown itself to be a competitive venue in the international business and financial employed services

sector. The drive to promote the offshore sector has been part of the Government’s effort to diversify the

economic base of the country. The other area receiving some assistance has been the creative/cultural sector.

In 1995 there were approximately 3700 offshore companies registered, about 700 of which registered in 1995.

The sector provided an estimated US $150 to foreign exchange and around 2000 persons. However, in 1998 a

Report on Harmful Tax Competition published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) and the subsequent listing of Barbados among countries that were designated tax havens created some

challenges for the sector. By 2000, Barbados along with other CARICOM countries were listed as tax havens and

threatened with retaliatory action when they resisted OECD initiatives to remove policies and practices deemed

harmful by that body. In addition, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) reported concerns on money

laundering and financial stability (2000) that needed to be addressed. The country’s policy of continually re-

examining and updating its legislation to increase the efficiency of supervision and regulation, to comply with

international standards and maintain its competitive edge stood it in good stead in this case such that by 2002 the

FTAF agreed that Barbados would not be black listed. There have been however recent attempts to impose greater

restrictions on the sector thus weakening its contribution to economic activity.

During the period there was much uncertainty generated by Asian Financial Crisis as investors redirected funds to

more developed markets. In addition, a complaint was registered with the WTO in 1999 against United States

policy on Foreign Sales Corporations (FSCs). The US complied with the WTO’s ruling on FSC by changing the

legislation to eliminate the need for FSCs in 2000. The 2139 entities resident in Barbados at that time started their

dissolution process. Only 33 FSCs were still renewing licenses at the end of 2008.

Barbados pursued a policy of expanding its system of Double Taxation Treaties (DTAs) and Bilateral Investment

Treaties (BITs) to enhance the attractiveness of its offshore product. In 2010 there were eighteen DTAs in force

and negotiations were ongoing with several others.

The sector was boosted by the phased liberalisation of the telecommunications industry which started in 2000 and

the establishment of the Barbados International Business Promotion Corporation (BIBPC) in 2005. The

Government also extended financial support to the Barbados Coalition of Service Industries (BCSI) which was

launched in November 2002 and Private Sector Trade Team (PSTT) to assist in the continuing development of the

sector.

Several of the initiatives of International Business Strategic Plan 2007-2012 were implemented during 2007, for

example, the International Business Unit (IBU) was created to ensure the implementation of international best

practices through its regulatory and supervisory activities in the sector. The International Business Charter which

outlined the timelines for application and renewal of licences and new application procedures for IBCs and ISRLs

which provide simultaneous establishment of residency and licensing of entities were instituted. The Government


13

has also expanded the BIDCs Technical Assistance Programme for Services by providing additional funding for

activities in the sector. In addition, it has established advisory committees on international business.

In 2010, 3105 international business entities were registered in Barbados notwithstanding the closure of some

2000 FSCs and the slowdown in new registrants over 2007 and 2008 as the US financial crisis reverberated

around the world. Receipts from the International business sector have represented an average of 11% of

Government revenue since 2005.

In summary, the agriculture and manufacturing sectors have borne the brunt of the liberalisation process. These

sectors were in decline before the review period and though they have both benefitted from many fiscal incentive

schemes, have not managed to make the transition envisioned. In the agricultural sector, the share of sugar in

GDP which had already fallen below that of non-sugar agriculture in 1989 stood at a low of 2% in 1995 and

declined further to 1.2% by 2008. Non-sugar agriculture, in the same vein fell from 4.3% to 3.1% over the same

period. For manufacturing, production share which fluctuated between 9% and 12% over the 1966 – 1997period,

declined to 7.7% in 1998 and then to 5.4% in ten years later. Tourism, however, from a 15.4% share in 1995,

averaged the same until 2006, declining less than 1% point to 14.9 and 14.6 in 2007 and 2008 respectively. The

tourism sector too has had the support of the government and during the period, fiscal incentives, once offered

mainly to the accommodations subsector, have been expanded to include all tourism related activities as well.

The share of the services sector, wholesale & retail trade, tourism, government and other services, in GDP has

increased from 66% to 68% over the review period. The Government has been quite active in improving and

promoting the financial services sector which has become a major source of government revenue earner of foreign

exchange. The economic crises of 2001 and 2008-9 however proved challenging for the macroeconomic

management as the main economic sectors were greatly affected by the fall in external demand. The Government

use countercyclical policies within the limits of the fiscal space provided at the times to ride out the worse of the

recessions.


14

4. Macroeconomic Environment

4.1. Balance of Payments

At the start of the review period, the current account of the Balance of Payments (BOP) was in one of its few

periods of surplus continuing from 1992 to 1996. This was supported by gains in manufacturing as demand for

processed foods, paints and printed materials increased especially from South America and a slowdown in

retained imports, a possible result of the effects of the 100% surtax levied in 1994. However, starting 1997, the

current account returned to its chronically deficit position and remained so for the remainder of the period under

review. Domestic exports after growing 26% in 1996 lost ground and apart from a slight recovery in 1999

remained in decline until 2003. Domestic exports recovered in 2004, expanding by 5.3% to $346.9 million and

performed well for the next two years, growing by 21.7% and 17.7% with the aid of exports of chemicals and

rum. However, growth in domestic exports slowed to 5.1% and even further to 1.7% for 2007 and 2008

respectively.

Retained imports on the other hand, expanded throughout the period, mainly because of the increase in consumer

demand as output of the country expanded in addition to the higher import prices occasioned by the increase in oil

prices from 2005. Where in past periods the Government has used combinations of import duties and licensing to

control imports, these measures were no longer freely available in the new liberalised trading arena and imports

slowed only in the periods of global uncertainly of 1998 and 2001 and in then again in 2006 when tighter

monetary policy and the effects of a 6% cess levied on extra-regional imports in 2005 were felt.

The deficit on the current account however, did not overwhelm the gains in the capital account which despite a

deficit for 1995, showed a surplus for rest of the period. The capital account was boosted by receipts from an

international bond issue and some long term private loans in 2000 and buoyant public and private inflows in 2003.

In the final analysis the net international reserves (NIR) averaged around 14 weeks cover between 1996 and 1999,

close to the required minimum of 12 weeks cover and averaged 28 weeks cover for the rest of the period with

highs of around 37 and 36 weeks for 2002 and 2003 respectively.

4.2. Fiscal Balance

Fiscal policy over the review period has been concerned with the preservation and improvement of living

standards of Barbadians as has been the focus in the past. In addition, there has been investment into reorganising

the public sector to improve its efficiency and a concerted effort has gone into supporting and preparing the

productive sectors to face the challenges brought about by the liberalisation of trade.

Total expenditure has increased every year from approximately $1.4 billion to $3.3 billion between fiscal 1995/96

and 2008/09. There was a slight cutback in 2009/10 to just under $3.0 billion as part of a fiscal consolidation

effort to deal with the economic crisis. Between 50% and 53% of current expenditure each year up to 2006/07

has been dedicated to the social services of education, health, social security and welfare, housing and community

amenities and social services and between 34.6% and 49.1% of capital expenditure. Current revenue has

increased every year in the period except fiscal 2002/03 though generally not as fast as current expenditure.

During the review period, there was a consolidation of several taxes into a 15% Value Added Tax, reduction of

corporate and personal income tax rates, reduction in taxes on imports, various allowances and duty free

concessions to the productive sectors which would have impacted on the level of revenue collected.

Fiscal year 1995/96 saw a fall in the fiscal deficit due an increase in revenue from taxes on income and profit.

The deficit deteriorated for the next 2 years as expenditure led by wages and salaries outstripped revenue, in spite


15

of the estimated 21% increase in collections in 1997 due to the introduction of VAT. The Government

substantially reduced capital expenditure in fiscal year 1998/99 during the slowdown in the world economy. This,

along with a rise in revenue from taxes on goods and services led to a reduction in the fiscal deficit.

A revenue fall in the 1999/2000 period in addition to the full repayment of a loan caused a worsening of the

deficit in that period but it improved in the next year due to lower debt repayment. Expenditure on the

Emergency package of late 2001 as well as the reduction in corporate taxes of the following year resulted in a

46% jump in the fiscal deficit (2001/02) and then again by around 23% (2002/03). However, the deficit in fiscal

year 2003/04 stood at $483.5 million, a fall off of nearly 14% compared to the previous year due to an 8.7%

increase in revenue supported by higher VAT receipts. A further decrease in the next period when revenue

increased by around 12.9% due mainly to an increase in taxes on goods and services helped by an increase in the

cess from 3% to 6%. As part of its policy objectives in 2006, the Government announced its intention to restrict

the fiscal deficit to less than 2.5% of GDP without adding any new taxes. However the deficit worsened over the

next period from $550.7 to $741.1 million, causing the Government to adjust its threshold upward to 3% of GDP.

At the end of fiscal 2008/09 the fiscal deficit had risen to Bds$904.7million. The fiscal deficit to GDP ratio

moved from 3.8% in 2007 to 8.8% in 2010 as the Government sought to stabilize the economy during the

recession. While revenue did grow during the three-year period in response to fiscal measures introduced by the

Government, government expenditure in grants to public institutions increased as part of a stimulation package

during the crisis period.

Total debt grew from approximately $2.5 billion to $8 billion in the period 1995 to 2010 representing

approximately 79% and 110% of GDP respectively. During that period government has financed the fiscal

shortfalls mainly from the highly liquid domestic market, maintaining foreign debt to an average 21% of total

debt, fluctuating between 13% and 32% of GDP in each year.

Foreign debt jumped from 17.0% of GDP to 25.9% of GDP between 2001 and 2002 as GDP contracted and

borrowing on the external bond markets increased. External borrowing from international institutions and also on

bond market rose in each of the following 3 years and though foreign debt maintained an average each year of

24% of GDP for 2003 and 2008, it reached a high of 31.7% of GDP in 2005 before tapering off to around 20% of

GDP for 2007 and 2008. Borrowing on the external bond markets has mainly been in support of the Balance of

Payments. The challenges facing the Government brought a downgrading of its sovereign credit rating by the

Standard and Poor’s rating agency over the period 1999 (A-) to 2010 (BBB-).


16

5. Labour Market Dynamics

5.1. Labour Supply

An analysis of the supply side of the labour market involves an examination of the forces giving rise to the

changing nature of the labour force, the participation of persons in the market and the quality of the persons

entering labour market activity. Between 1995 and 2005, the total labour force increased from 136,800 to

146,800 persons, that is, an average annual growth rate of 0.8 percent per annum. There was however a decline in

the total labour to 142, 300 by 2010. The male labour force grew at a rate of 1 percent per annum over the 1995

to 2004 period, while the female growth rate was 0.6 percent per annum. The higher male labour force growth

rate resulted in an increase in the proportion of males in the labour force [see Table 5.1]. Over the 1995-2010

period, the adult population increased from 200,800 to 213,600 persons, representing an average annual growth

rate of approximately 0.5 percent. With the labour force growth rate being higher than the adult population

growth rate, there has been an increasing tightness in the labour market which has implications for immigration,

hours of work, wages and the retirement age.

Over the past three decades, Barbados has seen an increase in the population of persons who are 65 years and

over, that is the ageing of the population. The percentage of persons in this age group increased from 10.7% in

1980 to 11.8 in 1990 to 12.1% in 2000 and 13.8% in 2010. The absolute number of person rose from 26,500 in

1980 to 328,600 in 2010. The overall population growth averaged 0.3 % per annum over the study period. The

birth rate decline slightly from 13.1 per 1000 in 1995 to 12.9 per 1000 in 2010; while the death rate remained

relatively steady at an average of 9 per 1000 over the period 1995 to 2010. These population dynamics have

implication for the long term supply of labour in the country as it tightens over the years.

The labour force participation rate (that is, the percentage of labour force out of the adult population) continued to

exhibit a general upward trend during the 1995 to 2004 period but showed a slight decline over the 2005 to 2009

period. The overall participation rate rose from 68.2 percent in 1995 to 69.6 percent in 2005, with the female rate

increasing at a slightly higher rate than the male rate [see Table 5.2]. The rate fell to 67 percent in 2010. There

was also a slight decline in the participation rates during the 2001-2 recession and probably reflected a net

‘discouraged worker’ effect associated with the increase in unemployment and the inability to obtain a job after a

reasonable period of search.


17

Table 5.1: Labour Force, 1995-2010

Year

Total Male Female

‘000 ‘000 % ‘000 %

1995 136.8 69.1 50.5 67.6 49.5

1996 135.4 69.0 50.9 66.5 49.1 1997 135.8 69.8 51.4 66.0 48.1

1998 136.3 70.3 51.6 66.0 48.4

1999 136.6 71.1 52.0 65.5 47.9

2000 138.4 71.9 51.9 66.5 48.0

2001 145.2 74.9 51.5 70.3 48.4

2002 143.4 74.1 51.7 69.2 48.3

2003 145.5 74.6 51.3 70.9 48.7

2004 146.3 75.0 51.3 71.3 48.7

2005 146.8 75.0 51.1 71.8 48.9

2006 143.5 73.4 51.1 70.1 48.9

2007 143.7 74.5 51.8 69.2 48.2

2008 143.8 73.7 51.3 70.1 48.7

2009 142.8 72.9 51.1 69.9 48.9

2010 142.3 72.9 51.1 69.9 48.9

Sources: Barbados Statistical Service (BSS), Labour Force Sample Survey Report, 1994-1999, 1996-2001; Central Bank of

Barbados: Annual Statistical Digest, 2005, Barbados Economic and Social Report 2011

Table 5.2: Labour Force Participation Rates by Sex, 1995-2010

Year Male Female Total

1995 74.5 62.7 68.2 1996 74.3 61.6 67.4

1997 73.6 62.1 67.5

1998 74.0 62.0 67.7

1999 74.7 61.4 67.7

2000 74.8 62.7 68.4

2001 75.9 63.8 69.5

2002 74.8 62.7 68.5

2003 75.1 64.0 69.2

2004 75.3 64.2 69.5

2005 75.2 64.5 69.6

2006 73.4 62.8 67.8

2007 74.3 61.9 67.8

2008 73.3 62.5 67.6

2009 72.3 62.2 67.0

2010 71.8 62.0 66.6

Sources: Barbados Statistical Service, Continuous Labour Force Sample Survey Report, 1994-1999, 1996-2001, Barbados

Social and Economic Report 2011; Central Bank of Barbados: Annual Statistical Digest 2005.

The increase in the female participation rate has been noticeable over the past three decades. Several factors have

been identified to explain this trend, namely, improved educational and training opportunities for females which

boost their competitiveness in the labour market, the expansion of activities in selected areas of the economy (for

example, information services, distribution, banking and finance), the increased use of modern household


18

production technology which releases time from household production activities and the need for self-

actualisation and financial independence

An analysis of the labour force by industrial attachment indicates that the services sectors, especially general

services, government services, tourism and wholesale/retail trade accounted for over 70 percent of the attachment

The manufacturing and construction/quarrying sectors accounted for approximately 20 percent of the labour force

attachment over the 1995-2010 period and reflects the general shift of the economy’s production operations

towards the services sector.

An examination of the educational attachment of the labour force indicates that over 60 percent of the force had

attained at least secondary level education over the 1995-2001 period. The percentage of the labour force which

had attained university level education increased significantly from 9.5 percent in 1995 to 20.4 percent in 2001,

with females outnumbering males in this area. The relatively high level of educational attainment in Barbados is

due largely to the enforcement of compulsory school attendance up to the age of 16+ years. Although enrolment

rates at the primary and secondary levels are very high, with the institution of universal education at these levels,

there is some concern about the low degree of certification among labour market participants. It is estimated from

census data that approximately 63 percent of the adult population had no certification in 1990, while in 2000 the

figure stood at 57 percent. This problem is more severe among the older cohorts of the labour force, 50 years and

older in 1990, who may not have benefited from ‘free’ secondary level education since the mid 1960s. Data from

the labour force survey for 2009 indicate that 54% of the labour force had no academic certification. This gradual

downward trend suggest that there has been some incremental improvement in the quality of secondary level

schooling which is partly reflected in the increased enrolment at the tertiary level ( especially females).

5.2. Employment

In the context of the labour market, as indicated earlier, a significant percent of the employed workforce has no

formal qualifications [see Table 5.3]. In addition, the bulk of the employed labour force is in “low skill” jobs:

service/shop, craft, clerical and elementary occupations [see Table 5.4.]. In 2009, 61 percent of the employed

were in there occupational categories. Hence 40 percent of the employed labour force occupies “medium” and

“high” skill jobs.

Table 5.3: Employed Labour Force by Highest Level of Qualification 2002-2009, Both Sexes

Level of Qualification

Number of Persons (000)

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

None 62.2 62.0 56.9 57.1 56.7 55.2 56.5 53.9

BSSC 1.8 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.2 1.6 1.4 1.3 CXC (Basic) 1.3 1.8 1.8 1.1 1.3 1.4 0.7 1.2

O Level/CXC (General) 27.8 29.0 30.3 29.7 29.0 29.7 29.2 29.3

A Level 2.5 2.1 2.1 2.4 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.8

Certificate 11,0 10.6 12.2 12.5 12.4 14.9 15.5 14.2

Diploma 3.9 4.1 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.0 4.5 4.0

Degree 13.4 11.9 15.5 16.5 15.9 16.2 16.4 16.6

Professional (e.g., ACCA) 0.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 1.7 1.4 1.3

Others 0.0 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.6 3.1 3.8 3.5

Not Stated 4.0 2.5 3.0 2.6 1.8 2.1 1.0 1.3

Total 128.6 129.5 132.0 132.6 131.0 133.1 132.1 128.5

Source: Barbados Statistical Service: Labour Force Survey


19

Table 5.4: Employed Labour Force by Occupation, 2000-2009 (‘000 persons)

Occupation 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Legislators, Senior Officials 9.7 10.9 10.2 9.8 12.2 11.8 11.0 11.8 12.2 12.6

Professionals 13.7 15.0 14.8 14.2 16.7 17.0 15.7 16.5 16.1 15.2

Technicians and Associated Professionals

9.1 10.6 10.7 10.5 11.1 11.3 10.5 10.8 10.6 13.1

Clerks 15.0 15.2 14.6 15.2 15.7 16.0 16.7 16.7 16.0 16.9

Service/Shop Workers 24.0 23.5 23.4 24.8 22.9 22.4 22.5 22.3 24.4 22.0

Skilled Agricultural Workers 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.8 3.8 3.3 3.4 2.9 3.7 3.9

Craft and Related Workers 17.1 17.3 16.5 17.4 17.3 18.6 19.2 19.8 18.5 16.1

Plant/Machine Operators and Assemblers

8.5 9.1 8.8 8.0 6.7 7.7 8.2 7.8 7.9 7.4

Elementary Occupations 28.1 26.0 26.2 25.4 24.8 24.2 23.3 23.9 22.4 21.1

Not Stated 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2

Total 129.0 130.9 128.6 129.5 132.0 132.6 131.0 133.1 132.1 128.5

Source: Barbados Statistical Service: Labour Force Survey

Employment creation has been an important goal of economic policy making in Barbados over the years.

Between 1995 and 2007 the number of persons employed increased from 109,900 to 133,100, that is, an average

annual growth rate of 2.1 percent. The rate of female employment growth was 2.2 percent per annum while the

rate for males was 2.0 percent [see Table 5.5]. With the onset of the global financial and economic crisis, the

number of persons employed fell from 133,100 persons in 2007 to 127,000 in 2010. The Government adopted a

policy of maintaining public sector employment at the existing level, which suggests that the decline in

employment took place in the private sector. The ratio of male to female employment also declined from 1.11 in

1995 to 1.04 in 2010.

Table 5.5: Employment in Barbados by Sex for Selected Years

Year

Number of Persons Employed (‘000) Percent

Total Male Female Male Female

1995 109.9 57.7 52.1 52.5 47.4

1998 119.6 64.4 55.2 53.8 46.1

2001 130.9 68.9 61.9 52.6 47.2

2004 132.0 68.3 63.8 51.7 48.3

2007 133.1 69.7 63.4 52.4 47.6

2010p 127.0 64.6 62.4 50.9 49.2 Note: p – provisional; Source: Barbados Economic and Social Report, 2004, 2011

Over the past three decades, Barbados has witnessed a secular decline in both the absolute and relative number of

persons employed in the agricultural sector and a growth in the services sector employment. The Government,

general services, distribution/commerce, tourism and, to some extent, construction/quarrying were the main

absorbers of labour in Barbados. Government has been the single largest employer of labour, with the share of

government employment in total employment remaining relatively consistent at about 21 percent over the period

(see Table 5.6).


20

Table 5.6: Sectoral Distribution of Employment for Selected Years (‘000)

Sector 1995 1998 2001 2009p

Sugar ,Other Agriculture and Fishing 5.1 5.2 5.4 4.0

Construction and Quarrying 8.8 12.5 14.2 111.5

Manufacturing 11.7 10.7 9.2 7.4 Electricity, Gas and Water 1.0 1.3 1.9 1.7

Wholesale and Retail 16.6 18.2 19.1 18.8

Tourism 11.9 13,8 13.7 13.3

Transport and Communications 5.1 5.1 5.7 5.4

Financial Services 7.6 7.5 10.4 11.3

General Services 19.3 19.9 22.9 28.1

Government 22.9 24.5 26.2 26.6

Total 109.9 119.6 128.8 128.5

Note: p – provisional; Source: Barbados Economic and Social Report, 2004 and 2009

There are very few estimates of employment in the informal sector in Barbados. Although there has been an

increase in the employed labour force classified as “employer” or “self-employed”, that is, from 9600 in 1996 to

12,700 in 2001, these categories included persons working in the ‘formal labour market’ (for example, lawyers,

doctors, consultants, accountants). One study of the informal sector undertaken by the Barbados Statistical

Service in 1997/98 indicated that:

i. the number of informal sector business operations constituted 40.4 percent of the average number of

‘employers’ and ‘own-account’ or ‘self-employed’ workers;

ii. the number of informal sector employees was 5.9 percent of the average number of persons employed;

iii. of the estimated 6904 persons employed in the informal sector, 61.4 percent are males and 38.6percent

females;

iv. the concentration of the sector was in distribution, agriculture and, to a lesser extent, general services and

construction;

v. few of the operators had university education (1.1 percent) or technical/vocational education (less than 1

percent). Most of the operators had primary or secondary level education;

vi. production units were very small and operated either singularly or by family members. Labour intensive

technologies were used in these units;

vii. approximately 62 percent of the persons employed were between the ages of 30 and 59 years, while 12

percent were aged 20-29 years. This feature would suggest that work experience was important in the

sector;

viii. most of the employees were either self-taught or had no training and usually worked for 4-12 hours per

day.


21

Research suggests that while there are instances of the worse form of child labour in the country these are not

widespread [Dunn,2002].

5.3. Unemployment

The unemployed in Barbados are defined as those persons in the labour force who are available and looking for

work but who are unable to find any form of work during a three-month period immediately preceding the date of

enumeration. Such a definition yields higher unemployment rates in Barbados than in countries which employ the

widely used definition based on ‘one week preceding the date of enumeration’

The expansion in real output for most of the period under review was also reflected in the overall reduction in the

unemployment rate which had been troublesome for some time. The unemployment rate fell consistently from

19.7% in 1995 until 2000 when it declined to single digits recording a new low of 9.3% which is the about the

average rate maintained until 2008 with dips to 8.7% and 7.4% in 2006 and 2007 respectively. With the onset of

the recession the unemployment rate rose from 8.1% in 2008 to 10.8% in 2010. The need to preserve jobs during

the recession accounted for the slow increase in the unemployment rate.

The unemployment rate for females has always been higher than that for males. Over the 1995-2010 period, the

male unemployment rate declined from 16.5 percent to 10.9 percent, while the female unemployment rate fell

from 22.7 percent to 10.6 percent [see Table 5.7]. There was a rise in both rates over the 2008-9 period.

Table 5.7: Unemployment in Barbados, 1995-2010

Year

Number Unemployed (‘000) Unemployment Rate (%)

Total Male Female Total Male Female 1995 26.9 11.2 15.7 19.7 16.5 22.7

1996 21.5 8.5 13.0 15.6 12.4 18.9

1997 20.0 8.0 12.0 14.5 11.3 17.8

1998 16.9 6.0 10.9 12.3 8.4 16.4

1999 14.6 5.7 5.9 10.4 7.5 13.3

2000 12.4 5.1 7.3 9.3 7.4 11.4

2001 13.0 7.3 5.7 9.9 8.0 11.9

2002 14.8 6.4 8.4 10.3 8.7 12.1

2003 16.0 7.2 8.8 11.0 8.6 12.6

2004 14.2 6.7 7.5 9.8 9.0 10.6

2005 14.2 6.0 8.2 9.7 8.0 11.4

2006 12.5 5.6 6.9 8.7 7.7 9.8

2007 10.6 4.8 5.8 7.4 6.4 8.5

2008 11.7 5.0 6.7 8.1 6.9 9.5

2009 14.2 7.6 6.6 10.0 10.1 10.0

2010 15.3 7.9 7.4 10.7 10.1 10.0

Sources: Central Bank of Barbados, Annual Statistical Digest, 2005, Barbados Economic and Social Report 2011

Like many other developing countries, Barbados has a ‘youth unemployment’ problem. Although the school

leaving age is 16+ years, the unemployment rate among the 15-19 years age group was 52.9 percent in 1995 and

among the 20-24 years age group, it was 31.1 percent. In 2001, the corresponding rates were 30.4 percent for the

15-19 year old age group and 19.7 for the 20-24 year old age group. In 2010, the unemployment rate among the

15-19 years old age group was 48 percent. These rates are significantly higher than the national rates. Not

surprising, females have suffered higher rates of unemployment than males. In 2001, the unemployment rates for


22

males 15-19 and 20-24 years of age were 25 and 18.2 percent, respectively, while for females, the corresponding

rates were 36.7 and 21.3 percent. An examination of unemployed by last occupation indicates that approximately

30 percent were in elementary occupations, which require little or no human capital formation. Unemployment

was also high among service/shop workers and, to a lesser extent, among craft and related workers.

Barbados is the only country in the Caribbean with an unemployment insurance scheme which was established in

July 1981. The number of claims received rose from 8830 in 1995 to 12,411 in 2008, with a peak of 18,066 in

2001 during the short recession. They also rose during the 2008-9 recession from 11,504 in 2006 to 12,411 in

2009. The main occupational categories which were susceptible to unemployment and hence the claim for an

unemployment benefit were service workers, clerical workers, production workers and unskilled/casual/general

workers. These workers tend to be females between the ages of 25 and 44 years.

The Severance Payment Scheme was introduced in 1973 to compensate workers for involuntary and permanent

job loss occasioned by the closure, relocation or sales reduction of a company. The Scheme covers private sector

employees only as tenured Government employees are excluded. These two schemes provide the social safety net

for unemployed person who qualify. The Government also provides a range of training programs for the

unemployed through the skills training program at the Barbados Vocational Training Board and the Samuel

Jackman Prescod Poytechnic. The working poor can also qualify for a reverse tax credit.


23

6. Social Sector Developments

6.1. Education Sector

The philosophy of education as espoused by the Government of Barbados is based on the premise that each child,

starting at the pre-primary/nursery stage to tertiary level, should have educational opportunities that would enable

him/her to maximize his/her abilities and contribute to the social and economic development of the country. In

order to fulfill this objective, a wide and varied range of educational opportunities has been made available to all

Barbadian students at each stage of the educational process. This is reinforced by the compulsory nature of

education at the primary and secondary levels (that is, up to 16 years of age). Moreover, education is provided

‘free’ (that is, without the payment of direct fees) up to the tertiary level. This commitment to education in

Barbados has reaped important dividends to the country. The rate of literacy stood at 98 percent between 2005

and 2007 (Digest of Labour Statistics, 2007). The country’s commitment to the development of its human

resources has bestowed on it the singular honour of being the number one developing country in the world

according to the UNDP’s Human Development Index (HDI).

The responsibility for education and all matters pertaining to education in Barbados lies with the Ministry of

Education (and Human Resources Development since 2008). The Ministry was established in 1954 under the

portfolio of the Premier at that time. However, in 1958, the Ministry became a separate entity with its own

administrative and technical staff. The present education system is governed by the Education Act which was

passed in 1981. In addition to spelling out the role of the Minister of Education and the Chief Education Officer,

it sets out the different stages of education that are provided and the management structure which guides each

stage. The Minister of Education has the overall responsibility for all matters pertaining to education in Barbados,

and he/she determines the overall policy of that Ministry. The Chief Education Officer heads the technical section

of the Ministry and is chief professional advisor on pedagogical matters while the administrative section is headed

by the Permanent Secretary, who is responsible for financial and general administrative matters (Education in

Barbados, 2001).

The education system in Barbados is based on the British model. It is divided into four tiers or stages with some

overlapping of these stages. These different stages are:

i. Pre-primary or nursery: This stage caters to children between 3 and 5 years of age;

ii. Primary: Children between the ages of 5 and 12 are educated at this level;

iii. Secondary: At this level children between the ages of 10+ and 16 are educated;

iv. Tertiary: Students who have successfully completed secondary level education may opt to advance to

this level or enter the world of work.

In addition to ‘mainstream’ education, ‘special’ education is provided for students with special needs. For

example, mentally or physically challenged children or those who learn at a slower pace can attend schools

specially geared towards their needs. Students with behaviourial challenges are also catered for with the

establishment of institutions geared specifically to address these situations so that they can eventually be

integrated into mainstream education.


24

6.1.1 A Historical Overview of Education in Barbados

Formal education was introduced into Barbados in 1686 when two planters from the parish of St George donated

land and a sum of money to establish a charity school. The beneficiaries of this gesture were not the children of

slaves but those of poor whites. Subsequently two schools were built to provide for the education of colored boys

and girls in 1781 and 1827, respectively.

Following emancipation, estate schools were set up to educate the children of freed slaves. By 1850 the first

Education Act was passed; through this act an educational committee and a part-time school inspector were

installed. In 1858, the second education act was passed in which the part-time school inspector had become full-

time and more importantly, a curriculum was formally established. Pupil teachers were introduced. This

rudimentary system in which the focus was on the three ‘Rs’ formed the basis of the present comprehensive

educational system which provides upward mobility for many of the citizens of the country.

Many important developments in education in Barbados took place during the 1967 -1994 period. Greater access

to education at both the primary and secondary levels was certainly an important hallmark of this period. Tertiary

level educational institutions were established. Free education was provided only after the establishment of

Comprehensive Secondary schools or ‘Newer’ Secondary schools during the fifties. The Grammar schools which

were in existence prior to this period catered to children of the elite at that time. Today, there is no distinction

between the so-called Grammar schools and the Comprehensive schools as they both offer the same curriculum

and are staffed by similarly qualified teachers.

There was comprehensive training of all teachers at the primary and secondary levels. A full program of hot

meals was established for students at the primary level and there was greater movement from primary to

secondary school. Some of the other major changes which occurred during the period and which continue to

make a significant contribution to the education system today were as follows [Ministry of Education, 2000]:

The University of the West Indies (formerly College of Arts and Science of the University of the West Indies

established in 1963) was moved to its permanent home at Cave Hill in 1967;

The Barbados Community College was officially opened at its temporary location at Sherbourne in 1969;

The Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic was officially opened in 1970

Several Newer Secondary Schools were built and 23 primary schools were either built or schools

amalgamated to create a more efficient system;

School Meals service was established as a separate department;

The Textbook Loan Scheme was introduced;

The Ministry of Education officially implemented the continuing education program for school leavers and

adults in three secondary schools.

In recent years, school children have been allowed to ride free of charge on the government’s transportation once

there are in school uniforms.

In 1995, plans were put in place to enhance the education system through the promulgation of a White Paper on

Education Reform titled, ‘Each One Matters’ which spelt out the Ministry of Education’s policy to provide:

a sound basic education for each citizen


25

wide range of higher education opportunities

training in technical skills

special education facilities for the disadvantaged

In order to further enhance the system, in 2000, plans were put in place to restructure the education system with

regards to the following areas:

curriculum reform

information technology

continuous assessment

teacher appraisal with a view to enhancing professionalism among teachers

6.1.2 Expenditure on Education and Supporting Infrastructure

The physical infrastructure and human resources which support the educational system depend entirely on the

government’s commitment to and financial support for education. Mindful of the role education must play in

harnessing the full potential of the citizens of Barbados; it is little wonder that successive government

administrations have committed a substantial part of total government expenditure to the education sector. Over

the 1995 to 2007 period, for example, the total expenditure on education (comprising current and capital) varied

between 19 and 22 percent for the financial years 1994-1995 to 2006-2007 [see Table 6.1]. In fact, education

receives the second largest share of the government’s budget.

The expenditure on education is directed towards several programs and sub-programs in that Ministry. For the

period 1999/2000, 2000/2001 and 2001/2002, the programs which

were earmarked for funding were basic education development, secondary education, tertiary education, direction

and policy formulation, teacher training and adult education. With respect to Special Services, areas earmarked

were school meals, examinations, pupil transport, audio visual aids and school uniforms.

Table 6.1 Expenditure on Education in Barbados, 1994/95 - 2006/07 (Bds $million)

Year Current A

Capital B

Total (A + B)

Education as % of Total Government Expenditure

1994-1995 229 823 20 214 250 037 22.85

1995-1996 224 575 16 885 241 460 20.22

1996-1997 244 331 30 233 274 564 20.23

1997-1998 284 193 38 441 302 634 20.14

1998-1999 302 519 25 068 327 587 20.72

1999-2000 305 242 29 685 334 927 20.06

2000-2001 353 287 55 853 409 140 22.67

2001-2002 339 749 38 351 378 100 19.62

2002-2003 365 900 43 776 409 676 20.56

2003-2004 377 403 35 827 413 230 20.76 2004-2005 389 110 30 439 419 549 20.51

2005-2006 425 671 23 241 448 912 19.09

2006-2007 446 398 36 971 483 369 Source: Central Bank of Barbados, Annual Statistical Digest, various issues


26

6.1.3 Physical Infrastructure

In the public sector, the student population is served at the pre-primary level by 78 pre-primary (nursery)

divisions within primary schools. Additionally, there are 18 private nursery schools. Primary education is

delivered through 84 primary schools which are distributed throughout the eleven parishes of the country. It is

not surprising that the majority of these schools are located in St Michael, the most densely populated of all the

parishes [see Table 6.2]. In the case of secondary education, there are 23 secondary schools, the majority of

which again are located in St Michael. Of the 23 secondary schools, 2 are single sex schools while 21 are co-

educational. Four of these secondary schools offer sixth form level education.

In addition to public education, there are several private pre-primary, primary and secondary schools. Private

schools are mainly secular but there are a few denominational institutions. Student enrolment at these institutions

is usually less than 5 percent of total student enrolment in the public system. Under the Education Act Cap 11, all

private schools must satisfy the education standards set by the Ministry. This means that they must provide

education that is of a similar quality to that provided by public schools. The Government of Barbados provides

assistance to all private secondary schools as follows: one member of staff is provided for a specified number of

students in each private secondary school. Secondly, it provides annual grants to these institutions in order to

assist them in the provision of computer-related technology which is equivalent to that provided in the

government schools [EFA in the Caribbean: Assessment 2000].

Table 6.2: Distribution of Primary and Secondary Schools in Barbados by Parish

Parish

Number of Schools

Primary Secondary

Christ Church 9 2

St Andrew 3 1

St George 8 1

St James 6 2

St John 4 1

St Joseph 3 1

St Lucy 4 1

St Michael 32 9

St Peter 4 3

St Philip 7 1

St Thomas 4 1

Total 84 23 Source: Ministry of Education

At the primary and secondary levels, the Government of Barbados further facilitates the education process by

providing free school meals for students at the primary level. This provision ensures that all students who attend

public schools have adequate nutrition so as to enhance their ability to learn. At the secondary level, each student

benefits from free text books through a text book loan scheme and a uniform grant. Furthermore, all students in

school uniform have access to free public transportation to and from school.

There are four special schools - The Irvine Wilson, Ann Hill, Alma Parris and the Edna Nicholls Centre - which

cater to students with special needs. The Irvine Wilson provides education for students with visual and hearing

impairment, while the Alma Parris and Ann Hill Schools cater to students with learning difficulties or mental

disorders. The Edna Nicholls Centre was established to provide educational opportunities for those students with

behavioural problems and who are suspended from mainstream schools. It ensures that they continue the school


27

curriculum while their problems are being addressed by the relevant professionals, following which they are

integrated into the school system again. There are also two special schools in the private sector - The Challenor

School for those who are mentally challenged and the Learning Centre. Both private schools receive assistance

from the government.

At the tertiary level, there are four such public institutions in Barbados. These are the University of the West

Indies (Cave Hill Campus), the Barbados Community College, the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic and the

Erdiston Teachers’ Training College. The University of the West Indies provides the highest level of tertiary or

post-secondary education. There is also Codrington College which is affiliated to the UWI and offers theological

education and training. The Barbados Institute of Management and Productivity (BIMAP) is a public-private

sector institution which offers management training and education to the degree level. Several other private

tertiary institutions also exist and provide specialized professional training.

6.1.4 Human Resources

Pre-Primary/Nursery Level

For the 2002-2003 period there were 1565 teachers employed in the delivery of pre-primary education. Of this

number, 1224 were females while 342 were males. Teachers at this level are trained in early childhood education.

Primary Level

The minimum educational requirement for an individual who wishes to enter teaching at the primary level is four

Subjects at the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) General level. However, after a specified period of

teaching such teachers must undergo training at the Erdiston Teachers’ Training College. Consequently, the

majority of teachers in the primary system are trained professionally. This training consists of the successful

completion of a two-year in-service training program at the Erdiston Teachers’ Training College.

Data for the 2001-2 school year reveal that there was a total of 1508 teachers in the public primary education

system. Of this number 340 or 22.5 percent were males, while 1168 or 77.5% were females. Table 6.3 further

shows that 84.9 percent of all teachers in the primary school system for this period were trained teachers; of these

teachers 52.5 percent were trained graduate teachers and 32.4 percent were trained non-graduates. Still a further

glance at the data shows that of these trained graduate teachers, 633 were females, while only 149 were males.

Approximately 6 percent of the total number of primary teachers were graduates but not trained. Again, the

majority were females. There were 12 special grade teachers, nine of whom were males. At present, this category

no longer exists but special grade teachers were mainly physical education teachers. Finally, the number of

teachers in the category of untrained teachers was 133; almost half of them were males. This last category

comprised only 8.8 percent of the total number of teachers in the primary education system in the 2001-2 period.

In 2007, approximately 1600 teachers were assigned to the public primary schools with a very high proportion of

them being trained and female.


28

Table 6.3: Primary School Teachers according to Level of Training 2001-2002

Category of Teacher

Male Female Total

No % No % No %

Trained Graduate 149 9.8 633 41.9 782 52.5

Graduate 13 0.9 80 5.3 93 6.2 Special Grade 9 0.6 3 0.2 12 0.8

Trained Teacher 127 8.4 361 23.9 488 32.4

Untrained Teacher 42 2.8 91 6.0 133 8.8

Total 340 22.5 1168 77.3 1508 100

Secondary Level

Data for the periods, 1999-2000, 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 show that the overwhelming number of teachers in

the secondary system are trained graduates (that is, 60.2, 63.3 and 61.6, respectively). Graduate teachers are

trained at the Faculty of Education of the University of the West Indies or at other teacher training institutions

once this training is equivalent to that offered by the local teachers’ training institution [EFA in the Caribbean:

Assessment 2000]. Non-graduate teachers at the secondary level are trained at the Erdiston Teachers’ Training

College for a period of two years.

Of all teachers in the system for the three periods the majority were females [see Table 6.4]. However, unlike the

situation in the primary system, this difference in numbers was less.

Table 6.4: Secondary School Teachers according to Level of Training 1999-2002

Category of Teacher

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Graduate - Trained 785 60.2 805 63.3 794 61.6

Untrained 241 18.5 217 17.1 263 20.4

Special Grade - Trained 20 1.5 14 1.1 49

3.8 Untrained 17 1.3 20 1.6

Teacher - Trained 148 11.4 138 10.8 107 8.3 Untrained 93 7.1 78 6.1 75 5.8

Total 1304 100 1272 100 1288 100

Male 565 43.3 553 43.5 551 42.8

Female 740 56.7 719 56.5 737 57.2 Source: Digest of Education Statistics, 2002

In 2003, the total number of teachers in the private secondary system stood at 97. No data were available as to the

categories of teachers based on their educational background and training. In 2007, there were approximately

1400 teachers in the public secondary schools.

The education system is also supported by a cadre of professional guidance counselors at the secondary level and

educational psychologists at the primary level. While guidance counselors are in-house staff, educational

psychologists make routine visits to primary schools.

Tertiary Level

With respect to tertiary level education, teachers and lecturers must possess the following qualification/training:

those at the Barbados Community College and Erdiston Teachers’ College must be graduates and hold a teachers’


29

training certificate, while University lecturers must hold post-graduate degrees, preferably a doctorate in the

discipline in which they lecture.

6.1.5 School Curriculum and Enrolment

6.1.5.1. Pre-Primary and Primary Levels

Curriculum

At this stage of the education system, children between the ages of 3 and 5 pursue an Early Education Programme

(ECE). The curriculum of the ECE Program has been designed to stimulate natural curiosity and critical thinking.

Each child is allowed to develop at his or her own pace with appropriate stimulation. Play is an important

component of the curriculum at this stage of the education process.

At the primary level, between the ages of 5 and 7, students pursue an ECE programme while those between the

ages of 7+ and 11

+ pursue the National Curriculum. The core curriculum at the primary level for children aged

between 7+ and 11

+ is wide and varied and consists of the following subjects: Mathematics, Grammar, Spelling,

Comprehension, Composition (Language Arts), Art and Craft, Music and Movement, Social Studies, Health and

Family Life, Science, Spanish (some schools), Food and Nutrition and Religious and Moral Education and

Information Technology.

Between 10 and 12 years of age, primary school students write the Barbados Secondary School Entrance

Examination (BSSEE) between May and June each year. This examination serves to allocate students into the

different secondary schools based on their examination results. Students are tested in English and Mathematics.

Based on their examination scores and choice of secondary schools and zoning, students are awarded places at

these secondary schools space permitting. Those students who are not awarded places at Government secondary

schools and those who choose to attend private secondary schools are awarded bursaries for assisted private

secondary schools.

Enrolment

The compulsory nature of education in Barbados from primary to the secondary level ensures one hundred percent

enrolment rate at each of these levels (that is a 100 percent transition rate). At the pre-primary level of education,

gross enrolment for the period 1994-1995 to 2000-2001 ranged between 65 and 74 percent [see Table 6.5]. Pre-

primary or nursery education is not compulsory as provision as this level of education is only provided by the

government where space is available in existing primary schools. It is estimated that the gross enrolment rate for

the pre-primary level rose from 94% in 2006 to over 100% in 2010.

During the period 1999/2000 to 2001/2002 there was a decline in enrolment by 3.6 percent reflecting the

projected population decline for this age group. On the other hand, private primary enrolment showed a 12

percent increase. Table 6.6 shows primary enrolment in government schools for the period 1995 to 2009.


30

Table 6.5: Enrolment at the Pre-primary level, 1994/95 – 2000/01

Year

Male Female Total

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

1994/1995 2449 62 2644 65 5093 65

1995/1996 2734 68 2790 69 5524 69 1996/1997 3021 75 3023 76 6044 76

1997/1998 2901 73 2903 74 5804 74

1998/1999 2914 74 2830 74 5744 74

1999/2000 2729 70 2751 72 5480 72

2000/2001 2628 70 2732 71 5630 71 Source: Ministry of Education: The Development of Education, National Report of Barbados, 2001

Table 6.6: Enrolment in Government Primary Schools, 1995-2009 (‘000)

Year Total Male Female

1995 26.4 13.20 13.20

1996 26.81 13.65 13.56

1997 26.91 13.72 15.70 1998 32.01 16.44 14.79

1999 30.21 15.44 13.06

2000 28.94 15.23 14.48

2001 29.44 14.94 14.50

2002 29.00 14.81 14.18

2003 28.32 14.39 13.94

2004 27.82 14.09 13.73

2005 28.00 14.30 13.69

2006 27.61 14.06 13.54

2007 27.09 13.70 13.39

2008 25.29 12.91 12.38

2009 25.03 12.72 12.31 Source: Barbados Socio-Economic Data-Pocket Statistics (Ministry of Labour)

6.1.5.2. Secondary Level

Curriculum

Students at the secondary level pursue a wide range of subjects up to level 5. These subjects include English

Language, English Literature, Mathematics, Additional Mathematics, French, Spanish, Science subjects (Physics,

Chemistry, Biology, Agricultural Science and Integrated Science), Home Economics (Food and Nutrition),

Clothing and Textiles, History, Geography, Social Studies, Economics, Commerce, Religious Education and

Physical Education. In addition, vocational subjects are offered at this level and include: Metal Work, Wood

Work, Technical Drawing, Typewriting, Office Practice, Principles of Accounts, Principles of Business and

Information Technology.

At the end of the fifth year at secondary school, students sit examinations in a range of subjects offered by the

Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) at the general proficiency level. Those students who are successful at the

CXC examinations may either enter the world of work at this stage or continue further studies at one of the four

sixth form schools or at Barbados Community College (BCC) where they sit the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency

Examinations (CAPE). Other options at this stage include pursuing a two-year Associate Degree at the Barbados


31

Community College. Some may opt to pursue a 4-year degree program at the University of the West Indies or

choose to follow a technical/vocational education program at the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic (SJPP).

Enrolment

At the secondary level, enrolment over the same period declined by 6.0 percent [see Table 6.7]. The ratio of male

to female enrolment was approximately 1:1 over the period 1996 to 2009.

Table 6.7: Enrolment in Government Secondary Schools, 1996-2009 (‘000)


1996 21.5 10.7 10.8

1997 21.2 10.5 10.7

1998 21.0 10.4 10.6 1999 20.44 10.18 10.26

2000 20.18 10.23 9.95

2001 21.44 10.76 10.68

2002 21.51 10.71 10.80

2003 21.88 10.93 10.95

2004 21.93 11.08 10.85

2005 21.54 10.68 10.86

2006 21.45 10.69 10.75

2007 21.38 10.67 10.71

2008 19.69 9.98 9.72

2009 19.33 9.88 9.45 Source: Barbados Socio-Economic Data-Pocket Statistics (Ministry of Labour)

6.1.5.3. Tertiary Level

Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic

Curriculum

The curriculum of the SJPP seeks to provide occupational competencies and trade skills in several areas. These

areas include Automotive Engineering, Building Trades. Electrical Engineering, Agriculture, Commercial,

Human Ecology and Mechanical Engineering. Upon successful completion of a particular course of study, the

student is awarded a certificate from the SJPP or from an overseas examining body such as City and Guilds of

London and the Royal Society of Arts.

Enrolment

The total number of full-time students who were enrolled at the Samuel Jackman Polytechnic during the 1999 to

2002 period grew from 935 during 1999-2000 to only 954 in 2001-2002, representing a 1.9 percent increase.

However, the number of students who were enrolled on a part-time basis over the same period was double the

number of full time students. Throughout the period the number of males enrolled in both full and part-time

courses outnumbered that of females, reflecting the male orientation of course offerings at that institution [see

Table 6.8]. The institution offers a number of short courses which makes it attractive to a number of individuals.

Table 6.12 provides additional enrolment data which shows total enrolment grew from 2504 students in 1999-

2000 to 2972 in 2001-2002 but fell to 2872 in 2008-9. There was a recovery in 2010-11with a total enrolment of

3073 students. Since this data is not disaggregated into type or student, sex or department, it is not possible to

comment on any change in enrolment pattern by department or sex. The available data suggest a gender


32

differential in enrolment by subject area with females dominant in commercial and human ecology areas, while

men dominate in the engineering construction and related areas.

Table 6.8: Student Enrolment at the Samuel Jackman Polytechnic by Sex and Department: 1999-2000 - 2001-2002

Department

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Automotive Engineering 139 2 141 156 3 159 142 5 147

Building Trades 180 23 203 164 23 187 151 31 182

Electrical Engineering 146 13 159 147 19 165 159 17 176

Agriculture 32 10 42 32 15 47 27 12 39

Commercial 3 117 120 10 116 126 14 108 122

Human Ecology 6 172 178 5 174 179 8 187 195 Mechanical Engineering 81 11 92 79 10 89 81 12 93

Sub-Total 587 348 935 593 360 953 582 372 954

Part-Time 1009 560 1569 978 890 1868 1097 922 2019

TOTAL 1596 908 2504 1571 1250 2821 1679 1294 2973 Source: Ministry of Education, Youth Affairs and Sports

Barbados Community College

Curriculum

The Barbados Community College offers studies mainly in technical, paraprofessional and pre-university level

courses. The curriculum includes Commerce, Computer Studies, Fine Arts, General Education, Health Science,

Hospitality Studies, Language Centre, Liberal Arts, Physical Education, Science and Technology. The

Community College offers Bachelor Degrees, Associate Degrees, Diplomas and Certificates (including a three-

year Basic Nursing Course which leads to the Registered Nurse Certificate).

Enrolment

During the period 1999-2002, the majority of full time students who were enrolled at the Barbados Community

College were females. The increase in student enrolment over the period was 37 percent. Of note was the fact

that the ratio of males to females, for the period was 1:2. The majority of full-time students were registered in the

Division of Language, Commerce and Hospitality studies and Computer Studies [see Table 6.9]. With respect to

part-time students, the same trend was seen in choice of course of study, with Commerce and Hospitality Studies

being in the forefront.

Overall, female students were enrolled in Languages by an overwhelming majority compared to males. The

number of females enrolled in the Department of Health Science and Science were noticeably greater than that of

males. Only in the area of Technology did the number of male students outnumber that of females for the entire

period.


33

Table 6.9: Enrolment at the Barbados Community College by Division and Sex 1999/2000 - 2001/2002

Division

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002

Male Fem Total Male Fem Total Male Fem Total

Commerce 104 306 410 172 403 575 236 635 871

Computer Studies 153 145 298 153 127 280 259 301 580 Fine Arts 58 70 128 67 89 156 85 148 233

General Education 15 41 56 16 44 60 35 107 142

Health Science 47 200 247 88 249 335 86 249 335

Hospitality Studies 53 190 243 104 333 437 130 481 611

Language Centre 96 362 458 82 261 343 128 397 525

Liberal Arts 83 184 267 71 159 230 71 159 230

Physical Education 16 4 20 0 0 0 14 10 24

Science 111 172 283 111 182 293 111 182 293

Technology 103 21 124 118 19 137 197 24 221

Total 839 1695 2534 980 1866 2846 1352 2693 4045 Source: Digest of Education Statistics, 2002

Erdiston Teachers’ Training College

Curriculum

The Erdiston Teachers’ College offers a two-year in-service program for teachers. Along with this program

several others are offered. These include the following:

Certificate in Education

Diploma in Education

Technical and Vocational Training

Bachelor of Education.

Enrolment

During the period 1999/2000 to 2001/2, the total numbers of teachers trained in the various programs ranged from

93 in 1999/200 to 108 in 2001/2 and 94 in 2001/2 [see Table 6.10]. The data reveal that during 1999 to 2001, the

majority of teachers were enrolled in the two-year in-service program and in the Certificate in Education program.

The numbers enrolled for the Bachelor of Education were 23 in 2000/1 and 21 in 2001/2. Except for the

Technical/Vocational Program, which had a majority of male students, the majority of the students enrolled in all

the other programs were females. In addition to full-time programs, the College also offers programs on a part-

time basis


34

Table 6.10: Erdiston Teachers’ Training College: Full-time Enrolment by Course and Year, 1999/2000 - 2001/2

Program

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002

M F T M F T M F T

Two Year In Service 3 29 32 3 29 32 9 53 62

Certificate in Education 6 23 29 12 28 40 0 0 0 Diploma in Education 8 10 18 0 0 0 0 0 0

Technical/Vocational 11 3 14 9 4 13 7 4 11

Bachelor of Education 0 0 0 8 15 23 6 15 21

Total 28 65 93 32 76 108 22 72 94 Source: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports

University of the West Indies (Cave Hill Campus)

Curriculum

The University of the West Indies at Cave Hill offers undergraduate as well as postgraduate programs in the five

faculties of the university campus. These are the Faculties of Social Sciences, Science and Technology, Law,

Humanities and Education and Medicine A wide range of courses are delivered through the faculties and students

can pursue studies at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. In recent years, there has been an increase in the

number of candidates in the PhD programmes.

Enrolment

Admission to the Bachelor’s Degree program in most faculties of the University occurs at two levels. Students

who hold CXC’s certificates (CSEC) only must undertake a four year degree programme. On the other hand,

students can enter directly into the three-year programmed based on the relevant CAPE qualifications or the

associate degree. The Master’s Degree program entails a further one or two year period of study following

completion of the Bachelor’s Degree, while a doctorate is awarded upon successful completion of a period of

further study and research.

The total number of Barbadian students who were enrolled at the Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West

Indies in undergraduate programs increased in number from 3033 in 2002-3 to 5500 in 2008-9, representing an

increase of 44.8 percent [see Tables 6.11 and 6.12]. At the undergraduate level, the total number of female

students was more than twice that of male students for each academic year and in every faculty except Science

and Technology. At the undergraduate level, the total number of male students increased from 1011 in 2002-2003

to 1789 in 2008-2009, representing an overall increase of 43.5 percent. This overall increase in the total number

of males enrolled was slightly less than the increase in total female enrolment, which stood at 45.5 percent for the

same period.

The majority of undergraduate students (that is, both males and females) were enrolled in the Faculty of Social

Sciences for the period, while second largest number were enrolled in the Faculty of Science and Technology.

This was followed by the Humanities.

During the 2002-2009 period, female students also outnumbered their male counterparts at the postgraduate level.

The total number of postgraduate students registered rose from 459 in 2002-3 to 529 in 2008-2009; this difference

represents an increase of 13.2 percent. For the 2009-2010 period, over 1200 students were admitted to undertake

postgraduate studies across the five faculties of the cave Hill Campus of the University (Daily Nation, March

2010). This number grew from a total of 529 for the 2008-9 period (see Table 6.12).


35

Table 6.11: Barbadian Undergraduate Students enrolled at UWI by Faculty 2007-8 - 2008-9

Faculty

2007-2008 2008-2009

Male Female Total Male Female Total

Social Sciences 813 1986 2799 933 2248 3181

Science and Technology 499 409 907 487 376 863 Medicine and Research 15 37 52 10 39 49

Law 24 63 87 26 51 77

Humanities 246 642 888 297 861 1158

School of Education 40 174 214 36 136 172

Total 1637 3310 4947 1789 3711 5500 Source: Ministry of Education

With respect to tertiary level education, the data from table 6.12 show that during the period 2002/3 to 2008/9:

i. there was a steady increase in the number of students in all the institutions with the exception of the

Erdiston Teachers’ College which showed a reduced intake during the period 2005/6 - 2006/7. In the case

of the University of the West Indies (UWI) female student enrolment outstripped that of male enrolment

at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels;

ii. the number of females enrolled at the University of the West Indies, the Barbados Community College

and Erdiston Teachers’ College was greater by far than the number males at the same institutions.

iii. male enrolment at the Samuel Jackman Polytechnic exceeded that of female but not by a wide margin.

Even though this institution offers technical and vocational training geared mainly towards males, the

number of females who attended during the study period continued to climb steadily.

Overall, female students were enrolled in Languages by an overwhelming majority compared to males. The

number of females enrolled in the Department of Health Science and Science were noticeably greater than that of

males. Only in the area of Technology did the number of male students outnumber that of females for the entire

period.


36

Table 6.12: Student Enrolment at Tertiary Institutions in Barbados 2002/3 - 2008/9

Institution

2002-3 2003-4 2004-5 2005-6 2006-7 2007-8 2008-9

M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T

UWI Undergrad Postgrad

1011 2022 3033 1160 2370 3530 1121 2244 3365 1388 2825 4213 1475 3083 4558 1637 3310 4947 1789 3711 5500 167 292 459 182 306 488 184 322 506 207 363 569 163 330 493 146 280 426 186 343 529

Total 1178 2314 3492 1342 2676 4018 1305 2566 3671 1595 3187 4782 1638 3413 5051 1783 3590 5373 1975 4054 6029

BCC 1277 2420 3697 1116 2332 3448 1242 2483 3725 1429 2655 4144 1326 2539 3865 1402 2886 4288 1459 3001 4460

SJPP 1498 1474 2972 1593 1351 2944 1843 1518 3161 1726 1110 2836 1524 1248 2772 1632 1516 3148 1360 1512 2872

Erdiston 93 130 233 87 139 226 87 139 226 32 67 99 50 138 188 40 192 241 84 217 301

Source: Barbados, Socioeconomic Data, 2009

Notes: UWI - University of the West Indies

BCC - Barbados Community College

SJPP - Samuel Jackman Polytechnic


37

6.1.6 Output of the Education System

6.1.6.1. Primary Level Output

Between 1996 and 2004, over three thousand students took the examination annually. A summary of the BSSEE

results for the period 1996 and 2004 is presented in Table 6.13

Data on the National Mean of BSSEE by sex for the period 1999 to 2002 reveal that, on average, females did

much better than males in English and Mathematics [see Table 6.14]. Additionally, data for the same period

indicate that the majority of students who took the examination before the age of 11 were females, while a large

number of male students were deferred especially in 2000/1 and 2001/2 (Digest of Education Statistics, 2002).

Table 6.13: Summary of BSSEE Results, 1996-2004


1996 1968 1963 3931

1997 1868 1970 3838

1998 1938 1876 3814

1999 1852 1759 3611

2000 1979 1847 3826

2001 2085 2061 4146

2002 2033 2019 4052

2003 2078 2119 4107

2004 1986 1884 3970 Source: Ministry of Education

Table 6.14: National Mean of BSSEE by Gender 1999/2000 - 2001-2002

Year

English Mathematics

Male Female Overall Male Female Overall

1999-2000 38.70 50.34 46.22 36.09 44.16 41.64

2000-2001 45.25 51.99 48.41 57.44 62.88 59.85

2001-2002 53.44 62.65 58.05 46.41 54.13 50.27 Source: Ministry of Education

6.1.6.2. Secondary Level Output

Caribbean Examination Council results for the period 1999/2000 - 2001/2002 reveal that over 90 percent of

students consistently passed in the technical/vocational subjects, Clothing and Textiles and Food and Nutrition.

On the whole there were greater percentages passes in the technical and vocational areas for the period [see Table

6.15]. While 73 percent of students who sat English passed, only 57 percent who sat Mathematics during this

period passed (Digest of Education Statistics, 2002).

According to Table 6.16, for the period 1995 to 2006, the number of females who were successful at these

examinations outnumbered males by a wide margin in every year of the examination. This trend was observed at

both the public and private education system. This difference in performance by sex was much greater in the

private system. When one considers that the numbers of males and females who enter the secondary school

system are approximately the same, the difference in performance is even more glaring. This difference in

performance at the secondary level may explain why larger numbers of females than males go on to enroll at

tertiary institutions such as the Barbados Community College and the University of the West Indies to pursue


38

academic subjects while more males are enrolled at the Samuel Jackman Polytechnic where they pursue technical

and vocational education or join the world of work.

Table 6.15: National CXC Examination Results: General/Technical Proficiency Level 1999/2000 – 2001/2002

% Passes

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002

Subject %Passes Subject %Passes Subject

>90 % Clothing/Textile >90% Clothing/Textile >90% Clothing /Textile

Food Nutrition Metals Food and Nutrition

> 80%

Geography >80%

Agricultural Science >80%

Caribbean History

Integrated Science Food and Nutrition Geography

Music Home Economics Home Economics

Principles of Business Integrated Science Integrated Science > 70%

Metals Information Technology Office Procedures

Office Procedures Music Social Studies

Technical Drawing Social Studies Woods

Visual Arts Visual Arts >70%

English A

Woods Woods Physics

> 60%

Agricultural Science >70%

Caribbean History Principles of Business

Biology English A Spanish

Caribbean History Geography Visual Arts

Chemistry Music >60%

Agricultural Science

English A, English B Spanish Biology

Mathematics Technical Drawing Chemistry

Principles of Accounts >60%

Biology English B

Social Studies Building Technology French

Spanish French, Electronics Electrical Technology

Physics Information Technology

Principles of Accounts Mechanical Engineering

Principles of Business Music

Principles of Accounts Technical Drawing Source: Ministry of Education: Digest of Education Statistics, 1999-2002


39

Table 6.16: Passes at CXC General Proficiency Level Examinations, 1995-2007

Public Total

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

8484 9292 10404 11194 11496 11222 12004 12681 14867 15065 13308 16402 7919

Male 3327 3809 4201 4410 4603 4508 4804 4984 5500 5813 5730 6094 2891

Female 5157 5483 6203 6784 6893 6714 7200 7697 9367 9252 9578 10302 5028

Private Total

1065 1355 1369 2505 2316 1692 1721 2021 212 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Male 312 371 374 741 617 512 556 571 84 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Female 753 984 995 1764 1699 1180 1165 1450 128 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Source : Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development


40

6.1.6.3. Tertiary Level Output

Between 1995 and 2007, the number of graduates particularly from the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill),

the Barbados Community College and the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic increased significantly. Except

for the polytechnic, the overwhelming majority of graduates for the period were females.

Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic

The number of graduates from this institution for the period under investigation varied. In 1995, there were only

250 graduates and, despite fluctuation in the number, by 2005, there was an increase of over 200 percent in the

number of graduates from this institution (see Table 6.17).

Table 6.17: Number of SJPP Graduates, 1995-2007 (000)


1995 0.19 0.06 0.25

1996 0.21 0.16 0.37

1997 0.60 0.51 1.11

1998 0.67 0.05 1.17

1999 0.64 0.66 1.30

2000 0.62 0.35 0.97

2001 0.33 0.79 1.12

2002 0.62 0.35 0.97 2003 0.59 0.37 0.96

2004 0.46 0.43 0.89

2005 0.49 0.37 0.86

2006 0.14 0.19 0.32

2007 0.43 0.40 0.83

2008 0.44 0.38 0.82 Source: Ministry of Labour: Digest of Labour Statistics, 2007

On the whole, the overwhelming majority of graduates for the period were males. This comes as no surprise since

the curriculum is geared towards male-oriented courses.

Barbados Community College

Barbados Community College graduates during the period 1995 to 2007 are shown in Table 6.18. For the entire

period female graduates far outnumbered male graduates. Unfortunately, the data are not disaggregated by

program so it is not possible to indicate the areas where either sex dominated.


41

Table 6.18: Number of BCC Graduates by Sex, 1995-2007 (000)


1995 0.48 0.88 1.36

1996 0.21 0.63 0.84

1997 0.36 0.99 1.35 1998 0.15 0.33 0.48

1999 0.22 0.37 0.59

2000 0.43 1.14 1.57

2001 0.46 1.05 1.51

2002 0.45 1.09 1.54

2003 0.43 1.10 1.53

2004 0.25 .64 0.89

2005 0.29 0.64 0.93

2006 0.40 0.89 1.29

2007 0.30 0.69 0.99

2008 0.30 0.92 1.28 Source: Ministry of Labour, Digest of Labour Statistics, various issues

Erdiston Teachers’ Training College

Data for three periods, 1999-2000, 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 show that the total number of graduates of the

college increased from 93 during the 1999-2000 period to 103 over the 2000-2001 period but fell to 94 during the

2001-2002 period [see Table 6.19]. The distribution of graduates by sex reflects the pattern seen in the teaching

profession at the primary and secondary levels of the education system, that is, an over-representation of females.

Only in the technical and vocational program did the number of male graduates surpass that of female graduates.

Table 6.19: Erdiston Teachers’ Training College Graduates, 1999-2002 (number)

Program

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

2-year in-service 32 3 29 32 3 29 62 9 53

Certificate in Education 29 6 23 40 12 28 0 0 0

Diploma in Education 18 8 10 0 0 0 0 0 0

Technical/Vocational 14 11 3 13 9 4 11 7 4

Bachelor of Education 0 0 0 23 8 15 21 6 15

Total 93 28 65 108 32 76 94 22 72 Source: University of the West Indies (Cave Hill Campus)

Between the period 1995 and 2007, the number of graduates of the University of the West Indies fluctuated. In

1995, there were 370 graduates. In 2007 this number had almost tripled to 930, with some fluctuation in the

intervening years [see Table 6.20]. The number of female graduates outnumbered that of male graduates by a

ratio of approximately 2:1. Data are not available according faculty but given the trend shown in enrolment by

sex, it follows that female graduates surpassed male in nearly all faculties of this institution.


42

Table 6.20: Number of UWI Graduates according to Sex, 1995-2007


1995 370 120 250

1996 410 150 260

1997 430 150 280 1998 500 170 330

1999 540 190 350

2000 780 250 530

2001 740 260 480

2002 760 260 500

2003 650 230 420

2004 720 230 490

2005 1010 300 710

2006 850 230 620

2007 930 280 650

2008 1000 300 700 Source: Digest of Labour Statistics, various issues

6.2. Health Conditions

The health sector in Barbados has played a pivotal role in underpinning the socioeconomic development of the

country since independence in 1966. Health policies of successive administrations of government have fostered a

high quality of health care that is free to the public at the point of delivery. Much focus has been placed in the

delivery of primary health in a comprehensive manner mainly through a system of polyclinics located across the

country.

6.2.1 Objectives of the Health Sector

To a large extent, the provision of health services in Barbados has been the responsibility of the Government of

Barbados through the Ministry of Health. The objectives of the Ministry of Health with respect to health care

provision have been (Barbados Economic and Social Report, 1995):

i. to promote health

ii. to provide comprehensive health care and ensure that Barbados’ natural and historical resources are

properly managed through environmentally sound principles in all aspects of development planning

iii. to provide primary, secondary, tertiary and emergency care as well as care for the elderly

iv. to provide a continuous supply of drugs to institutions and the public

v. to provide rehabilitative care for the disabled and

vi. to support health promotion programs

In addition to the Government’s involvement in the delivery of health care, there is also a growing private sector

interest in this area. Additionally, there are non-governmental organisations (NGOs) with interest in specialized

areas of health. Collectively, they are all stakeholders in health care.


43

6.2.2 Health Infrastructure

The population of Barbados is served by a wide network of health facilities consisting of hospitals, polyclinics,

satellite clinics and private health care facilities. The Queen Elizabeth Hospital (QEH), a 600-bed teaching and

research institution, is the premier health facility in the country. It provides acute, secondary, tertiary and

emergency care.

Successive governments have focused attention on primary health care and public health as a means of improving

the health of the population on a sustained basis. To this end eight polyclinics were built and strategically located

across the eleven parishes. The polyclinics are the first point of contact with health care services for communities

across the country for several persons. In addition, there are four satellite clinics. The polyclinics provide a wide

range of preventive and rehabilitative services that is comprehensive in nature. These services include maternal

and child health, immunization, oral health, ophthalmic service, general practice service, diabetes and

hypertension clinics, nutrition education, physiotherapy, pharmaceuticals, environmental health and limited

mental health care.

Additionally, there are four district hospitals and one geriatric hospital which provide care for the elderly. Mental

health services are provided by the Psychiatric Hospital. All government-run institutions provide health care free

of charge at the point of delivery to citizens of Barbados. There is, however, provision for private care at the

Queen Elizabeth Hospital on a limited basis.

Public health care is supplemented by a private health care system consisting of two hospitals, much smaller in

size and scope than the QEH with a total complement of 32 beds. There are also three medical centres which offer

mainly acute and emergency care on a 24-hour basis. Further private care is delivered through a number of

private medical practitioners.

On the whole, there are 66 hospital beds per 10,000 persons in Barbados (WHO, 2009). While there is no global

norm, this figure compares favourably with that of the European region where there are 63 beds per 10,000

persons. This is in stark contrast to regions in the world where the number of beds per10,000 population is listed

as 10.

6.2.3 Public Expenditure on Health

Successive administrations of government in Barbados have been steadfast in their commitment to health care as

reflected in the proportion of government expenditure that is allocated to the health sector. Overall, the health

sector receives the third largest share of total government expenditure.

Current and capital expenditure data on health between fiscal years 1994/95 and 2005/6 reveal that over 15

percent of total government expenditure was directed towards the Ministry of Health (see Table 6.21). During the

1996/7 fiscal year, the Ministry of Health was allocated over 22 percent of total government expenditure.

Recurrent expenditure in that fiscal year amounted to Bds $145m, while capital expenditure stood at Bds $8.2m.

Approximately 23.9 percent of the recurrent health budget is allocated to primary health care programs. The QEH

receives over 68 percent of Hospital Services budget and these funds are used to provide in-patient, out-patient

and support services. Hospital Services program includes the QEH, the Emergency Ambulance Service,

Psychiatric Hospital, Care of the Elderly and the Medical Aid Scheme.


44

Table 6.21: Government Expenditure on Health 1994/95-2005/06 Bds$000

Fiscal Year

Current Expenditure Capital Expenditure Total Health Exp (%) Total

Expend Health

Expend

Percent Total

Expend Health

Expend

Percent

1994/95 990215 145054 14.6 103810 8282 7.9 22.5

1995/96 1058916 152992 14.4 135362 7710 5.7 20.1

1996/97 1134248 159234 14.0 219647 8122 3.7 17.7

1997/98 1254937 163547 13.0 247412 6676 2.7 15.7

1998/99 1332881 178609 13.4 247821 5782 2.3 15.7

1999/00 1407288 191945 13.6 261795 6618 2.5 16.1

2000/01 1514402 202678 13.4 290610 8574 2.9 16.3

2001/02 1582077 219887 13.9 334645 10218 3.0 16.9

2002/03 1671492 233756 13.9 321087 12968 4.0 17.7

2003/04 1745499 239868 13.7 244827 5694 2.3 16.0

2004/05 1822461 248698 13.6 223451 5825 2.6 16.2

2005/06 1984166 263129 13.3 252379 5926 2.3 15.6

2006/07 2096037 287276 13.7 255169 6232 2.4 16.1 Source: Central Bank of Barbados, Annual Statistical Digest, 2007

For the fiscal year 2008/9, funds allocated to the health budget amounted to Bds $471.2m which represented an

improvement of Bds$101.4m over the 2007/8 financial year. Forty-five percent of these funds went to hospital

services in order to cover the operations of the QEH (i.e., emergency care, acute care and secondary care as well

as medical aid). Eight percent was directed towards the care of the elderly and district hospitals, while the

Pharmaceutical program received Bds$43m or 9 percent of the total budget. In addition, primary health care and

environmental health services received 6.1 and 18.0 percent, respectively.

Between 2002 and 2006, Barbados’ health expenditure per capita was increased from US$625 to US $774 (see

Table 6.22). On average, global spending on health for 2006 was 8.7 percent of the gross domestic product. The

highest level of spending, 12.8 percent was seen in the Americas and the lowest or 3.4 percent in South East Asia

(WHO, 2009). In Barbados, government spending on health amounted to 6.6 percent of GDP.

Table 6.22: Barbados’ Health Expenditure per capita 2002-2006, (current US$)

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Amount (US$ 625 645 688 729 774 Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, nd

6.2.4 Human Resources

Adequate skilled human resources are necessary if the government is to meet the health care needs of the

population. The total numbers of persons in selected areas of health for the period 1995 to 2007 are shown in

Table 6.23. Between 2000 and 2007, Barbados recorded a density of 13.7 physicians per 10,000 population.

Globally, the number of physicians per 10,000 population stands at 13, varying from 2 per 10,000 population in

the African region to 32 per 10,000 population in the European region. With respect to nursing staff, in 1999,

there were 51.2 nurses and midwives per 10,000 population. Globally, there are 29 nurses and midwives per

10,000 population (WHO, 2009). Total health workers (that is, physicians and nurses) in Barbados in 1999 stood

at 64.9 per 10,000 population. This figure exceeds by far the minimum number the WHO estimates that is

required to satisfy the primary health care requirements for a country in order for it to fulfill the Millennium

Development Goals.


45

Barbados experienced a significant loss in its nursing staff in 2002 (see Table 6.23) as locally trained nurses

migrated to Europe where they felt greater economic opportunities and opportunities for advancement awaited

them. The Government of Barbados responded to the shortfall in nursing personnel by importing nurses from the

Phillipines, Nigeria and, more recently, from some CARICOM countries. This measure is regarded as short term

one as the Government has increased the number of students enrolled in the three-year registered nurses program

offered at the Barbados Community College.

Table 6.23: Selected Health Care Professionals in Barbados 1995 - 2007

Category 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Doctors/Physicians 172 291 333 366 319 432 420

Registered Nurses 358 632 1019 1152 570 594 720

Midwives 157 318 427 495 285 245 241

Pharmacists 105 169 145 189 146 232 230

Dentists 50 51 57 53 27 61 68

Nutritionists 11 11 11 13 13 n.a. 3

Medical Lab Technologists 25 32 49 51 26 32 32

Environmental Health Inspectors* 94 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 100 n.a. Source: Ministry of Labour and the Civil Service: Digest of Labour Statistics, various issues

*Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer, 2002-2003

6.2.5 Pharmaceutical Program

The Barbados Drug Service consists of fourteen (14) pharmacies located across the country. The Service was

established in 1980 in order to provide prescription drugs free of charge to qualified recipients. It controls the

importation and distribution of essential drugs in the country. The Service has been effective in controlling the

expenditure on procurement of drugs.

In Barbados, prescription drugs are available free of charge to children under 16 years of age and adults over 65

years of age as well as those suffering from conditions such as diabetes, asthma, cancer, hypertension and

epilepsy through a Special Benefit Service.

In order to better facilitate the dispensing of these medications, the Service has established contractual agreements

with private pharmacies so as to meet the prescription requirements of patients. For the 2004/5 fiscal year, more

than one million prescriptions were submitted by private pharmacies that participate in the Special Benefit Service

at a cost of over Bds$11m to the Government of Barbados. Table 6.24 shows the number of prescriptions

processed by private pharmacies on behalf of the Ministry of Health and the amounts reimbursed. The number

prescriptions filled by private pharmacies almost doubled over the period. In 2009-10 over 770,000 prescriptions

were filled in the public sector at a cost of $14.4 million.


46

Table 6.24: Special Benefits Statistics for the year April 1994 to March 31, 2003

Year

Prescription Number

Reimbursement Bds$

1994-1995 578,808 8,307,134.00

1995-1996 692,735 10,221,586.57

1996-1997 743,765 11,437,887.32

1997-1998 803,890 10,857,428.00

1998-1999 806,950 9,273,790.00

1999-2000 786,738 13,590,362.79

2000-2001 n.a. 15,798,637.00

2001-2002 921,110 17,360,242.00

2002-2003 955,000 18,814.31 Source: Barbados Drug Service

6.2.6 Family Planning Program

Between 1955 and 1994, the population of Barbados grew by 15 percent, with growth in the 15-29 years age

group increasing by 24 percent (Barbados Social and Economic Report, 1997). In 1995, the population stood at

264 thousand and in 2010, the figure rose to 276 thousand. The rate of population growth has remained rather

small since 1995 (see Table 6.25). During the 1997 to 2007 period, while the world’s population growth rate

stood at 1.3 percent, while that of Barbados, for the corresponding period averaged 0.3 percent. The total fertility

rate for the decade of the nineties remained below 2 children per woman in the 15 to 49 years age group

(Barbados Social and Economic Report, 1997). However, with a population density of 625 persons per square

kilometer, in 2005, Barbados had the distinction of being the tenth most populous nation in the world.

Table 6.25: Rates of Birth, Death and Natural Increase, 1995-2010

Year

Population (000) Birth Rate (000)

Death Rate (000)

Rate of Nat Increase (000)

Rate of Pop Growth (%)

1995 264.4 13.1 9.4 3.7 0.4 1996 264.6 13.3 9.1 4.2 0.1

1997 266.1 14.3 8.7 5.6 0.6

1998 266.8 13.6 9.3 4.3 0.4

1999 267.4 14.5 9.0 5.5 0.2

2000 269.1 14.0 9.1 5.0 0.6

2001 270.4 15.0 8.9 6.1 0.6

2002 271.3 14.1 8.5 5.6 0.3

2003 272.2 13.8 8.4 5.4 0.3

2004 272.7 12.7 8.9 3.8 0.2

2004 273.4 12.8 7.9 4.9 0.3

2006 274.0 12.4 8.5 3.9 0.2

2007 274.7 12.9 8.1 4.8 0.3

2008 275.3P 12.9 9.0 3.9 0.2

2009 275.7p 12.9 8.8 4.1 0.1

2010 276.3 12.9 8.0 4.2 0.2 Source: Barbados Statistical Service, Ministry of Health

Successive administrations of government in Barbados have recognized that in order for the country to sustain the

gains it had achieved in social and economic development it was necessary to control population growth. In fact,


47

by controlling population growth every citizen stood to benefit from a better quality of life. Barbados has been

able to control its population through the implementation of a family planning program. The Barbados Family

Planning Association was established in 1953 in order to fulfill this objective.

The Barbados Family Association (BFPA), a non-governmental organisation, is the main agency offering a wide

range of services in the area of family planning. These services include family life education and peer counseling

which target adolescents and young adults thus enabling them to better manage their sexual and reproductive

health. In addition, pap smears, pregnancy tests, contraceptives as well as sterilization services are available to the

public (see Table 6.26). Clients obtain these services through visits to the Association.

Demand for contraceptive services decreased by 16 to 20 percent in 2001, though the community-based

distribution of contraceptive services showed some increase in the volume of items sold. This finding probably

speaks to the desire of clients to avoid the stigma that is associated with visits to t0he BFPA office. Pregnancy

tests for the period mentioned above were also down by 39 percent. On the whole, there was a decline in the use

of the Association’s services in 2001. The services of the Association can now be accessed at all of the island’s

polyclinics. There is ongoing training for nurses who work in this area.

Table 6.26: Medical and Clinical Services offered by the BFPA 1999-2001

1999 2000 2001 2000-2002 % Change

New clients/acceptor visits 3164 2020 1062 (47)

Old Clients/Acceptor visits 10672 10543 8999 (14)

Total clients/Acceptor visits 13836 12563 10061 (19)

Contraceptive visits 5146 4694 3943 (16)

Pap Smear Tests 1573 1667 1602 (3)

Pregnancy Tests 987 1156 700 (39)

Doctors attended 4811 5002 4791 (4)

Advice Counselling 4321 3629 3840 6

Sterilization - Tubal ligation 13 15 16 19

Vasectomy 18 16 6 (61) Source: Ministry of Health; Barbados Family Planning Association

6.2.7 Maternal Health

Maternal and child health services to mother and child and adolescents are the main focus of the health care

delivery service at polyclinics. Women of child bearing age benefit from free ante- and post-natal care which is

delivered through these polyclinics. In addition to these services, family life development which includes family

planning and nutrition counseling are offered.

Women across the island have access to these services mainly because polyclinics and satellite clinics are

strategically located to reach particular catchment areas. A well-developed network of roads further improves

access. According to the Ministry of Health’s record, between 2000 and 2008, there was 100 percent ante-natal

coverage for pregnant women and between 1990 and 2008, 100 percent of all births were attended by skilled

health personnel. Between the 30th and 36

th week of pregnancy, all antenatal cases are referred to the Queen

Elizabeth Hospital for continued care prior to delivery. Pregnant women who are HIV positive are given the anti-

retroviral drug, AZT. It has been shown that only 5 percent of infants of these women have remained HIV

positive to the age of 18 months, indicating a 95 percent success rate in treatment. The quality of maternal care is


48

very high and this is reflected in very low maternal mortality. In fact, figures show that for 2005, there was 0.16

death per 1000 population.

6.2.8 Infant and Child Mortality

Infant mortality is defined as the probability of a child dying between birth and age one, while child mortality is

the probability of a child dying by age 5. Good access to pre and post-natal care for pregnant women has

contributed significantly to improved infant and child health in Barbados. WHO data (2009) show that, with

regards to infant mortality, the rate for 1990, 2000 and 2007 were 15, 12 and 11 deaths per 1000 births,

respectively. There were slightly lower rates for female infants (see Table 6.27).

In the case of child mortality, a similar pattern is shown with rates for 1990, 2000 and 2007 being 17, 13 and 12

deaths per 1000 births, respectively. Again, there were slightly lower rates for female children. In each case, the

values show a downward trend.

Table 6.27: Infant and Child Mortality in Barbados 1990, 2000 and 2007

Year

Infant Mortality (no per 1000 births) Child Mortality (no per 1000 births)

Male Female Both Male Female Both

1990 18 12 15 19 14 17

2000 12 12 12 13 13 13

2007 11 10 11 11 12 12 Source: WHO, World Health Statistics, 2009

Generally, countries that have high life expectancies, as is the case of Barbados, show low infant and child

mortality rates.

6.2.9 Immunization Coverage

The objective of achieving 100 percent immunization coverage for children in Barbados is well within reach of

the health authorities. The Ministry of Health’s immunization campaign has been effective in preventing many

common childhood diseases which contribute to high infant and child mortality rates.

Table 6.28 shows the extent of immunization coverage for conditions such as DPT (Diptheria, Pertussis and

Tetanus), Polio and MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rubella for the period 1996 to 2001.

Table 6.28: Immunization Coverage by Type 1996-2001. (%)

Year DPT Polio MMR

1996 92.7 89.9 100.0

1997 87.9 88.3 84.5

1998 87.7 88.1 92.2

1999 86.8 85.6 86.2

2000 97.0 96.0 92.0

2001 97.0 96.0 93.0 Source: Barbados Social and Economic Report

By 2001, over 90 percent of all children under the age of five had been immunized against DPT, Polio and MMR.

Prior to universal coverage, these diseases wreaked havoc on the health of infants leading to high mortality rates.

In 2001, a drive was mounted by the Ministry of Health to increase immunization coverage for children under 5


49

years of age. This expanded program on immunization was conducted by CAREC and PAHO in conjunction

with officials of the Ministry of Health.

The findings of the program were that:

i. of the 23 percent of the national budget allocated to primary health care, maternal and child health

received 70 percent of the funds;

ii. the Government was committed to sustaining the procurement of vaccination. An increase of 150

percent of funds was allocated for the purchase of vaccines. This increase was mainly for the

pentavalent DTP/Hepatitis B/HIB vaccine for those under one year and the second dose of measles,

mumps and rubella for all children.

Clearly, these initiatives show the Government’s commitment to the health of the population and particularly that

of the young.

6.2.10 Dental Care

The primary goal of the dental service is to provide preventive and restorative care for children and adolescents up

to 18 years of age. This is done through oral and dental screenings, promotional activities, monitoring and

preventive and emergency treatment (Annual Report of the CMO, 2002-2003). Basic dental care provided

includes fillings, preventive treatment, root canal therapy and limited orthodontic care.

In 1997, in the English-speaking Caribbean, Barbados stood out as the only country offering a comprehensive

dental care service free of cost to children and adolescents up to age 18. Free dental care is administered through

the polyclinics. In 1996, the number of cases seen increased by 20 percent over the number of cases of the

previous year. With respect to restorative dental care, there was a 39 percent increase in the number of cases seen

and a thirty-five percent corresponding decline in the extraction of permanent teeth.

6.2.11 Ophthalmic Care

Ophthalmic care is provided for children up to 18 years age as is the case in dental care. While most polyclinics

are able to provide screening tests, only the Winston Scott polyclinic is equipped to carry out more detailed and

corrective ophthalmic care.

6.2.12 Environmental Health

The Environmental Health Division of the Ministry of Health is charged with the responsibility of removing

threats to human health posed by, contaminated water and food, disease carrying vectors such as mosquitoes and

rodents and generally unsanitary conditions.

In 1996, the department stepped up its surveillance and monitoring of meat by 6.1 percent. In 1999, food quality

control was implemented through passage of the appropriate legislation which was essentially designed to address

food imported into the country. Food catering establishments are routinely inspected to prevent the transmission

of food borne illnesses. Food handlers are routinely tested to ensure that they are free of the bacteria that may

cause food-borne illnesses. In 1999, food handlers benefited from training in the application of the principles of

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) in order to reduce contamination of and/spoilage of food.


50

Fogging exercises are conducted regularly especially following heavy rainfall so as to control/eliminate the aedes

aegypti mosquito which is responsible for transmission of dengue fever. Another mosquito vector targeted by the

environmental officials is the anopheles which is responsible for the transmission of malaria. Debushing

exercises are carried out regularly so as to eliminate breeding sites of these insects. Chemical spraying is also

employed around homes where the potential exists for mosquito breeding. The department also provides

rodenticides in order to control the rodent population and thus the spread of leptospirosis.

One hundred percent of the population in Barbados has access to improved drinking water sources. With regards

to improved sanitation, Table 6.29 shows that for 1990, 2000 and 2006, while 100 percent of rural dwellers had

access to improved sanitation, only 99 percent of their urban counterparts benefited. This difference is

accessibility undoubtedly speaks to pockets of poverty that still exist within urban areas.

Table 6.29: Population with Access to Improved Drinking Water Sources and Improved Sanitation (%)

Category 1990 2000 2006

Improved Drinking Water Source: Urban Improved Drinking Water Source: Rural

100 100 100

100 100 100

Total 100 100 100

Improved Sanitation: Urban 99 99 99 Improved Sanitation: Rural 100 100 100

Total 100 100 99 Source: WHO: World Health Statistics, 2009

Monitoring of the island’s water - ground, spring and nearshore waters is the responsibility of the Environmental

Engineering Department which falls under the Ministry of the Environment. Routine testing of samples of water

from the majority of these sites shows that levels for the parameters being measured are well within the WHO

limits. However, of some concern is the quality of ground water at two sites located in the parish of St Michael.

At one site in particular, residential dwellings were erected in spite of the fact that this area is designated Zone

One (no residential dwellings allowed). Very high levels of nitrates as well as evidence of coliform bacteria

(faecal organisms) have been found. The latter situation is associated with inadequate disposal of sewage. High

nitrates level at both sites are attributed to heavy fertilizer use as the area is zoned for agricultural activity.

Although the levels of these parameters do not exceed the WHO standard of 10mg/l, at two of these sites levels

were consistently over 9.0 mg/l (that is, 9.3mg/l and 9.1mg/l (BES, 2007). This situation certainly poses a threat

to the health of population these wells serve and is definitely a cause for much concern.

The situation has the potential for worsening with respect to the parameters that are monitored because of even

more evidence of illegal erection of dwelling places. Investigation shows that in St Michael, several areas have

been used by squatters to erect houses. These include Howell’s X Road, My Lord’s Hill, Belle View, Licorish

Village and McLean’s Land in St Michael and Rock Hall in St Phillip. These are all Zone One areas.

Contamination of the drinking water can have serious health consequences for users.

In response to high nitrate levels and bacteria in the ground water in the Belle, the Cabinet agreed that the

Barbados Water Authority should:

i. build a 15,000 cubic metre per day brackish water reverse osmosis plant at the Belle at a cost of US$

18.6m

ii. the Zone 1 boundary at the 1963 demarcation should remain but a comprehensive study should be

undertaken to review existing zoning regulations at a national level to determine the suitability in present

day as appropriate protective barrier against ground water contamination;


51

iii. appropriate sewering of the Belle Area and its environs in an attempt to improve Zone 1 environmental

conditions.

To date, the problems have not been effectively addressed though efforts have been made to find solutions. So

far, only a feasibility study has been undertaken.

6.2.13 Communicable Diseases

The number of cases of the various communicable diseases that once were a source of great concern has been

significantly reduced. Mortality rates have been drastically reduced as a result of advanced treatment and

improvement in standards of hygiene. However, despite this success, some of diseases are recurring as a result of

environmental changes (for example, global warming), greater movement of people and goods as well as

increased resistance of these organisms. Some of these communicable diseases that still cause concern are

Dengue Fever, Salmonellosis, gastroenteritis and Leptospirosis.

Dengue Fever is endemic in Barbados with four serotypes of the virus identified. The aedes aegypti mosquito is

the vector for this virus. For the years 2001, 2002 and 2003, this disease ranked as the leading cause of morbidity

in the country (see Table 6.30). During 1995, there were a record number of cases of Dengue fever. Increases in

the number of Dengue cases are associated with heavy rainfall and increases in the number of breeding sites for

the aedes aegypti mosquito. During 2003, there was one confirmed death from dengue hemorrhagic disease.

In 2003, 35000 man hours were lost as a result of the disease. Saint Peter and St Lucy are the two parishes with

the highest rate of infection. Debushing programs as well as home inspection visits are implemented by the

Ministry of Health in order to discourage breeding of the aedes aegypti mosquito. Other methods employed are

public education to discourage breeding of the mosquito as well as chemical control through fogging and

chemical spraying.

Table 6.30: Reported Cases of Six Leading Communicable and Notifiable Diseases, 2001-2003

Disease

2003 2002 2001

Rank Number Rank Number Rank Number

Dengue Fever 1 997 1 947 1 1109

Salmonellosis 3 60 2 93 2 82

Gastroenteritis 4 22 4 37 3 67

Leptospirosis 4 22 5 9 4 18

Bacillary Dysentery - - 6 6 6 6

Bronchopneumonia 2 107 3 40 5 44 Source: Annual Report of the CMO, 2002-2003

The number of cases of tuberculosis remains low in Barbados but between 1999 and 2003, there was a steady

increase in the number of cases of tuberculosis (TB) resulting in one case of death in 2003. However, overall, the

number of cases of the disease still remains low. The steady rise in the number of tuberculosis cases seen in the

country parallels the growing HIV/AIDS pandemic as the immune system of affected persons becomes

compromised thereby making them susceptible to diseases which have hitherto been eradicated or kept under

control. The majority of the reported cases of TB were of the pulmonary type. With the implementation of the

Ministry of Health’s Highly Active AntiRetroviral Therapy (HAART) program, it is likely that there will be more

HIV-positive persons living longer and their immuno-compromised states will make them more susceptible to TB

and consequently the number of cases of TB will rise.


52

Salmonella is the most common agent responsible for food borne illness. Its presence is an indication a breach in

the standard of food safety practices by food handlers. Between 1999 and 2005, there was a decline in the number

of cases of Salmonella poisoning no doubt due to greater quality control imposed by the HACCP program and

ongoing training of food handlers. Insufficient data on other food borne illnesses make it difficult to draw any

meaningful conclusion. No doubt, the training program instituted to upgrade the skills of those involved in the

preparation of food in established eating places as well as itinerant vendors has had some beneficial results.

The number of reported cases of malaria in Barbados has been small. There were two cases of the diseases

reported for each of the following years, 1995, 1997 and 2005. In 2000, there were 4 such cases. Although cases

of malaria have been imported into Barbados, wetland surveillance shows that the disease vector, the anopheles

mosquito, has been found in Barbados. Active surveillance has been successful in preventing a greater number of

persons from being infected with the disease.

The number of new cases of HIV/AIDS varied over the period under study. Data from CAREC show that after a

reported 95 new cases in 1995, there was a decline to 58 in 1997. But in 2000, the number of new cases rose

again to 219. Most recent data show that the number of new cases reported stood at 76.

The Government of Barbados has adopted a range of strategies in order to control the spread of this disease. The

strategies employed include community outreach programs, education campaigns in primary and secondary

schools as well as testing of the public and counseling. Despite these efforts, a number of persons, notably those

in the 25-49 age group have succumbed to the disease. The new data show that more males than females are

affected.

6.2.14 Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases (CNCDs)

Barbados, like other Caribbean countries is in epidemiological transition where infectious diseases and

malnutrition that once plagued these countries have all but disappeared except, of course for HIV/AIDS. The

region is now threatened by the rapid rise in chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs).

These diseases include hypertension, heart disease, some cancers (particularly of the cervix, prostate and breast)

and type-2 diabetes. Overweight and obesity are part of this trend. A survey conducted in Barbados in 2007

revealed that 58 percent of the population is overweight with 30 percent being obese. These conditions are

mainly life- style related. They are characterized by low levels of physical activity (the survey found 59 percent

and 42.5 percent of men), high caloric intake, and increases in the consumption of fatty diets associated with ‘fast

foods’. The ‘new’ diet is now low in fresh fruit and vegetables but high in animal fat, sugar and salt. Sharma et

al (2008) report a rise in diet-related chronic non-communicable diseases in Barbados and a need for nutritional

intervention because of the high prevalence of these conditions.

Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases (CNCDs) are now the principal causes of morbidity and mortality in

Barbados. Table 6.32 shows the ten principal causes of death with rates per thousand population between 2001

and 2003. In 2002, diabetes caused the highest number of deaths in Barbados. Overall, diabetes, cerebrovascular

diseases and disease of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart diseases were the number one, two and

three causes of mortality in Barbados. As a leading cause of mortality in Barbados, type 2 diabetes has now been

affecting young adults in their twenties. Associated with this disease are eye abnormalities which are now being

reported. Of growing concern too, is the increasing number of amputation of lower limbs that is accompanying

uncontrolled diabetes.


53

The costs of hypertension and diabetes were measured in four (4) Caribbean countries: Bahamas, Barbados,

Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago in 2001. The data assume that all patients in the study who needed therapy

received it. The results of the study (Table 6.31) indicate that the total costs of treatment varied across the

countries ranging from US $27m to US$484m for Trinidad and Tobago which paid the highest percentage GDP

for diabetes. In the case of Barbados and Jamaica, direct costs were a significant proportion of total costs.

Overall, diabetes represented 0.5, 1.83, 2.66 and 5.21 percent of GDP for the Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica and

Trinidad and Tobago, respectively. With respect to hypertension, the costs of this disease were much more for all

countries except Trinidad and Tobago. Barbados paid the highest percentage of GDP (3.5%) of all the countries.

Table 6.31: Economic burden of Diabetes and Hypertension in selected Caribbean Countries, 2001 (US $)

Bahamas Barbados Jamaica Trinidad/Tobago Diabetes

Direct Cost 16,745,343 34,905,372 170,452,990 128,702,050

Indirect Cost 10,523,286 2,895,766 38,361,390 355,696,731

Total Cost 27,268,629 37,801,138 208,795,380 484,398,781

% of GDP 0.5 1.83 2.66 5.21

Hypertension

Direct Cost 30,030643 50,833,110 188,195,080 137,932,296

Indirect Cost 16,339,814 21,822,867 63,452,410 121,549,768

Total Cost 46,390,457 72,655,977 251,647,490 209,482,064

% of GDP 0.86 3.51 3.21 2.79 Source: Caribbean Better Health, September 14, 2007


54

Table 6.32: Ten principal causes of death with rates per thousand population, 2001-2003

Cause

2001 2002 2003

Rank No Rate Rank No Rate Rank No Rate

Disease of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease 2 191 0.7 3 198 0.7 1 256 0.9

Cardiovascular disease 1 231 0.9 2 205 0.8 3 207 0.8 Diabetes mellitus 3 171 0.6 1 221 0.8 2 246 0.9

Ischaemic Heart disease 9 81 0.3 5 150 0.6 4 180 0.7

Malignant neoplasms of digestive organs except stomach 7 90 0.3 7 114 0.4 7 115 0.4

HIV/AIDS 6 98 0.4 10 42 0.2 10 30 0.1

Pneumonia 8 89 0.3 6 132 0.5 6 143 0.5

Hypertension 4 149 0.6 4 162 0.6 5 159 0.6

Malignant neoplasm of prostate 5 111 0.4 8 102 0.4 8 101 0.4

Septicaemia 10 59 0.2 9 55 0.2 9 74 0.3

Acute Respiratory infection - - - - - - - - -

Malignant neoplasm of female breast - 54 0.2 - 51 0.2 - 57 0.2 Source: Report of the Chief Medical Officer of Health, 2002-2003


55

With a growing number of elderly persons in Barbados, the situation is likely to get worse before it gets better as

the elderly experience disproportionate levels of chronic diseases (PAHO, 2000). A significant proportion of the

health budget has to be channeled towards efforts to combat the present situation. In fact, the situation is viewed

so seriously by the health authorities that in its Strategic Plan for Health 2002-2010, the Ministry of Health

regarded as a national priority the task of tackling CNCDs and it has been estimated that 65 percent of the QEH

budget is allocated to such diseases.

The Government of Barbados, cognizant of the overall benefits of a healthy population has invested heavily in the

health sector. Healthy individuals are capable of delivering higher levels of productivity and thus can make a

greater contribution to national development.

Successive administrations of government have therefore placed a high priority on the promotion of health care

for the nation. Almost all aspects primary health care are provided free of charge to citizens of Barbados. These

provisions have resulted in significant gains for Barbados. These include a consistently low rate of population

growth, thus ensuring that the resources of the country can be enjoyed by a greater number of individuals.

Excellent ante- and post-natal care for women of child-bearing age has resulted in low maternal and mortality

rates. The authorities have been so successful in these areas that Barbados has already attained these Millennium

Development Goals, that is Goal 5 which aims to reduce maternal mortality by three quarters by 2015 and Goal 4

which seeks to reduce the rate of infant mortality. Good immunization coverage has resulted in the non-existence

of those communicable childhood diseases that resulted in significant infant mortality rates. Again, infant

mortality has been significantly reduced and is well within the desirable target of the Millennium Development

Goal (that is, Goal # 4). Children continue to benefit from free dental and ophthalmic care up to age 18.

Environmental health has not been neglected. Barbados has a source of safe ground water on the whole. Routine

monitoring of all water sources ensures that the quality of water available meets the World Health Standards. One

hundred percent of the population has access to improved drinking water sources. With respect to improved

sanitation, 100 percent rural residents and 99 percent urban dwellers benefit from this service. All of these

conditions have in no small way contributed to the high level of life expectancy enjoyed by the population.

However, the gains outlined so far are being threatened by the rise in prominence of chronic non-communicable

diseases (CNCDs) such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, disease of pulmonary circulation/heart disease and

cancer. Diabetes, cardiovascular disease and disease of pulmonary circulation/heart disease have been the leading

cause of death. In the main, these are life style diseases that are triggered by such factors as too little or no

physical exercise, unhealthy diets leading to overweight and obesity. A significant part of the health budget now

has to be directed to dealing with these diseases as failure to do so would erode all the gains that have so far

resulted a sound and comprehensive health care system.

6.3. Housing

Reports based on censuses conducted in 1990 and 2000 show that there has been a marked improvement in the

quality and quantity of the housing stock in Barbados. For instance, in 1990, there were 75,211 dwelling units

throughout the country and by 2000, this amount had increased to 91,406 - a 9.4 percent increase in the total

housing stock. Two noteworthy features of this increase in the housing stock were the decline in the number of

structures with wooden outer walls and an increase in the number of homes with a smaller number of bedrooms.

According to the 2000 Census, the majority of homes (48.1 percent) contained three bedrooms, while in 1990, the

majority were made up of four bedrooms.


56

The shift away from wooden structures clearly indicates a general improvement in the economic welfare of

Barbadians and recognition that concrete block (wall) structures are less susceptible to the ravages of severe

weather conditions. Additionally, concrete block structures are less prone than wood to damage by fire. The

decrease in the number of bedrooms may indicate smaller families or a greater willingness of young working

members of families to move into their own accommodation.

Data from both censuses indicate that overcrowding was reduced from 7.7 percent in 1990 to 5 percent in 2000.

Overcrowding here is defined as the number of units which were occupied by seven or more persons. Despite the

improvement shown in housing conditions over the two census years, the need still existed for an improvement in

the quantity and quality of the housing stock. During the 1995 to 2000 period, the Government of Barbados

responded to this need by constructing a number of units particularly to house those in the lower income groups.

Table 6.33 shows the number of such units constructed between 1995 and 2009.

Table 6.33: Number of Dwelling Units constructed between 1995 and 2010

Year Number of Units

1995 677

1996 731

1997 767

1997 1133

1999 656

2000 1076

2001 1174

2002 1067

2003 1017

2004 n.a.

2005 n.a.

2006 1145

2007 898

2008 1321

2009 2084

2010 2065 Source: Barbados Economic and Social Report, various issues

The agency charged with the responsibility of providing public housing in Barbados is the National Housing

Corporation (NHC). The NHC was established in 1973 with a clear mandate to meet the demands of Barbadians

for a solution to the existing housing problems. Such a solution had to be affordable as the target population fell

within the low income group of persons. Both the Urban Development Commission and the Rural Development

Commission play a key role in informing the programs instituted by the NHC for the respective areas they

oversee.

The NHC has been involved in the provision of a range of dwelling units. These include single units, terrace units

which represent a cluster of single dwelling units and, more recently, multi-storey (apartment) dwelling units.

Tenants of the Corporation who have been renting their units for 20 years or more are now eligible to purchase

these units providing all outstanding rents have been paid. Prospective owners are expected to provide their own

legal fees. At the end of 2010, 1926 or 90 percent of these tenants had accepted the government’s offer to

purchase their units.


57

The construction of houses has been facilitated generally by a selection of agencies: The Barbados Mortgage

Finance Company (BMFC), Commercial Banks, Trust Companies and Insurance Companies. Table 6.34 shows

the contribution of these various agencies to the housing effort between 1995 and 2007.

Table 6.34: New Mortgages Extended to Housing, 1995 - 2007 ($m) Selected Institutions

Year

BMFC

Commercial Banks

Trust Companies Insurance Companies

Total

1995 8.5 4.7 49.2 4.2 66.6

1996 12.3 3.8 44.4 15.6 75.9

1997 12.9 6.8 51.3 33.7 104.7

1998 11.7 7.5 24.3 33.1 76.6

1999 11.8 7.7 30.4 28.7 78.6

2000 24.2 20.5 34.7 29.8 75.6

2001 32.1 39.1 34.6 35.2 78.6

2002 29.5 65.1 28.1 38.0 144.5

2003 10.7 65.4 37.8 n.a. 113.9

2004 22.7 93.1 53.9 n.a. 169.8

2005 39.7 94.4 62.3 n.a. 196.4

2006 58.8 81.4 72.2 n.a. 212.4

2007* 47.7 54.1 62.3 n.a. 164.1 Source: Ministry of Housing and Lands

Central Bank of Barbados

Barbados Mortgage Finance Company

Office of the Supervisor of Insurance

Note: *up to September 2007

Several innovative measures have been used by the Government to propel the housing drive. For instance, during

2008, the NHC embarked on a new housing initiative called Housing Every Last Person (HELP). This initiative

was intended to make available quality housing to every Barbadian at prices ranging between $40,000 and

$100,000 for a complete unit. The project consists of starter homes, 2 and 3 bedroom units and infrastructure at

the designated sites. The number of houses completed increased from 73 in 2008 to 184 in 2010.

In 2010, the Housing and Neighborhood Upgrading program was launched at a cost of Bds $5m. This

construction project was part of a US $40m program funded by the Government of Barbados and the Inter-

American Development Bank (IADB). Its planned target area is 4 areas across the parish of St Thomas. Included

in this project is the upgrade of sewage treatment facilities and construction of roads.

Low income earners across the country can also benefit from grants to undertake repairs to their existing homes.

These repairs include the installation of kitchen cabinets, bedroom closets, windows, doors and tiling. The sum of

the grant is Bds $10,000. This program is geared towards low income families earning a combined monthly

salary of Bds $2666 and who should not have previously benefited from government housing assistance

(Barbados Advocate, September 10, 2010)

6.4. Poverty and Social Welfare

Poverty has been of historical importance in Barbados as in other developing countries. For example, the Report

of the West Indies Royal Commission (the Moyne Commission) identified high levels of poverty and deprivation

as the root source of the riots in the 1930s. Although there have been several papers and reports on the socio-

economic conditions in Barbados over the years since the publication of the Report, there has only been one


58

systematic empirical study devoted to the incidence and characteristics of the poor [see IADB, 1998]. During the

period August 1996 to June 1997, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) commissioned a study on

poverty and income distribution in Barbados. The study used a variant of the cost of basic needs (CBN) approach

to the calculation of the poverty line and hence the extent of poverty during the period.

The overall poverty line consisted of a basic nutritional basket of food items which would meet the recommended

daily requirements of nutrients for different age groups taking into consideration local eating habits and

availability. This line provided a measure of ‘extreme poverty’. The non-food component of the poverty line

included an estimate for basic necessities - education, health, clothing, etc.

While the poverty line varied by sex and income group, the average value of the poverty line for the whole

population was estimated at Bds $5503 (US $2751). In effect, a household was regarded as being poor if its per

capita income was below the $5503 value of the poverty line (or Bds $106 per week).

It was estimated that 8.7 percent of all households (about 7000 households) lived below the poverty line. Poverty

rates varied between 4.4 percent in St James to 13.9 percent in St John. St Michael, the most densely populated

parish recorded a poverty rate of 8.9 percent. Poverty in Barbados affected 35,000 persons or 13.9 percent of the

population during the period. The incidence of poverty was highest in the parishes of St John, St Andrew, St

Lucy and St George, that is, in rural areas.

The depth and severity of poverty in Barbados were not regarded as significant. A measure of the overall poverty

gap or depth of poverty was 2.3 percent, which suggests that the average cost of filling the poverty gap over all

households was very low (Bds $127 per year). The degree of severity of poverty (that is, the degree of inequality

amongst the poor) was also very low, approximately 1 percent. As expected, the depth and severity of poverty

were higher amongst the unemployed than the working poor.

The profile of the poor was very similar to that in other countries. The main elements are as follows:

i. poor households were larger than non-poor households, and were largely female-headed with a larger

number of children;

ii. the link between female-headed households and poverty could be partly related to the high levels of

female unemployment, job discrimination and other social factors;

iii. the human capital base of the poor (that is, the level of education and skill) was quite low; little or no

certification and skill training background was evident;

iv. the unemployment rate was highest among poor households and particularly affected young cohorts and

females;

v. members of poor households tended to make greater use of the secondary or informal labour market and

several were self-employed in elementary occupations;

vi. heads of poor households were generally single females and generally young or middle-aged persons;

vii. poor households were generally overcrowded (defined as 3 or more persons per bedroom). Housing

quality was lower than that of the non-poor households;

viii. poor households had less than adequate water services than non-poor households. They also had

problems maintaining utility services;

ix. poor households were recipients of greater government transfers (pensions, welfare assistance) and

received income (wages) from work in the labour market. There is less saving amongst the poor who rely

on credit facilities;

x. poor households spent a significant proportion of their income on food, although there were efforts to

invest in education to break the cycle of poverty.


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The general results emerging from the study indicate a strong link between poverty and labour market conditions.

Poor households have low human capital which means that they can only obtain low paying jobs in a highly

segmented market or remain unemployed.

A small scale follow-up study of poverty in selected areas in St Michael and St Andrew during November 2001

confirmed several of the features of the poverty profile which emerged from the IDB study [see Saptagiri, 2002].

These common features include: low levels of human capital, high levels of unemployment, female-headed,

poorer quality housing conditions and sanitation facilities, overcrowding, high expenditure on food, greater use of

public facilities - transport, health, welfare services, employment in elementary occupations and informal sector,

problems meeting non-food needs (water, rent, school supplies, and transport) and dissaving.

In addition, the follow-up study observed a significant number of single member households, usually pensioners,

which existed below the poverty line. Several of the poor were also affected by chronic non-communicable

diseases (hypertension, diabetes, arthritis). It was noted that the depth and severity of poverty were greater in the

urban than rural areas.

While these studies provided useful information on the state of poverty in Barbados over the 1996-2001 period, it

should be noted that several individuals and households which are just above the poverty line are vulnerable to

poverty. “Vulnerability” occurs when a main ‘breadwinner’ becomes unemployed, ill or is otherwise unable to

participate in the labour market. There are cases where the pension of retired persons keeps the household above

the poverty line.

A recent study on the ‘working poor’ in the Caribbean used data from the Barbados Continuous Household

Survey to estimate the extent of poverty and the characteristics of the ‘working poor’ for the years 1998, 2001 and

2004 [ILO, 2006]. Using a poverty line of US $13.84 per day at 2000 prices, the level of poverty increased from

8.9 percent of households in 1998 to 14.9 percent of households in 2001, before declining to 10.7 percent in 2004.

Using data from the IDB (1998) study, it seems that over the period 1996-2004, there was a ‘core’ of poverty in

Barbados estimated at approximately 9 percent of households. The increase in household poverty between 1996

and 2001 could be attributed to the decline in economic growth during the period.

The available data on the “working poor” (“individuals engaged in either paid or self employment who belong to

household below a specified poverty line”) indicate the following features:

i. poor households usually have 1 or 2 members employed;

ii. there is little moonlighting among the working poor (they generally have only one job);

iii. the female head is the person who is usually employed;

iv. the working poor tend to have at least secondary level education, but little certification;

v. the working poor are generally employed in the distribution and general services sectors (i.e., the private

sector)

vi. the working poor are engaged in elementary occupations or work as shop/service assistants.

The minimum wage for shop assistants was increased from $158 per week (for persons under 18 years of age) and

$170 ( for persons over 18 years) in 1997 to $200 per week for all assistants in 2004. In general, the annualized

minimum wage for such workers was higher than the poverty line.

These features provide a basis for developing appropriate public policies directed at the labour market.

Econometric research on the probability of being poor in Barbados points to the significance of household size

and human capital (education level and qualifications).[ see Downes, 1999]


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The respective administrations of government have designed and implemented various measures to reduce

poverty in Barbados. Social services have sought to alleviate poverty through welfare assistance, child care, help

for the elderly and the disabled and community development. Family planning programs, initiated in the 1950s,

have sought to plan for more appropriate family size. Educational developments in the 1960s opened the doors

for social and economic advancement and escape from the poverty trap. Improvements in the health care facilities

have also assisted with poverty reduction.

The 1990s was an active period for the implementation of poverty reduction measures. It can be argued that the

drive in Barbados was informed by the international concern for poverty eradication (e.g., the MDGs and PRSPs)

and data on the poverty situation in the country.

The Government of Barbados complemented the existing social services with special agencies and programs to

reduce poverty in the country. Between 1995 and 2000, the Government established the following institutions:

Rural Development Commission (RDC), Urban Development Commission (UDC), the Ministry of Social

Transformation and the Poverty Alleviation Bureau (PAB). These institutions were complemented with a Social

Investment Fund, Rural Enterprise Fund, Urban Enterprise Fund, a Relief 2000 program and a Poverty

Alleviation (later called Eradication) Committee. These institutions and programs have targeted various aspects

of the poverty situation through:

i. creation of micro, small and medium enterprises;

ii. direct employment and entrepreneurship;

iii. road works, house repairs/construction, installation of street lights and rural enterprise development ,

especially in the agricultural sector;

iv. urban renewal, urban enterprise development;

v. training for employment

vi. debt relief for essential services.

These new institutions and programs have complemented such established agencies such as the Welfare

Department, National Assistance Board, Child Care Board, Community Development Department and the

National Disabilities Unit. In addition, several NGOs have received funds from the State to assist with program

delivery.

Information from the Poverty Alleviation Bureau (PAB) provides some insight into the nature or poverty in recent

years. The PAB became operational in 1998 to assist with the alleviation and eradication of poverty in Barbados

in collaboration with other government agencies and NGOs. A profile of the clients of the PAB indicates the

following characteristics:

i. female single-headed households

ii. unemployed persons

iii. low paid workers

iv. non-contributory pensioners

v. persons with disabilities

These persons tend to have the following socio-economic features:

i. low educational attainment and skills

ii. low wages (working poor) - $150 to $300 per week in 2004

iii. sub-standard housing conditions with some degree of overcrowding

iv. strained family relationships


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v. no access to house spots (land).

The main areas of requests from the PAB have been assistance with house repairs, payment of water and rental

arrears, housing accommodation and training. Between 2001 and 2003, there was an increase in the number of

requests from 681 to 985, but a fall off since 2003 [see Table 6.35]. The increase in requests can be partly

explained by the increase in unemployment and slowdown in economic activity experienced during the 2001-

2003 period. Since 1993, there has been a steady decline in the unemployment rate associated with a rise in

economic activity. The PAB therefore provides assistance with the immediate alleviation of the scourge of

poverty and the long term goal of poverty eradication.

Table 6.35: Requests made to Poverty Alleviation Bureau (PAB)

Year Number Five Main Areas 2001 681 House repairs, Water arrears, NHC rental arrears, Jobs, Training

2002 829 (not available)

2003 985 House repairs, NHC rental arrears, Water arrears, Rental accommodation (Private), Training

2004 793 House repairs, Accommodation, Water arrears, Assistance -in-kind, NHC rental arrears

2005 546 House repairs, Housing (construction), Water arrears, NHC rental arrears, Training

2006 426 House repairs, NHC rental arrears, House construction, Training, Water arrears

The poverty alleviation program of the Government includes the payment of a grant to low (minimum) wage

earners. This ‘reverse tax credit’ was introduced in 1997 to cushion the inflation impact of the value added tax

(VAT). In 1997 the individual annual income threshold was $13,000 ($250 per week) and the one-off grant was

$350. The threshold was increased to $15,000 ($288.46 per week) in 2007, with subsequent increases to $16,500

($317.31 per week) in 2008 and $18,000 ($346.15 per week) in 2009. The grant was raised to $800 in 2007 with

subsequent increases being $1100 in 2008 and $1300 in 2009. In 1997, it was estimated that 14,000 minimum

wage earners (12 percent of the employed) were affected by this measure, while in 2007, over 27,000 persons (21

percent of the employed) were expected to benefit. These figures suggest a doubling of the number of low wage

earners over the decade 1997-2007. The reverse tax credit is seen as an alternative to the implementation of an

enforceable national minimum wage.

The long-term approach to poverty eradication is through the training of persons (human capital development).

With 57 percent of the adult population having no certification in 2000, a deliberate effort has been made to boost

education and training of the population (for example, skills training programs, expansion of the Polytechnic

courses, NGO programs). These national programs have been supported by programs targeted at poor

households. One such program is the ‘welfare-to-work’ program which began in 2000. This program trains

persons in a range of vocational areas (dress-making, care of the elderly, cosmetology, house-keeping, etc) and

assists in job placement or self-employment.

In the case of the elderly poor, pensions have been increased over the years. In addition, NGOs have established

on-going programs to assist the elderly - home help, discount shopping, etc.

It has been estimated that the Welfare to Work and Relief 2000 (focusing on indigent families) reduced the

welfare recipients from 10,000 in 2000 to approximately 7000 in 2006.

The Government has recently introduced a Bridge Program where the focus is on eradicating poverty within

families in order to break the intergenerational transmission of poverty evident in the country. It represents a

comprehensive approach to reducing poverty from different angles. The pilot program has started with 30

families/households across the 30 constituencies.. It is expected that the 2008-9 economic crisis would weaken the


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ability to overcome poverty and can there impair the achievement of the first Millennium Development Goal of

eradicating extreme poverty by 2015.

In sum, public policies have been targeted at reducing the extent of poverty through various mechanisms. There

is still a ‘core’ of poverty which still remains and also a group of vulnerable individuals/households that exist just

above the poverty line. This group is susceptible to economic and personal shocks which can catapult them into

poverty. Public policy therefore provides a social safety net for the poor and vulnerable.


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7. Crime and Violence

As a small developing country with a high dependence on the external sector (namely tourism and international

business and financial services), Barbados has had to keep the incidence of crime and violence very low. The law

enforcement authorities have been stern with respect to reducing the incidence of criminal activity and violent

behavior.

The total number of reported crimes declined from 10,541 in 1995 to 8,994 in 2010 after a period of steady rise

over the 1980 to 1993 period. The main crimes reported over the period 1995 to 2005 were those against property

that is acquisitive crimes, followed by those against the person. There was a high incidence of crimes such as

residential burglary, robbery, theft (especially from cars in recent times), assault and wounding and drug related

activities. Drug related crimes have been a central target for the law enforcement agencies and the various

initiatives have resulted in a decline in such crimes from 1275 in 2002 to 830 in 2009 after a growth from 221 in

1980 to 1094 in 1998.

In the hotel and tourism sector, reported crimes against visitors declined from 324 in 2001 to 185 in 2010. Most of

these crimes have been hotel burglary, robbery and theft from beaches, that is property or acquisitive crimes.

The law enforcement agencies have noted that there are ‘crime hotspots’ and have intensified policing efforts in

these areas. Community policing has been integral to the reduction of the incidence of crime in these areas.

Research work on criminal activity in Barbados indicates that there is a relationship between the state of the

economy and acquisitive crimes and also the level of human capital and the proclivity to engage in criminal

activity. Greenidge and Warner (2001) used econometric analysis to show that over the 1980 to 1999 period

increases in unemployment had a positive impact on the incidence of crime, while increases in economic output,

police development expenditure and the number of police per capita had a dampening effect on the incidence of

criminal activity. Yearwood (2009) has indicated that those convicted of criminal offences generally have a low

level of human capital (no certification, poor literacy and numeracy skills and weak interpersonal skills) and are

also subject to a relatively high level of recidivism. These features suggest that there are weak rehabilitation

schemes and that the education system needs to be reformed to cater to young persons with differential needs. The

profile of persons convicted of crimes indicates that they tend to be young males with low levels of human capital

and high level of unemployment. Several of these young males also engage in violent and aggressive behavior

suggesting that there is a need for anger management and conflict resolution among these young persons.

Over the years the law enforcement agencies have introduced several initiatives to stem the incidence of crimes

and violence. The Juvenile Liaison Scheme was targeted at reducing the incidence of aggressive behavior and

criminal activity among young persons. The police force has also intensified its community policing program to

reduce criminal activity in communities prone to high level of such activities. Special initiatives have been

undertaken in the areas of burglary and drug related crimes. Greater patrolling of tourism areas has also been

undertaken. In collaboration with the private sector and NGOs, a Crime Stoppers Barbados program has been

introduced so that the public can provide the law enforcement agencies with information criminal activity. A

victim support and community outreach program has been implemented to protect the vulnerable in the society.

Victimization surveys however indicate that while there has been a general inclination to report certain types of

crime because of the slow response of the police force, the small extent of loss and the use of post crime

protective measures.


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8. Governance

Governance refers to the “way a society sets and manages the rules that guide policy making and policy

implementation” [UN, 2007, p.1]. It involves the formal and informal arrangements that determine how public

decisions are made and how public actions are carried out in accordance with constitutional values [UN, 2004]

Barbados is a constitutional monarch with the Majesty of the United Kingdom being the Head of State. Her

Majesty is represented by the Governor-General of Barbados. The country operates a parliamentary democracy

with a bicameral legislature and a multi-party system. The legal system is largely based on the English common

law with a written constitution. The country became an independent sovereign state in 1966.

The legislative system consists of a Senate with 21 appointed members and a House of Assembly with 30 elected

members. The Prime Minister is selected by a majority of the members of the House of Assembly and is the Head

of the Government. The Legislature is responsible for the passing of all laws in accordance with the constitution.

The country is divided into 30 constituencies which elected the members of the Lower House in competitive

elections held approximately every 5 years. The Senate members are appointed by the Governor General as

independent Senators, while the Prime Minister recommends the appointment of the Government Senators and the

Leader of the Opposition recommends the appointment of the opposition Senators. The duration of a Parliament is

normally 5 years with the Prime Minister being the only person who can determine the date of a general election.

The executive system of Government is based on a Cabinet of Ministers, with the Prime Minister being the head

of the Cabinet and the other Ministers being selected from the House of Assembly and the Senate. The Cabinet is

the “principal instrument of policy and it is charged with the general direction and control for the Government of

Barbados” [UN, 2004, p.6]. It is collectively responsible to the Parliament. The Cabinet makes all of the policy

decisions on behalf of the Government and receives advice and policy briefs from career public officers and other

interested parties.

Over the years, successive administrations of Government have espoused a social democratic political philosophy

which is characterized by a largely capitalist mode of economic production undertaken by the private sector, the

promotion of social welfare policies, the promotion of social justice and workers’ rights. Indeed, the parties which

have held power over the years have their base in the labour movement: the Barbados Labour Party (1994-2008)

and the Democratic Labour Party (2008 – present). There has been a smooth transition of the administration of the

Government over the years.

The Judiciary is regarded as being highly independent with a hierarchy of Courts. At the base there is the

Magistrate Courts, and then there is the High Court and the Court of Appeal. The Chief Justice is the Head of the

Judiciary and is appointed by the Head of State on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the

Opposition. The Judges of the High Court and the Court of Appeal are appointed by the Governor General after

receiving advice. In 2005, Barbados accepted the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) as the final Court of Appeal

after using the Privy Council in the UK for several decades as the final court.

The Civil (Public) Service constitutes the administrative arm of the Government with respect to the

implementation of policies within the established legal framework. The Civil Establishment Act provides the legal

framework governing the establishment of offices and the recruitment of public officers. The Public Services

Commission administers the regulations relating to the employment of the public officers.


65

In addition to the central government, there is a range of statutory bodies which administer the policies of the

Government. These bodies usually take on specialized functions which seek to advance the work of the

Government in several areas-housing, transport, health, social welfare, regulation etc.

There is also provision for an Ombudsperson, appointed by the Governor General. The Office of the

Ombudsperson hears complaints against government offices with respect to injuries or injustices resulting from

administrative actions.

The Government has recently established constituency councils covering all 30 constituencies in the country. The

Councils have been designed to “allow for decentralization of decision-making, strengthening of democracy and

encouragement of people’s participation in the development of the nation” [http\\www.councils.gov.bb]. These

Councils are expected to assist with the reduction of poverty and give voice to the residents in the various

constituencies in the context of local governance. Each Council consists of 15 members drawn from broad areas

of representation within the constituency-youth, faith-based, women, men, political parties, church, etc. Members

are invited to serve or are nominated by the special interest groups for a period of two years. The Councils are

largely built on volunteerism and civil engagement at the local level.

In addition to the Councils there is a range of non-governmental organizations and community based

organizations which lobby for their special interests. In a large measure, these interests are captured within the

ambit of the membership of the constituency councils, thus broadening the base of democracy in the country.

As a result of the economic crisis in the early 1990s, a Social Partnership involving the Government, Workers’

representatives and Employers’ representatives was formed. In 1993, a Protocol for the Implementation of a

Prices and Incomes Policy was signed by the three parties for the period 1993-1995. This Protocol was later

extended for the period 1995-97. In 1998, the Protocol was broadened to one of a Social Partnership. This

arrangement has been an important element in the governance structure of the country as it has brought some

degree of industrial peace, greater information-sharing at the macro level and greater collective action in times of

crisis. It has also foster the formation of other tripartite arrangements such as the National Productivity Council,

the National Initiative for Service Excellence and the Council of Economic Advisors. Subsequent Protocols

(1998-2000, 2001-2004, 2005-7 and 2011-13) have widened the scope of the agreements among the three parties.

Indeed, Barbados has become well-known for the success of its social arrangement. It has been able to contribute

to the building of social capital which has been identify as a major factor explaining the performance of Barbados

relative to Jamaica ( Brewster , 1996). The Social Partnership has transcended different administration of

Government thus attesting to its national acceptance and strength. It has supported the voluntaristic approach to

collective bargaining and the management of industrial relations in Barbados.

In the context of global assessments of governance in selected countries, Barbados has done well in all the

indicators used: voice and accountability; political stability and lack of violence/terrorism; government

effectiveness; regulatory quality; the rule of law and the control of corruption. Over the period 1996 to 2009,

Barbados was generally in the top percentiles of all the indicators, although there was some slippage in the

indicators over the period [see World Bank, World Governance Indicators]


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9. Habitat Patterns and the Environment

The densely populated nature of Barbados means that there are several competing demands for use of its limited

land area. Space has to be allocated for the following activities: residential, agricultural, business/commercial,

tourism and recreational. The island is divided into five zones mainly for the purpose of securing the groundwater

from bacterial contamination. This system of zoning in effect determines what type of activity can be conducted

in a particular zone depending on whether underground water catchment areas are located in the area. No

residential activity is permitted in Zone 1 areas because of the threat of contamination of the water supply by

sewage and other household waste.

With respect to residential activity, and on the basis of occupied dwelling units, the majority of the population is

settled in the parishes of St Michael, Christ Church, St James, St Philip and St George. While the pattern of

settlement distribution remained the same according to the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, in 2000, there was a notable

increase in the number of occupied dwelling units in the parishes of St Thomas (30.5%), St Philip (26%), St

James (19.1%), St Peter (18.1%), St George (18%) and Christ Church (13.0%). There was negligible increase in

the number of units in St Michael (0.6%). This pattern clearly shows a movement away from the urban to rural

and suburban areas which is expected to continue.

This movement away from urban to other areas has been relatively easy for many reasons: an excellent network of

public paved road stretching some 1,600 kilometres ( 900 miles), good infrastructure across the island, a decent

public and private transportation system and the large percentage of persons who own cars and other vehicles. All

of these factors make commute to work in Bridgetown and its environs rather easy. Both the Government and the

private sector provide transportation services throughout the country. School children in uniform and persons over

the age of 65 years can travel on Government buses free of charge. The number of registered vehicles (private

cars, motor vehicles buses, van, lorries etc) increased from 59,000 in 1995 to 131,400 in 2008, an increase of over

200 percent. This significant growth may be one of the reasons for the increase in traffic congestion.

As part of the development strategy, the Government has over the years identified Special Development Areas for

selected economic activity, for example tourism. These areas have been identified in the Physical Development

Plan which guides the use of land in the country. These special development areas have received special

concessions from the Government and include both rural and urban areas.

Various administrations of government in Barbados have focused on the promotion of home ownership and the

provision of housing for the poor and those with low incomes. Public housing solutions range from various

terrace units to multi-level dwellings. Recently, the Government has embarked on a rather innovative use of land

space by entering into partnership with the private sector to provide housing for middle income earners. This

project employs the Zero line concept where the land space allocated to each homeowner is limited but the entire

community benefits from land allocated for community activities and shopping facilities. In essence, a ‘village’ is

created by this project. The Villages of Coverley exemplify this new concept in home construction.

In spite of the various ways the Government has tried to provide housing for the poor and those on low incomes,

there is still a small percentage of individuals who are homeless and therefore resort to squatting. These

individuals are either unable to rent or are vagrants.

The increased demand for land for residential and other purposes has led to a steady decline in the amount

available land set aside for agriculture and also to the increase in the price of land especially for residential

purposes. The fall in demand for sugar has also meant that large plots have been left idle thus making subdivision

of the land easier. The Government has been encouraging small farmers to become engaged in agricultural


67

production. To this end, the Land for the Landless program was started in 2001. In 2006, a total of 220.5 acres of

public land and 204 acres of private land were allocated to the Barbados Agricultural Development and

Management Company (BADMC) for distribution to small farmers who had joined the program. At present, 204

acres of public land and 100 acres of private land are in production. The program receives approximately 80 new

applicants yearly (Barbados National Assessment Report, 2010).

Commercial, government and office activity is still centred mainly around Bridgetown. However, there has been

a gradual shift away from city to the suburban area of Warrens. There is a limited amount of commercial activity

in the parishes of St James, Christ Church and, to a lesser extent, St Peter.

Since the tourism plant is located along the south and west coasts of the island, nearly all tourism related activities

take place along this narrow coastal stretch. This pattern makes these establishments susceptible to sea level rise

and storm surges associated with climate change. With tourists seeking more than the traditional sea and sand

experience, tourism-related activities have started to move inland and so there is additional demand for more land

space to accommodate activities such as golf and polo which are considered as sports tourism.

There are limited open spaces for recreational activities. Very few ‘windows to the sea’ remain as the tourism

plant has virtually used up all beachfront land on the south and west coasts. In recognition of the need space to be

set aside for recreational purposes, the National Heritage Department in the Ministry of Housing has facilitated

the commencement of work to establish a National Park and a system of protected areas.

The rapid strides made by Barbados in its development process mean that equally rigid measures must be put in

place to minimize the costs associated with the development process. It makes good sense that the environment

that supports the infrastructure and provides the resources that propel development be carefully managed. There

are several threats to the natural environment because of anthropogenic activities; a few of these are outlined

below.

As Barbadians enjoy a higher standard of living, consumption patterns change and more waste is generated.

While the country can boast a reliable Sanitation Service, there is still a tendency for some to dispose of garbage

illegally in water catchment areas, for example. Increased activity in the tourism sector has led to beachfront

erosion and destruction of natural habitats of marine animals. Increased activities in all areas of life have led to a

very high consumption of and dependence on power and transportation fuel. At present, 95 percent of these needs

are met by imported refined products. Significant savings in foreign exchange can be realized through the use of

alternative sources of energy.

An effective waste management system in Barbados ensures that pollution of the environment is minimized. The

Mangrove landfill receives 1000 tons of garbage daily. A new waste management facility at Vaucluse, St Thomas

- a joint venture between government and the private sector - operates as a transfer station where garbage is first

sorted and recyclable or reusable materials are recovered. The rest of the garbage is than sent to the Mangrove

landfill. Consequently 70 percent of all waste including construction and demolition waste, wood, plastics, glass

and metal are diverted from the landfill.

With respect to the Coastal zone, the coastal Zone Management Unit is responsible for shoreline stabilization,

erosion control and restoration of coastal habitats. One notable example of the work of this unit is the Rockley to

Coconut Court Waterfront Improvement Project popularly known as the “Boardwalk”. This project was funded

by the National Conservation Commission (NCC) and the Organisation of American States (OAS). The work

done by the CZMU has enhanced this public good in such a great measure that it is used extensively by the public

as a place for recreation, to keep fit and socialize.


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The Land for the Landless Program is a good example of the use of natural resources to generate economic

activity in order to foster development. This program ensures that those who have no access to such a basic

natural resource can become productive citizens and contribute in a positive way to national development.

Given its location as a small island country in the Eastern Caribbean, Barbados is susceptible to such natural

hazards as tropical storms, floods, soil erosion and landslides. The coastline is particularly vulnerable to the

effects of storm surges and sea level rise associated with climate change. The Government has been conscious of

the effects of natural hazards and disaster on the society and economy that it has established an institutional

framework to handle such eventualities. A comprehensive integrated disaster management plan has been prepared

and managed by the Department of Emergency Management (DEM) established in 2007 (formerly the Central

Emergency Relief Organisation-CERO formed in 1978). The DEM is responsible for activating and coordinating

the national disaster plan when an event occurs.

A Drainage Unit is responsible for controlling and preventing inland flooding. In collaboration with the Town and

Country Planning Office (TCPO), it is expected to ensure that construction activity in the country provides for

adequate drainage. The Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU), established in 1983, focuses on issues relating

to coastal erosion and the surveillance of coastal vulnerability. The Ministry of Agriculture monitors soil erosion

in the Scotland District which is susceptible to significant land slippage.

The institutional arrangement, supported by a number of NGOs, has worked well for Barbados over the years.

Over the 1995 to 2010 period, Barbados was affected in a significant way by three major storms in 2002, 204 and

2010. The estimated damage associated with such storms has not been as great as other Caribbean countries.

Indeed, Barbados has displayed an improvement in its risk management over the years as highlighted by

Sarmiento and Hoberman (2011). Using a risk management index consisting of four components: risk

identification, risk reduction, disaster management and governability and financial protection, they indicate the

Barbados moved 12 in 1995 to 45 in 2008 (where the index lies between 0 (bad) and 100 (good)).

The vision of Barbados becoming “the most environmentally green economy in Latin America and the

Caribbean” can certainly become a reality if everyone is allowed the opportunity to contribute to the process. The

‘greening’ of the country would allow it to proceed on a sustainable development path where there is a balance of

environmental, economic and social actions associated with human activity. Indeed Barbados has adopted a

sustainable development strategy to guide its long term development


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10. Conclusion

An assessment of the economic and social environment of Barbados over the period 1995 to 2010 indicate that

significant progress was made on several fronts while there were reversals associated with external shocks to the

economy. Barbados has performed well by international standards having achieved a “very high human

development” ranking by the UNDP and having achieved most of the MDGs.

The country has developed a planning and policy framework which has seen the emphasis placed on productivity

growth, export expansion, production diversification and developing the human capital base of the country.

Economic expansion has been associated with the reduction of unemployment and the improvement of social

indicators in the education, health and housing sector. The economic recessions in 2001 and especially 2008-9

eroded some of the gains associated with economic progress over the study period 1995 to 2010.

The economy has seen the continued shift in production towards the services sector especially tourism and

international business and financial services. More persons now derive their livelihoods from the services sector

than four decades ago. The different administrations of government have used various fiscal and monetary policy

measures to provide incentives and concessions to the productive sectors of the economy. More females have

joined the labour force and have occupied more professional jobs than males by the end of the study period.

The country has witnessed a reduction of reported crime over the period and a general degree of social stability.

The establishment of governance mechanisms such as the Social Partnership has allowed the country to become a

model for other small developing countries.

It is expected that the economic progress achieved up to 2008 would have benefitted the mass of the population

with decreases in poverty and income inequality. The recession would have however resulted in a reversal of this

trend. The basic social and human capital still remains in the country to allow it to rebound after the crisis. With

sound economic policies, the assistance of the social partners and the support of international development

agencies and the Barbados’ Diaspora the country should able to return to the pre-recession growth path.


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