www.princexml.com

Prince - Personal Edition

This document was created with Prince, a great way of getting web content onto paper.

Table of Contents

Cover image

Front Matter

Copyright

Dedication

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Preface

Chapter 1. What Is Sound? Seven ImportantCharacteristics

Chapter 2. How to Listen. Remember WhenYour Parents Told You to Listen? Well, YouShould Have Listened!

Chapter 3. EQ Points of Interest. Frequen-cies Made Easy

Chapter 4. People Skills. Recording Isn't AllTechnical!

Chapter 5. Microphone Guide and TheirUses. Hey, Is This Thing On?

Chapter 6. Mixing Consoles. So ManyKnobs, So Little Time

Chapter 7. Signal Processors. Toys YouCould Play with for Days!

Chapter 8. Signal Flow. The Keys to Direct-ing Audio Traffic

Chapter 9. Studio Session Procedures

Chapter 10. Basic Acoustics…How to MakeYour Recording Space Sound Better

Chapter 11. The History of Audio

Chapter 12. Now That I Am Dangerous,Should I Get An Internship?

Chapter 13. Jobs. What Can I Do With TheseSkills?

Chapter 14. FAQ's. Hear It from the Pros

Appendix A

Appendix B

Glossary

Index

3/710

Credits

4/710

Front Matter

Audio Engineering 101

Audio Engineering 101A Beginner's Guide to Music ProductionTimothy A. Dittmar

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON •HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK •OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SANFRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY •

TOKYOFocal Press is an imprint of Elsevier

CopyrightFocal Press is an imprint of Elsevier

225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington,Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK

© 2012 Timothy A. Dittmar. Publishedby Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproducedor transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopy-ing, recording, or any information storage andretrieval system, without permission in writingfrom the publisher. Details on how to seek per-mission, further information about thePublisher's permissions policies and our ar-rangements with organizations such as theCopyright Clearance Center and the CopyrightLicensing Agency, can be found at our website:www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributionscontained in it are protected under copyrightby the Publisher (other than as may be notedherein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in thisfield are constantly changing. As newresearch and experience broaden ourunderstanding, changes in researchmethods, professional practices, ormedical treatment may becomenecessary.Practitioners and researchers must al-ways rely on their own experience andknowledge in evaluating and using anyinformation, methods, compounds, orexperiments described herein. In usingsuch information or methods theyshould be mindful of their own safety

7/710

and the safety of others, includingparties for whom they have a profes-sional responsibility.To the fullest extent of the law, neitherthe Publisher nor the authors, contrib-utors, or editors, assume any liabilityfor any injury and/or damage to per-sons or property as a matter ofproducts liability, negligence or other-wise, or from any use or operation ofany methods, products, instructions, orideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataApplication submitted.British Library Cataloguing-in-Publica-tion DataA catalogue record for this book is availablefrom the British Library.ISBN: 978-0-240-81915-0

8/710

For information on all Focal Press pub-lications visit our website at www.el-sevierdirect.com

11 12 13 14 5 4 3 2 1Printed in the United States of AmericaTypeset by: diacriTech, Chennai, India

9/710

DedicationThis book is dedicated to my mom, JaneDittmar. She encouraged me to be whatever Ihad passion to be, while inspiring me to cre-ate a back-up plan in case my rock drumfantasies never transpired.

AcknowledgmentsThanks to:Geoffrey Schulman for getting me into thisteaching mess and seeing me as more than alonghaired rock drummer. Without beinggently nudged into becoming a professor andgetting a real job, this book would probablynot exist.Anderson Bracht for providing inspiring illus-trations that kept me smiling.Catharine Steers, Focal Press, and Elsevier forbelieving in my book.Carlin Reagan for making me appear some-what intelligent and providing mad editingskills.Terri Dittmar for her feedback, editing, music-al contributions, patience, friendship, andyears of love and support.Fred Remmert for teaching me that first lessonand many other audio engineering basics.

All my audio engineering friends who contrib-uted their time and ideas: Meason Wiley,Kurtis Machler, John Harvey, Mary Podio,Andre Moran, and Pete Johnson.Andrew Miller for producing the Audio Engin-eering 101 demonstration videos.Landry Gideon for being the talent in the Au-dio Engineering 101 videos.My former students who were the guinea pigsfor much of the material in the book.All the audio engineers who contributed to theFAQs section. Much appreciation!Kathleen Maus and Jack Dittmar for lettingme steal your 45s to broadcast K-TIM.Dave Dittmar for letting me play in his bandwhen I was 10 years old, teaching me the ba-sics of electronics, and how to work a PA.Susan Dittmar for helping kick-start my audioengineering career. Without her, I wouldn't bewriting this book.

12/710

About the AuthorWhen I was in high school, my mom asked me,“Tim, what do you want to do with your life?” Ibelieve I said something like, “play drums andsurf.” My mom was pretty cool about the wholething, but I knew my ambitions did little to im-press her. Soon after graduating high school, Ienrolled at a local college. There I discovered Icould obtain a degree in a field related to myinterests, Radio TV Production. I loved music,but the idea of recording and working withmusicians for a living seemed to be an unat-tainable dream! I moved to Austin, TX, in thelate 80s to play drums and complete myRadio-TV-Film (RTF) degree at The Universityof Texas. I soon found myself at Cedar CreekRecording studio playing drums on a new wavedemo. It was my first experience in a commer-cial recording studio and I was blown away.The 2″ tape machine, the array of mics, the re-cording console, and the reverb! Oh, the

Lexicon 224 reverb on my snare. I was hooked.That first night in the studio I was so woundup and boisterous that the engineer actuallytold me to shut up. The engineer's commentstaught me the first lesson in studio etiquette.Don't talk, listen! Even with this reprimand, Iwas given the opportunity to become an internat CCR and spent the next ten years engineer-ing records.Looking back, while I had only a basic founda-tion in recording, I remember feeling technic-ally inept. I had to rely on a variety ofstrengths to compensate for my lack of tech-nical expertise. Some of these strengths in-cluded showing up on time and having a goodattitude and a willingness to listen. I was alsovery self-motivated and driven, had decentpeople skills, and was willing to struggle andwork hard for little money while learning thecraft. I also knew a few bands and musicians,and could bring in potential business. It tookyears before my technical skill level matched

14/710

these intangible strengths. My point is, if youare a beginner, do not be discouraged. We allhave to start somewhere.

15/710

PrefaceAudio engineering is layered with many discip-lines such as acoustics, physics, technology,art, psychology, electronics, and music. Eachlayer provides a new set of questions, answers,theories, and concepts. You soon realize thatyou will never know it all. This guide encom-passes many aspects of audio engineering andincludes a dose of reality. This is a hard busi-ness, but if you are willing to put forth the timeand effort, you may end up with a job you love.The goal of this book is to explain audio engin-eering and music production in an easy-to-un-derstand guide. After ten years of teaching Au-dio Engineering courses at Austin CommunityCollege, two years of lecturing at TheUniversity of Texas, and twenty-five years ofengineering and producing records, I decidedto create a guide that draws on the lessons andexperiences that have proved to be successfulwith both students and clients. As a Professor,

I have unique insight into a beginner's abilityto retain technical information. Many audioengineering books are simply too overwhelm-ing for those being introduced to recordingand music production. This is a recurring pointmade by many students and is one of the in-spirations for this book. Audio Engineering101 explains intangible concepts that can makea recording better, such as understanding bodylanguage, creating a good vibe, and peopleskills. Much of your business will be generatedby word-of-mouth, so these are importantskills. In addition, the book highlights what toexpect with internships, how to create a pro-ductive recording space, and an overview ofwhat jobs are available to audio engineers. Youwill also find a handy guide dedicated to mi-crophones and their uses. This is a great sec-tion for a true beginner or for a hobbyist want-ing to learn microphone basics. Audio Engin-eering 101 includes FAQs (frequently askedquestions) answered by a diverse group of

17/710

professional recording engineers from aroundthe country. Questions are answered by experi-enced Pros: what is the first mic you shouldbuy or how you can get your foot in the door.You can't learn everything about music pro-duction in a semester of school or even by get-ting a degree in the subject. Becoming profi-cient in music production may take manyyears. Experience is one of the most valued as-pects of the profession and is gained by creat-ing thousands of mixes, both good and bad,learning from your mistakes, and continuallyhoning the craft. This is one of the coolest jobsyou could ever have, but it won't be easy be-coming a true professional. Even if you decidenot to become an audio engineer, this bookwill take some of the mystery and intimidationout of the studio and the recording process.

18/710

Chapter 1. What Is Sound?Seven ImportantCharacteristics

In this Chapter:

What Is Sound? 1

Seven Characteristics of Sound 2

Amplitude 3

Frequency 4

Phase 7

Velocity 8

Wavelength 9

Harmonics 10

Envelope 12

Other Periodic Waveform Types 13

Noise 14

Learning the craft of audio engineering is like learning a foreign language. Anew language may be intimidating and difficult at first, but with time and ded-ication, a vocabulary is built. Soon words turn into phrases and phrases turninto full sentences. This chapter will cover details of a sound wave and exploresome of the language of audio. You will be fluent in no time!

Keywords: Amplitude, Frequency, Phase, Velocity, Wavelength, Harmonics,Envelope, Periodic Waveform Types

Learning the craft of audio engineering is likelearning a foreign language. A new languagemay be intimidating and difficult at first, butwith time and dedication, a vocabulary is built.Soon words turn into phrases and phrases turninto full sentences. This chapter will cover de-tails of a sound wave and explore some of thelanguage of audio. You will be fluent in notime!

What is Sound?

Sound is a vibration or a series of vibrationsthat move through the air. Anything that cre-ates the vibrations, or waves, is referred to asthe source. The source can be a string, a bell, a

20/710

voice, or anything that generates a vibrationwithin our hearing range.Imagine dropping a stone in water. The stone(source) will create a series of ripples in thewater. The ripples (waves) are created by areasof dense molecules that are being pushed to-gether as sparse molecules expand, thus creat-ing flatter areas. Sound travels just like this, bycompression and rarefaction. Compression isthe area where dense molecules are pushed to-gether and rarefaction is the area where fewermolecules are pulled apart, or expanded, in thewave. The compression area is higher in pres-sure and the rarefaction area is lower inpressure.This chapter deals with the seven characterist-ics of a sound wave, such as amplitude, fre-quency, phase, velocity, wavelength, harmon-ics, and envelope. Understanding these char-acteristics is essential to make a decent record-ing, become a competent mix engineer, andgenerally increase your knowledge about

21/710

audio. Although a typical sound is more com-plex than a simple sine wave, the sine wave isoften used to illustrate a sound wave and itsseven characteristics.

Figure 1.1.

Seven Characteristics of Sound

You may already know about amplitude andfrequency. If you have ever adjusted the toneon your amp or stereo, then you have turnedup or down the “amplitude” or a “frequency”or range of frequencies. It is necessary to

22/710

understand these two important sound wavecharacteristics, as they are important buildingblocks in audio engineering. Two other charac-teristics of sound help humans identify onesound from another: harmonics and envelope.The remaining three characteristics of soundare velocity, wavelength, and phase. Thesecharacteristics identify how fast a sound wavetravels, the physical length of a completedcycle, and the phase of the sound wave.

Figure 1.2.

23/710

Amplitude

Amplitude is associated with the height of asound wave and is related to volume.When a stereo, amp, or television's volume isturned up or down, the amplitude of the soundbeing projected is increased or decreased.Loud sounds have higher amplitudes whilequiet sounds have lower amplitudes. Thegreater the amplitude of a sound the greaterthe sound pressure level.Amplitude is measured in decibels (dB). Mostpeople can recognize about a 3 dB change inamplitude. A trained ear can recognize evensmaller amplitude changes. An increase inamplitude is usually expressed as a “boost”and a decrease in amplitude is often expressedas a “cut.” The word volume is often substi-tuted for amplitude. An audio engineer maysay, “boost that 3 dB” or “cut that 3 dB.” Whenamplitude is written out, it is expressed with a

24/710

positive sign such as +3 dB or a negative signsuch as −3 dB.Here are some common activities and theircorresponding decibel levels:

0 dB – near silence

40–50 dB – room ambience

50–60 dB – whisper

60–75 dB – typical conversation

80–85 dB – a blender, optimum level tomonitor sound according to the Fletch-er–Munson curve

90 dB – factory noise, regular exposure cancause hearing damage

100 dB – baby crying

110 dB – leaf blower, car horn

120 dB – threshold of pain, can cause hear-ing damage

140 dB – snare drum played hard fromabout 1′

25/710

150–160 dB – jet engine

As you can see, in our daily lives, we are con-stantly confronted with amplitude levelsbetween 0 dB and about 160 dB. Most peoplelisten to music between 70 dB (on the quietside) and 100 dB (on the loud side). AppendixA covers dBs in more detail.

Frequency

The amount of cycles per second (cps) createdby a sound wave is commonly referred to asthe frequency. If you are a musician, you mayhave tuned your instrument to A/440. Here,“440” is the frequency of a sound wave. Unlikeamplitude, which is measured in decibels, fre-quency is measured in hertz (Hz), named afterthe German physicist, Heinrich Hertz. The av-erage human hearing range is from 20 to20,000 Hz. Typically, once 1000 cycles persecond is reached, the frequency is referred inkilohertz (kHz), i.e., 1000 Hz = 1 kHz, 2000

26/710

Hz = 2 kHz, and 3000 Hz = 3 kHz. Frequencyis related to the pitch of a sound. Here is ahandy chart to help identify the frequencyranges of various instruments and how thekeys of a piano relate to frequency. The firstnote on a piano is A, which is 27.5 Hz. Haveyou ever turned up the bass or treble on yourcar stereo? If so, you are boosting or cuttingthe amplitude of a frequency or range of fre-quencies. This is known as equalization (EQ), avital aspect of audio production.

27/710

Figure 1.3

28/710

Figure 1.4.

29/710

Figure 1.5.

Each frequency range has distinct characterist-ics, and some common terms can help you toidentify them. I will go into further detailthroughout the book, but let's start here:Frequency is often divided into three ranges:

Audio Clip 1.0

30/710

Low or bass frequencies are generallybetween 20 and 200 Hz. These frequenciesare omnidirectional, provide power, makethings sound bigger, and can be destructiveif too much is present in a mix.

Mid, or midrange, frequencies are generallybetween 200 Hz and 5 kHz. This is the rangewithin which we hear the best. These fre-quencies are more directional than bass fre-quencies and can make a sound appear “inyour face,” or add attack and edge. Lessmidrange can sound mellow, dark, or dis-tant. Too much exposure can cause earfatigue.

High or treble frequencies are generallybetween 5 and 20 kHz and are extremelydirectional. Boosting in this range makessounds airy, bright, shiny, or thinner. Thisrange contains the weakest energy of all thefrequency ranges. High frequencies can addpresence to a sound without the added ear

31/710

fatigue. A lack of high frequencies will resultin a darker, more distant, and possiblymuddy mix or sound.

Midrange is the most heavily represented fre-quency range in music. It is often broken downinto three additional areas:

Low-mids, from around 200 to 700 Hzdarker, hollow tones

Mid-mids, from 700 to 2 kHz more aggress-ive “live” tones

High-mids or upper-mids, from 2 to 5 kHzbrighter, present tones

This chart may come in handy when you arelearning how to describe a particular sound orwhen you are mixing. These are general areasand are covered in detail in Chapter 3.

32/710

Phase

Phase designates a point in a sound wave'scycle and is also related to frequency, see Fig.1.3. It is measured in degrees and is used tomeasure the time relationship between two ormore sine waves.

Figure 1.6

33/710

Figure 1.7

34/710

Figure 1.8.

As you can see from Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7,when two sound waves are in phase, the resultis increased amplitude. When they are 180 de-grees out of phase, they can completely canceleach other resulting in little or no sound. Thisconcept is used in many modern devices, suchas noise-cancelling headphones or expensivecar mufflers, to eliminate the outside sound orengine noise. However, sound is not always

35/710

completely in or out of phase. Sounds can beout of phase by any number of degrees, ran-ging from 1 to 359. Phase issues can makesome frequencies louder and others quieter.Often a room's acoustics create these areas ofcuts and boosts in the frequency spectrum.These cancellations and amplitude increasesinfluence the way a room is going to sound.Standing waves and comb filtering are oftenthe result of these phase interferences. Phase isalso very important to keep in mind when ste-reo miking and when using multiple mics onan intended source. When listening in a typicalstereo environment, a sound may be com-pletely out of phase and go unnoticed unlessthe phase is checked.

Tip

Some tips to check phase:

Mono button

Phase flip (polarity)

36/710

Phase meter

Phase issues can be exposed when a mix or asound is checked in mono. One of the first re-cords I mixed was a new wave record withthick delays and effects. I was mixing a partic-ular track for a music video. The studio whereI was working at that time had a small TV witha mono speaker. I would patch mixes into theTV in order to hear the mixes in mono. Thiswould expose any existing phase issues and in-strument imbalances. I patched into that TVafter completing what the band and I thoughtwas a pretty good mix, and the vocals and key-boards almost completely disappeared! Ima-gine if I hadn't checked the phase in mono.The video would have been aired and therewould have been no vocals. I can honestly sayafter that experience that the mono button be-came one of my go to buttons on the recordingconsole. Many live music venues and danceclubs' PAs and speaker systems are set-up in a

37/710

mono configuration to get more power. Whatwould happen if one of your out-of-phasemixes were played in a club? It would be lessthan impressive. Always check your mixes inmono!

Velocity

Velocity is the speed at which sound travels.Sound travels about 1130 ft per second at 68degrees Fahrenheit (344 m/s at 20°C). Thespeed at which sound travels is dependent ontemperature. For example, sound will travelfaster at higher temperatures and slower atlower temperatures, knowing that the velocityof sound can come in handy when calculating astanding wave or working with live sound.

Wavelength

Wavelength is the length of the sound wavefrom one peak to the next. Consider the

38/710

wavelength to be one compression and rarefac-tion of a sound wave. In determining thewavelength, the speed of sound and divide itby the frequency. This will identify the lengthbetween these two peaks.

39/710

Figure 1.9.

As seen in the figures, the lower the frequencythe longer the wavelength. This demonstratesthe power and energy that low end creates as aresult of a longer wavelength. High frequenciesare much smaller in length resulting in a weak-er form of energy that is highly directional.

Tip

The Ruben's Tube is a great visual example ofcompression, rarefaction, frequency, andwavelength. Look up the Ruben's tube built byThe Naked Scientists on their Garage Scienceblog: http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/content/kitchenscience/garage-sci-ence/exp/rubens-tube/11“Rubens' Tube-waves offire.”www.thenakedscientists.com. The Naked Scient-ists, n.d. Retrieved from The Naked Scientists, ht-tp://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/content/kit-chenscience/garage-science/exp/rubens-tube/ (June2011).

40/710

Unlike other sound wave characteristics previ-ously discussed, harmonics and envelope helphumans differentiate between one instrumentor sound from the other.

Harmonics

The richness and character of a musical note isoften found within the harmonics. Harmonicsare commonly referred to as “timbre.” Everyinstrument has a fundamental frequency, re-ferred to as the fundamental, and harmonicsassociated with it. On an oscilloscope, the fun-damental shows up as a pure sine wave, asseen in the Ruben's Tube video; however,sound is much more complex. Most soundscontain more information in addition to thefundamental. In music, instruments have theirown musical makeup of a fundamental plusadditional harmonics unique to that instru-ment. This is how we can distinguish a bassguitar from a tuba, a French horn from a

41/710

violin, or any two sounds when the same noteat the same volume is played. Instruments thatsound smoother, like a flute, have less-har-monic information and the fundamental noteis more apparent in the sound. Instrumentsthat sound edgier, like a trumpet, tend to havemore harmonics in the sound with decreasedemphasis on the fundamental.

42/710

Figure 1.10.

If you were to play a low E on the bass guitar,known as E1, the fundamental note would beabout 41 Hz. You can figure out the harmonicsby simply multiplying the fundamental times2, 3, 4, etc.

The fundamental note E1 = 41 Hz.

The second harmonic would be 82 Hz (41 ×2).

The third harmonic would be 123 Hz (41 ×3).

The fourth harmonic would be 164 Hz (41 ×4).

It is a common practice among engineers tobring out a sound by boosting the harmonicsinstead of boosting the fundamental. For in-stance, if the goal is to hear more bass, boost-ing 900 Hz may bring out the neck, or fretboard, of the instrument and make the note

43/710

pop out of the mix. The result is more apparentin bass, without the addition of destructive lowend to the instrument.Additionally, harmonics are divided into evensand odds. Even harmonics are smoother andcan make the listener feel comfortable, where-as odd harmonics often make the listener feeledgy. Many engineers and musicians use thisknowledge when seeking out microphonepreamps, amplifiers, and other musical equip-ment containing vacuum tubes. These tubescreate even distortion harmonics that arepleasing to the ear and odd distortion harmon-ics that generate more edge and grit.

44/710

Figure 1.11.

Tip

Taking a music fundamentals class or studyingmusic theory can definitely benefit you as anaudio engineer. These classes and concepts canhelp you develop a well-rounded backgroundand better understanding of music. You cannever know too much in this field!

45/710

The more you know, the easier time you willhave communicating effectively with skilledmusicians. If you are able to speak intelli-gently, they are more likely to be comfortableworking with you and putting their trust inyou. The more skills you possess the betteryour chance for success.

Envelope

Like harmonic content, the envelope helps thelistener distinguish one instrument or voicefrom the other. The envelope contains four dis-tinct characteristics: attack, decay, sustain, andrelease.

46/710

Figure 1.12.

Attack is the first point of a note or soundsenvelope. It is identified as the area thatrises from silence to its peak volume.

47/710

Decay is the next area of the envelope thatgoes from the peak to a medium level ofdecline.

Sustain identifies the portion of the envelopethat is constant in the declining stage.

Release identifies the last point in the envel-ope where the sound returns back to silence.

A percussive instrument has a very quick at-tack, reaching the note instantly upon striking.With woodwinds, brass, and reed instruments,no matter how quickly the note is played, itwill never reach the note as fast as striking adrum.

Other Periodic Waveform Types

Waveform defines the size and shape of asound wave. Up to this point, a simple sinewave has been used to illustrate sound. Soundcan come in different waveforms, other than asine wave. Other common waveforms includetriangle, square, and sawtooth waves. Each

48/710

waveform has its own sound and characterist-ics and each may be used for differentapplications.A triangle wave looks like a triangle whenviewed on an oscilloscope, a square wave ap-pears as a square, and a sawtooth wave ap-pears as a sawtooth.

Figure 1.13.

A square wave is typically associated with di-gital audio. A square wave's sound is often de-scribed as hollow and contains the fundament-al note plus the odd harmonics. These

49/710

harmonics gradually decrease in amplitude aswe go higher in the frequency range.A triangle wave is similar to a square wave inthat it also contains only the fundamental plusthe odd harmonics. It is a kind of a crossbetween a sine wave and a square wave. Onemain difference is that the higher frequenciesharmonics are even lower in amplitude thanthose of square waves. This results in a lessharsh sound and is often used in synthesis.A sawtooth wave contains both the even andthe odd harmonics of the fundamental. Itssound is harsh and clear. Sawtooth waveformsare best known for their use in synthesizersand are often used for bowed string sounds.

Audio Clip 1.1

Noise

Noise is any unwanted sound that is usuallynon-repeating. Noise is a hum, a hiss, or avariety of extraneous sounds that accompany a

50/710

sound wave when it is mixed or recorded.Noise comes from a variety of sources besidesthe instrument, such as an air conditioner,fluorescent lights, or outside traffic.One way to express quality of sound is by usingthe Signal-to-Noise Ratio, shortened S/N. Thisratio compares the amount of the desired sig-nal with the amount of unwanted signal thataccompanies it. A high-quality sound will havesignificantly more signal (desired sound) thannoise (undesired sound).Distortion, unlike noise, is caused by setting orrecording levels too hot, pushing vacuumtubes, or by bad electronics. When needed,adding it can be an effective way to make asound dirty, more aggressive, or in your face.Headroom is the maximum amount a signalcan be turned up or amplified without distor-tion. As an audio engineer you should be awarethat audio devices have different amounts ofheadroom. Make sure you allow for plenty ofheadroom when setting audio signal levels. If

51/710

you don't, a loud spike of sound may ruin atake. Analog level settings can exceed zero,while digital cannot. Level settings will be dis-cussed in Chapter 8 and Chapter 11.In this chapter, we learned about seven keysound wave characteristics: amplitude, fre-quency, velocity, wavelength, phase, harmon-ics, and envelope. Distinguishing between adecibel and a hertz, or a low-frequency and ahigh-frequency sound will be very importantwith music production. Having a basic grasp ofthese terms will help create a solid foundationin audio engineering.

52/710

Chapter 2. How to Listen. Re-member When Your ParentsTold You to Listen? Well, YouShould Have Listened!

In this Chapter:

How the Ear Works 15

The Ear 15

Direct, Early Reflections, Reverberation18

Ear Training Tools and Techniques 20

3D Reference Ball 20

Video 1 Explaining the 3D Ball 20

Frequency Pyramid 23

Selective Hearing 23

Analyzing Music Recordings 24

This chapter examines the ear and how sound is interpreted. We will also dis-cuss other important skills and ideas like analyzing music recordings, the fre-quency pyramid, and the 3D reference ball. Understanding human hearingand learning how to better interpret frequencies will result in an increasedability to manipulate sound.

Keywords: 3D Reference Ball, Audio Earplugs, Direct Path, Ear Training,Early Reflections, Frequency Pyramid 2, Reverberation, Selective Hearing

This chapter examines the ear and how soundis interpreted. We will also discuss other im-portant skills and ideas like analyzing musicrecordings, the frequency pyramid, and the 3Dreference ball. Understanding human hearingand learning how to better interpret frequen-cies will result in an increased ability to ma-nipulate sound.

How the Ear Works

The Ear

Like a microphone, the ear is a transducer. Ourears convert acoustic sound vibrations intomechanical energy which is then sent to ourbrains as electrical impulses. The human ear ismade up of the outer, middle, and inner ear.

54/710

The bones in our middle ear help amplifysound, while the inner ear's muscles help pro-tect it from loud or sudden volume changes.In the previous chapter, frequency was dividedinto three areas: the bass, or lows, from 20 to200 Hz; midrange frequencies from about 200Hz to 5 kHz; and treble, or highs, from 5 to 20kHz. Most humans hear best in the followingorder: midrange, highs, and then lows.However, as volume increases, the differentfrequency ranges are heard more equally. Ac-cording to the Fletcher–Munson curve, mosthumans will hear all frequency ranges equallybetween 80 and 85 dB. It is important to un-derstand what frequencies will be heard at anygiven volume. When you are in the studiomonitor mixes at both lower and highervolumes to ensure that the recording soundsgood when the music is played quietly or at fullvolume.

55/710

Tip

Turn on your stereo, iPod, or personal listen-ing device. Listen at a low volume and notewhich instruments are heard well. You arelikely to hear the vocals, snare drum, and othermidrange tones. Next, increase the volume andnotice how the bass range fills up the overallsound.Around 95 dB, the ear's natural defense is tolimit the volume of the sound. At volumesmore than 95 dB, the brain interprets basssounds as flatter and treble sounds as sharperin pitch. This is one of the many reasons not toblast headphones, especially for singers! If youhave ever been to a loud concert, you probablyrecognize that your ears adjust to the loudervolume. Our ears actually limit these loudersounds in an attempt to prevent damage. Aspreviously mentioned, humans are unable tohear sound accurately at louder volumes. Limitthe time you spend listening to loud volumes.

56/710

Consider taking short breaks throughout a ses-sion to allow the ears time to recover. How canyou expect a great result if you cannot hear ac-curately due to ear fatigue?

Figure 2.1.

57/710

Extended exposure to loud sound can lead topermanent hearing loss. Keep earplugs handyfor loud concerts and other events with loudvolumes. If you are practicing with your rockband in the garage, wear earplugs! They maybe annoying at first, but you will get used tothem. There are a variety of different types ofearplugs, at different price ranges. The typicalfoam earplugs reduce volume and more of themid and higher frequencies. These are inten-ded more for industrial use than for music ap-plication. These are effective in reducing ex-treme volumes, but can severely compromisethe tone of a sound (Fig. 2.2).

58/710

Figure 2.2

Some companies make earplugs specificallysuited for use when listening to and workingwith music and are available at local musicstores or online. These earplugs decrease theamplitude, but retain the frequency range (Fig.2.3).

Figure 2.3

Also, an Audiologist can provide customearplugs that are suited for more critical listen-ing and are molded to fit your ear. The profes-sional molded earplugs can include inserts for−10, −15, and −20 dB attenuators along withother filters (Fig. 2.4).

59/710

Figure 2.4

Links for audio earplugs:

www.hearos.com

www.earplugstore.stores.yahoo.net/

http://www.hear-more.com/musician.htm

Age and gender contribute to a person's abilityto hear sound. As we get older, many of us willnot be able to hear frequencies much above 16kHz, while some of us may not be able to hearmuch above 13 kHz. The legendary GeorgeMartin can only hear up to about 12 kHz. Mostof our “perfect” hearing years occur before our25th birthday. In terms of gender and hearing,

60/710

women tend to hear higher frequencies betterthan men. The inner ear hairs (organ of corti)and cochlea are stiffer in women, resulting in amore sensitive frequency response. Statisticsshow that men have more hearing deficiencies,and women's hearing deteriorates at a slowerpace in comparison with men.To learn more about your own ears, you canget your hearing checked by an Audiologist. Tocheck your hearing for free, go to www.digital-recordings.com/, where there are several greatonline tests.Ears are sensitive transducers with a non-lin-ear frequency response. Frequencies that hu-mans hear best are between 1 and 4 kHz, andat lower volumes, the ear doesn't respond wellto bass frequencies. At lower volumes, thethree small bones in the middle ear help amp-lify quieter sounds so that we can hear thembetter. To protect your ears at louder volumes,insert earplugs and enjoy.

61/710

Also worth considering is the resonant fre-quency of the ear canal, which is roughly 3 kHzin an average adult ear. This resonant fre-quency means we humans are more sensitiveto that particular frequency. One interestingpoint is that a newborn baby's cry is alsoroughly 3 kHz.

Tip

To ensure the mix is not bass heavy or basslight, monitor sound between 80 and 85 dB.Remember, this is the volume where frequencyranges are heard more equally. To get to knowwhat 80–85 dB sounds like, you can purchasea dB or a sound pressure meter at your localelectronics store, music store, or find one on-line. There are also multiple phone apps thatoffer different types of sound pressure meters.

62/710

Direct, Early Reflections,

Reverberation

Sound can be divided into three successivelyoccurring categories that arrive at the ears inthe following order: direct path, early reflec-tions, and reverberation.

Figure 2.5.

63/710

The direct path is the quickest path to thelistener. It helps identify the location where asound is coming. As binaural creatures, we usetwo ears with our head acting as an objectblocking the sound between each ear, to de-termine the direction of a sound. If a soundreaches our left ear first, we recognize thesound as originating from the left side. Thesame applies to the right side. If a soundreaches both ears at the same time, the soundoriginates either directly in front and center ordirectly behind us.

Figure 2.6.

64/710

Early reflections occur immediately after thedirect sound. These reflections clue us in to thesurface type (wood, tile, carpet, etc.) around aparticular sound. We hear early reflectionsfrom all directions fairly equally. Early reflec-tions appearing from the sides make a soundappear wider and more spacious. Our brainshave a difficult time interpreting early reflec-tions under about 20 ms. This psychoacousticphenomenon is known as the Haas effect. Wecan actually use this to fatten up a sound. Forexample, try putting a 6 ms delay on the bass,voice, or guitar. Pan the dry, or unprocessed,signal left and the delayed, or wet, signal right.This will stretch the signal between the twospeakers providing a single thick sound. Thesignal will not be heard as two individualsounds.Reverberation is the last component of soundthat is processed by the brain. This is how thesize of the space where the sound originated isdetermined. Reverberation is the sound decay

65/710

or “wash” left after the initial sound and earlyreflections. The longer it takes for the wash orreverb to go away, the larger is the space. Thewords “environment” and “space” may also beused to represent the word reverberation.Direct path, early reflections, and reverbera-tion are not necessarily sound waves you willhear independently of one another. The timedifferences that can occur between each oneare so minute that they are typically inter-preted as a single sound. Our brain processes asound and provides us clues to its direction,the surface material around it, and the size ofthe space or environment, even though wethink we are hearing a single sound. We canuse this information to recreate spaces, to bet-ter evaluate sound, and to add depth and di-mension to our recordings.

Ear Training Tools and Techniques

3D Reference Ball

66/710

Explaining the 3D Ball

Audio engineers work with intangible tools:sounds, pitches, and instruments. It can be dif-ficult to manipulate these invisible elementsinto a well-rounded mix. To help create a fullmix, when monitoring or recording, imagine a3D ball suspended between the two speakers.This gives you a physical reference to workwith. In this space, you will control where thesounds are situated – whether be it the front orback, left or right, and top or bottom. The spe-cific controls used to arrange sounds withinthis 3D reference ball will be discussed in de-tail in Chapter 6, “Mixing Consoles.” Manynew engineers do not take advantage of the en-tire 3D space, the reference ball, thus creatinga mix lacking dimension, texture, and clarity.Different tools are used to manipulate soundin different ways. In order to move soundaround in the 3D ball, volume/amplitude,

67/710

reverberation, also known as environment,panning, and EQ are used. One way to move asound to the forefront of the 3D space, or to-ward the listener, is to turn up the volume oramplitude. To move a sound to the back-ground, turn down the amplitude. Likewise,boost or cut midrange to influence where asound is placed in the ball. Use less midrangeto make the sound appear further back andmore midrange to make the sound appear up-front and in your face. Another way to move asound to the front or back of the 3D ball is toapply reverberation (environment). Considerreverb, or environment, as the ambient soundcreated by a hall, garage, living room, or otheracoustic space. Apply less environment or re-verb to bring a sound or image toward thelistener, or the front of the ball. Use more en-vironment or reverb to push a sound awayfrom the listener, or to the back of the 3Dspace.

68/710

Panning is another tool used to control soundplacement within the 3D ball. Panning is ap-plied to move a sound from left to right and isoften times described as time on a clock face.An image panned to 3 o'clock will appear tomainly come from the right speaker. An imagepanned to 9 o'clock will appear mainly fromthe left speaker. A hard-panned image appearsstrictly from that speaker side. Panning is oneof the most effective ways to separate two likeinstruments within the 3D space, such as twoguitars or backing vocals. Often secondary in-struments, such as tambourine, shaker, bells,hi-hats, and cymbals, are panned hard. Bassguitar and kick drum are rarely panned hardleft and right because the powerful low-end as-sociated with these instruments is efficientlydivided between the two speakers and bass isomnidirectional. Consider them as your an-chors. The main vocals are also usually cent-rally panned to draw the listener's attention(Fig. 2.7).

69/710

Figure 2.7

Finally, adjusting the EQ will move sound upor down in the 3D reference ball. When listen-ing to typical monitors, the high frequenciesthat emanate from the tweeter will be highly

70/710

directional and will appear around ear level.The mid and low frequencies will be directedto the woofer at the bottom of the speaker andwill sit at the lower portion of the 3D ball. Themidrange will hit you in the chest and the lowswill surround you and fill up the floor.Don't be afraid to utilize the entire 3D space.Visualize where each sound will sit in the finalmix. One thing you want to avoid is position-ing everything in the middle of the 3D space,the equivalent to up front in the mix. This res-ults in a very 1D mix and makes it more diffi-cult for the listener to focus on any one sound.Try to envisage yourself watching the song liveand imagine where the instruments/musicianswould be on the stage. This image in yourmind should help when it comes to positioningwithin a mix.

Tip

When I am mixing I try to imagine an oldschool balancing scale. If I pan one guitar

71/710

right, I want to put something of equal weighton the other side, say another guitar, ortrumpet.

Figure 2.8.

72/710

Frequency Pyramid

Another visualization tool is to consider build-ing a pyramid with the different frequencyranges. The pyramid would be built with lowfrequencies on the bottom, mid frequencies inthe middle, and high frequencies on the top.While recording and mixing, keep this pyram-id in mind and make sure you have enough ofeach frequency range. If the pyramid is lackinga particular frequency range, the mix maysound unbalanced or incomplete.

73/710

Figure 2.9.

Selective Hearing

Selective hearing is essential if you want tosucceed as an audio engineer or musician.Selective hearing involves focusing on indi-vidual components of a sound, the differentfrequency ranges, and the overall sound. As anaudio engineer, you should be able to pick outany instrument in a mix, focus on it, and

74/710

evaluate the dynamic and tonal relationship ithas with the other instruments or sounds.

Tip

Tips for selective hearing:

? Practice focusing on an individual instru-ment for the entire song.

? Try to follow every note or beat.

? Repeat this for each instrument or soundin the mix.

? Listen to like instruments, for example,bass and kick drum or two electric guitars.Examine their relationship in the mix.

? Focus on groups of instruments, such asstrings, vocals, and rhythm tracks. What arethe overall relationships in the mix?

75/710

Analyzing Music Recordings

Selective hearing involves being able to pickout an instrument in a recording or mix.Related to selective hearing is the ability toanalyze and recreate a sound. Just like a film-maker watches a film and notices the differentcamera angles, lighting, and movement of theactors, it will be your job as an audio engineerto identify certain details in a mix or recording.These details may include noticing tones, re-verbs and effects, the balance of instruments,and other specific production details. Analyz-ing music recordings to help mimic a particu-lar sound for a client or to be able to commu-nicate with other audio professionals is essen-tial in music production.

Tip

Try the following exercise:

76/710

1. Listen to a song and identify all the instru-ments or sounds in the mix.

2. Where are all the sounds placed in the 3Dreference ball? Which sounds appear in thecenter? Which sounds appear on the sides?Do any instruments have a stereo spread?

3. How do the vocals sit in the mix? Are theyin the front of the ball or do they blend morewith the music?

4. What are the tones of the individualsounds? Are some sounds bright while oth-ers are dark or dull? What is the overall toneof the recording?

5. Can you hear the environment aroundeach sound? Do all the instruments appearto be in the same space? What does the over-all environment sound like?

6. Is it a “wet” mix or a “dry” mix? A wet mixwill have a lot of effects, such as reverb,delay, or echo, and is often used in pop,

77/710

psychedelic, surf, and reggae music (seeChapter 7). A dry mix will be more organicwith little or no effects apparent in the mix.Dry mixes are more common to folk, blues,jazz, classical, and bluegrass music.

7. Finally, and most importantly, how doesthe recording make you feel? (The recordingmakes me feel like driving faster, sitting onthe couch, smiling, etc.)

You may want to compare two separate re-cordings, especially when determining theoverall tone. You might think that the record-ing you are analyzing is fairly dark, but com-pared to what? It is always good to establishsome type of reference point between two dif-ferent instruments or mixes. Comparing onesound against another is often referred to as“A/B.”This chapter discussed how the ear works andinterprets sound. If you understand thosethings, you should be able to evaluate and

78/710

adjust sound. In music production, it is im-portant to analyze recordings. Selective hear-ing along with imagining the 3D reference balland the frequency pyramid will make this taskeasier. Listen to music and practice these exer-cises. Auricula has a half-dozen ear trainingapplications that can be found at www.auricu-laonline.com. Auricula's Helices is a plug-inthat can be purchased for Garage Band andthey also offer a free phone app. This is a greattool for learning how to recognize different fre-quencies and for general ear training. The nextchapter will introduce ways to communicatewith musicians and provide some additionalvocabulary to express sound quality.

79/710

Chapter 3. EQ Points of In-terest. Frequencies Made Easy

In this Chapter:

Equalization (EQ) and Frequency 27

Boost or Cut 28

Slope 29

Low-Cut and High-Pass Filters 29

Subtractive Equalization Is Your Friend!30

General EQ Areas 30

EQ Points of Interest 31

Subs 31

Big/Fat 31

Muddy 31

Boxy/Hollow 31

“In Your Face!” 32

Presence and Clarity 32

Airy 32

Adjectives: Speaking About AudioUsing Plain English 33

Equalization, or EQ, can be used to describe the action of equalizing a sound, acontrol to change the tone, or a reference to the tone of a sound. More thanlikely you have already equalized something in your life. If you have everchanged the bass or treble settings on your car or home stereo, then you haveperformed this basic engineering function. In audio production, there are avariety of equalizer controls at your disposal, to change the tone of a record-ing. Equalizers, also called EQs, are available as standalone rack units, as partof a channel strip, and as software plug-ins.

Keywords: Airy, Big and Fat, Boost, Boxy/Hollow, Cut, Equalization (EQ),Frequency, High-Pass Filters, In Your Face!, Low-Cut filters, Muddy, Presenceand Clarity, Slope, Subs, Subtractive Equalization

Equalization (EQ) and Frequency

Equalization, or EQ, can be used to describethe action of equalizing a sound, a control tochange the tone, or a reference to the tone of asound. More than likely you have alreadyequalized something in your life. If you haveever changed the bass or treble settings on

81/710

your car or home stereo, then you have per-formed this basic engineering function. In au-dio production, there are a variety of equalizercontrols at your disposal, to change the tone ofa recording. Equalizers, also called EQs, areavailable as standalone rack units, as part of achannel strip, and as software plug-ins.What actually happens when a sound is equal-ized? The tone of an overall sound is altered byincreasing or decreasing the amplitude of aparticular frequency or a range of frequencies,such as bass. Remember the terms frequencyand amplitude, found in Chapter 1 andChapter 2? They are two essential elements inunderstanding audio, especially when we arediscussing equalization.Understanding the different frequency rangesand how to describe them is a necessary skillbefore you can begin to equalize. It is import-ant to be familiar with specific frequencies andhow they are often described and reproduced.This will make it much easier for you, as an

82/710

engineer, to create or re-create a sound the cli-ent may be describing.Although there are exceptions, most musiciansdo not communicate using technical terms like“boost 100 Hz 3 dB on my bass.” They aremore likely to describe something in layman'sterms. “I wish my bass sounded ‘fatter’,” or“My bass sounds too ‘thin’.” While there is nouniversal language to describe sound, there aremany helpful ways to communicate with musi-cians who may describe sound quality in theirown ways.In this chapter we will discuss common EQproperties to help you identify frequenciesquickly and communication tips for talkingwith musicians who often speak in layman'sterms.For example, the two outer frequency ranges,the Low and High, sit on the opposite sides ofthe frequency spectrum and are simplified inTable 3.1.

83/710

Table 3.1 Frequency ComparisonsLow High

20–200 Hz 5–20 kHz

Bass Treble

Fat Thin

Dark Bright

Big Small

Powerful Weak

On the ground In the air

Huge Tiny

Black White

Sad Happy

As you can see from the table, the low-fre-quency range and the high-frequency rangeproduce sounds that are opposite indescription. Low-frequency areas may be de-scribed as big, fat, dark, and having power.High-frequency areas are commonly describedas small, thin, bright, and sounding weak.

84/710

Boost or Cut

As previously stated, equalization is boostingor cutting a frequency or a range of frequenciesby using an equalizer. Boosting a frequency in-creases the amplitude (volume) of a particulartone or pitch. Cutting a frequency subtractsamplitude from a particular tone or pitch. If afrequency is neither boosted nor cut, it is saidto be “flat.” In music production, a flat fre-quency response does not have a negative con-notation, like a “flat note” or “flat perform-ance” does. It simply means no particular fre-quency range is added or subtracted from thesound.

Slope

When a sound is equalized, the frequency thathas been boosted or cut may be referred to asthe “peak” frequency. Typically, this will be thefrequency that is boosted or cut the most.

85/710

Other frequencies are affected on either side ofthe peak. This area is known as the slope, or Q.

Figure 3.1.

A graphic equalizer has a preset Q that cannotbe changed, while a parametric equalizer givesthe user the ability to change Q, if needed. Aparametric EQ is a much more precise equal-izer than most other EQs, because you cancontrol amplitude, frequency, and Q.

Low-Cut or High-Pass Filters

A button or switch often located on a console,preamp, or mic, when selected, cuts low

86/710

frequencies and passes high frequencies at apredetermined setting. It does not allow you tocontrol Q. These EQs also come in a high-cutor low-pass filter. A low cut is great to clear upany “mud” in a mix (see muddy, below). Tryapplying a low cut to instruments that don'thave lows (electric guitar and snare drum) anda high cut to instruments that don't have highs(bass/kick drum). These filters can help elim-inate any extraneous or unwanted frequenciesin the instruments, leaving only the desiredsound. Applying high and low cuts for clearingrecordings of unwanted frequencies also helpsin reducing the overall headroom of a track, al-lowing it to be louder overall without clipping(distorting).

87/710

Figure 3.2.

Subtractive Equalization Is Your

Friend!

Subtractive equalization is a technique used bymost professional engineers to create clearer,more defined mixes. In order to have a clearmix where all instruments are heard, space willneed to be made. Two sounds cannot occupy

88/710

the same tone or frequency range and main-tain clarity. If two sounds do occupy the samefrequency range, the louder sound may mask,or hide, the quieter sound. Ultimately, mixingis about “crowd control.” Space must be cre-ated for a sound to be heard. Many inexperi-enced engineers tend to add what they want tohear first. For instance, if the goal is a bigger,bassier kick drum, a novice may add more bassto the mix. A better solution is to take awayfrom one of the other frequency areas that aredominating the sound, for example, reducingthe amplitude around 600 Hz. The result willbe more bass on the kick without addingdestructive low-end. When mids or highs inthe kick drum are cut, more bass will bepresent. Also, the area that has just been cutopens up more space in the mix for other in-struments to be heard. This is the subtractionin subtractive equalization. This doesn't meanthat frequencies should never be boosted. Start

89/710

by subtracting first, and then add frequenciesonly as needed.

General EQ Areas

Frequency recognition is crucial to being suc-cessful in audio production. One of the easiestways to become familiar with the different fre-quency ranges and the number that goes withthem is to initially divide them up in the fol-lowing manner:

100 Hz – makes things bigger, fatter (kickdrum).

1 kHz – adds attack, makes the sound more“In Your Face” (snare drum).

10 kHz – makes a sound airy, breathy, orbrighter (hi-hat or cymbals).

Audio Clip 3.0

These are great EQ starting points. After youhave taken out any unwanted frequencies (ap-plied subtractive EQ'ing techniques), ask

90/710

yourself, “Do I want the sound to be fatter,more up front, or brighter?” If the answer is“fatter,” start at 100 Hz and adjust from there.If the answer is “more up front” or “more ag-gressive,” boost 1 kHz. It may turn out that thecorrect equalization is another frequency like 2kHz or 900 Hz. Whatever the adjustment, thekey is in getting to the general area. If the an-swer is brighter, breathier, or airy, try boosting10 kHz. Ultimately, a different frequency maybe boosted, but adding 10 kHz should get youstarted.With some generalization and through com-munication with the client, it will be mucheasier to recognize the frequency that needs tobe adjusted. Locating and equalizingsomething quickly will hopefully keep a clienthappy and coming back for more!The following are seven common EQ points ofinterest: subs, big/fat, muddy, boxy/hollow, inyour face!, presence/clarity, and airy. Becom-ing familiar with these seven areas can help

91/710

you locate a specific EQ point quickly. Follow-ing this section are even more terms to helpyou describe and communicate audio frequen-cies and sounds.

EQ Points of Interest

Subs (Below 80 Hz), Low

Frequencies

Frequencies below 80 Hz can make soundshuge and are referred to as “subs.” Subs are of-ten accentuated in various dance, electronic,rap, R&B, and reggae styles of music. This isthe frequency area that is represented by asubwoofer. Pay close attention to this fre-quency area. Too much sub information candominate a mix and make the other instru-ments appear weak and hidden.

92/710

Audio Clip 3.1

Big/Fat (20–200 Hz), Low

Frequencies

The low-frequency area generally makessounds appear bigger and fatter. The humanear doesn't hear bass as well at lower volumes.But when we do crank it up here, terms such asbig, fat, beefy, huge, and thumping are used todescribe these powerful wavelengths. Toomuch sound here can blanket a mix, and notenough could make a mix sound weak.

93/710

Audio Clip 3.2

Muddy (100–300 Hz), Low –

Low-Mid Frequencies

Too much of the low and low-mid frequenciescan muddy an instrument or mix. If a soundisn't very clear, or muddy, try subtractingbetween 100 and 300 Hz. This is especiallyhelpful with vocals, acoustic guitars, and pi-ano. Because close miking can cause proximityeffect, a low-end boost of around 100 Hz, it isoften unnecessarily present, and will likelyneed to be rolled off.

94/710

Audio Clip 3.3

Boxy/Hollow (300–700 Hz),

Low-Mid Frequencies

The frequency range 300–700 Hz is often de-scribed as boxy or hollow. This is typically anarea where subtractive EQ is applied, althoughthere are always exceptions. Kick drum micsare often designed to cut frequencies from thisarea. Subtracting low-mids can clean up asound and make it more distinct, but it canalso leave a sound hollow and colorless. This isnot the most flattering frequency area on manyinstruments. An electric guitar tone, if de-scribed as boxy, has too much of this frequencyrange. A boxy sound can also be the result ofoverly compressed audio with a very fast at-tack setting, especially with a snare drum ortom.

95/710

Audio Clip 3.4

In Your Face (1.5–4 kHz), Mid-Mid

– Upper-Mid Frequencies

Sounds in the midrange area, especially in themid-mid and upper midrange are best heardby the human ear. This is the area between 1.5and 4 kHz. This also happens to be the samefrequency area as a baby crying. Because wehear best in this area, sounds often appear “InYour Face.” 1.5–4 kHz is often described withaggressive terms such as slap, bite, crunch,edge, and attack. Punk rock music accentuatesthis frequency range. Some country, folk, andacoustic music might also have more sounds inthe midrange. Too much here can cause ear fa-tigue, whereas not enough here can make amix or sound appear dark and distant.

96/710

Audio Clip 3.5

Presence And Clarity (4–10 kHz),

Upper-Mid – High Frequencies

The frequency area between 4 and 10 kHz is anarea that can add presence and clarity to a mix.Often vocals are emphasized in this range tohelp them cut through or sit on top of a trackwithout making the vocal sound too edgy. Notethat sibilance is also in this area. Sibilance isassociated with the “s” sound and this fre-quency area may need to be carefully managedwith some singers. A de-esser is often used tohelp remove or soften sibilance. Inclusion ofjust enough information here makes a mixhave presence and clarity.

97/710

Audio Clip 3.6

Airy (Above 10 kHz), High

frequencies

Frequencies above 10 kHz make sounds ap-pear higher in the mix. Make sure to highlightthis area to make a vocal, string, tambourine,or any other sound appear airy, breathy, thin,or bright. Transients and harmonics dominatethis range. Terms associated with the sky areoften used to describe this area: airy, sunny,bright, light, angelic, clouds, sparkle, andfeathery. This frequency range often helps dif-ferentiate what is considered high fidelity (hi-fi) and low fidelity (lo-fi). A lo-fi recording willlikely have very little, if any, frequency inform-ation above 10 kHz.

Audio Clip 3.7

98/710

Tip

Pay special attention to the range of frequen-cies below 80 Hz. This is the most destructivefrequency range and too much here can negat-ively affect a mix. On the other hand, justenough of this frequency range can make a mixsound huge and powerful!

Adjectives: Speaking About AudioUsing Plain English

Additional adjectives are needed by nonengin-eers to describe a tone, sound, or the physicalspace that surrounds a sound. Although pro-fessional engineers typically use more technic-al descriptions, particularly in discussing fre-quency ranges, most engineers are familiarwith interpreting a musician's request. It islikely that not all engineers will agree on thedefinitions used here, because of the subjectivenature of describing sound, but I have full con-fidence that these terms, in most cases, will

99/710

help you communicate and interpret ideas re-lated to music production.

Angelic – Usually a sound buried in a largereverb and with the high-frequency rangeaccentuated. Try applying a “cathedral” or“church” reverb and boost the extremehighs.

Beefy – Probably a sound with a lot of lowand low-mid frequencies. May also be de-scribed as “thick.” Guitarists often request abeefy guitar tone. When the term beefycomes up, think of a sound with a solid low-end that probably isn't too quiet in the mix.

Big – Contains a lot of low-end. Associatedwith the frequency range 20–200 Hz. Alarge room can make a big sound seem evenbigger if miked from a distance. Applyingcertain reverbs may also make a sound ap-pear bigger. Some musicians may also saythat they want a bigger sound and all theyreally want you to do is turn it up!

100/710

Bite – A sound emphasized in the midrangearea. If a snare is described as having bite,imagine the snare being tight and in yourface. It would sit somewhere between 1 kHzand 3 kHz. Some guitar tones are often de-scribed as having bite.

Body – Depending on the frequency rangeof the instrument or voice, the lower fre-quency area would need to be dominant.Often people want to hear the body of anacoustic instrument, such as an acoustic gui-tar or snare drum. This request would re-quire plenty of 100–250 Hz present in thesound.

Boomy – A sound that is boomy resides inthe low and low-mid frequency range. Simil-ar to body but is generally more of a negativeterm. Try cutting between 100 and 400 Hzto reduce boominess.

Brittle – As the word suggests, it means“about to break.” This is seldom a flattering

101/710

term. A brittle sound lacks low frequenciesand highlights the upper midrange andhigh-frequency area above 3 kHz. Cheap di-gital equipment can make the high frequen-cies sound brittle.

Breathy – A term often associated with avocal tone. A breathy tone would be domin-ated by high frequencies. Try boosting 10kHz and up for a breathy vocal. This can beachieved by EQ and/or compression.

Chimey – Contains mostly high frequenciesin the sound and would accentuate aninstrument's upper harmonics. Can be foundin the 10 kHz and up range. Similar toglassy.

Chunky – A chunky vocal or guitar tonewould have a lot of low-mids and wouldlikely have emphasis in the 100–300 Hzarea. Similar to a thick sound.

Crispy – Think of sizzling bacon. A crispysound would emphasize the upper-mids and

102/710

highs above about 4 kHz. A crispy soundmay even have some distortion present. Notusually a flattering term.

Crunchy – A crunchy sound often involvessome degree of distortion or overdrive. Theemphasis is in the midrange area between 1and 4 kHz. Crunchy may be used to describea certain guitar tone.

Deep – A sound that has a lot of depth to itfrom front to back, or enhanced low fre-quencies under 250 Hz. An example wouldbe a deep bass tone.

Dirty – The opposite of a clean, clear sound.A dirty tone would have some amount of dis-tortion, noise, or overdrive in the signal.Similar to fuzzy.

Distant – If a sound lacks midrange andhigh frequencies, it will appear further backin the sound field. Add upper-mids or highfrequencies to make a sound less distant. A

103/710

distant sound could also mean that it is toolow in the mix or has way too much reverb.

Dry – A sound with little or no FX can bedescribed as dry. A dry sound would nothave reverb or other obvious effects present.A dry sound is most common with folk,bluegrass, and acoustic styles of music.

Dull – A sound can appear dull if it is lack-ing energy, highs, or is overly compressed.Add upper-mids or highs to a dull sound, orslow the attack setting on a compressor tomake a sound less dull.

Edgy – Describes a sound that accentuateswhere we hear best, in the 1–4 kHz range.An edgy sound can make the listener feel un-comfortable like nails scratching on a chalk-board. Definitely in your face!

Fat – A fat sound accentuates the lower fre-quency range. A fat guitar tone, a fat vocal, afat kick, and a fat snare sound are common

104/710

requests. The fat frequency range would bearound 20–250 Hz.

Fuzzy – Describes a tone that is not clearand likely has a substantial amount of over-drive or distortion associated with it.

Glassy – A glassy sound is a very thinsound with lots of apparent highs. Definitelynot bassy! A clean, electric guitar tone that isextremely bright could be described asglassy.

Hard – A hard sound has a lot of midrangeand accentuates the attack part of a sound'senvelope. Harder frequencies are foundbetween approximately 1 and 4 kHz.

Hollow – A hollow sound lacks a portion ofits frequency range. This can be caused byphase cancellations due to room acoustics orother variances.

Hot – A sound described as hot may meanthat it is turned up too loud, or the high

105/710

frequency range is more noticeable. Tryturning the amplitude down or rolling offsome higher frequencies.

Huge – Describes a sound with excessivelows or one that is recorded in a big space.

Loose – A loose sound would lack theharder mid-mid frequency area. Loose couldalso describe a space or environment thathas very little treatment and results in a lessfocused sound.

Mellow – A sound lacking upper-mids andhighs is often described as mellow. A mellowguitar tone would be a darker, tubey soundas opposed to a distorted, in your face tonewith a lot of 2 kHz present. Also, reverb canmellow a harder sound.

Muffled – A muffled sound would be dom-inated by low and low-mid frequencies inthe 100–250 Hz range, resulting in a tonewith less presence and clarity. Imaginesinging with a blanket over your head.

106/710

Nasally – Often used to describe a vocaltone. Try cutting between 500 Hz and 3 kHz.People may also describe this same area astelephone-like, honky, or tinny.

Ringy – A ringy tone will be dominated bythe mid frequencies. Snare drums are oftendescribed as ringy. A ringy tone is producedwhen the mic is placed close to the drum rimand both heads are tuned extremely tight.Taking away frequencies between 900 Hzand 3 kHz will likely reduce a ringy tone.

Shimmering – A sound dominated by ex-treme highs. A shimmering sound is in the10 kHz and up range. To create a shimmer-ing sounds boost the upper highs.

Shiny – Similar to shimmering. A shinysound has plenty of highs.

Sizzly – Rarely a flattering term, sizzly de-scribes a tone with a great deal of treble. So-mething referred to as sizzly can also becalled glassy or crispy.

107/710

Slap(py) – Usually associated with the neckof a guitar or bass, or the kick pedal strikingthe head of a drum. More slap would be inthe 500 Hz–3 kHz range. It can also de-scribe a sound reflecting back, as in a slapecho.

Small – A small sound would either beoverly compressed or a sound with little lowor low-mid frequencies. It is likely that asmall sound wouldn't have frequencies be-low 200 Hz. Close miking produces a smal-ler sound versus room miking. A snare orguitar amp may appear smaller when mic isextremely close.

Smooth – A smooth tone generally has aflatter frequency response. No frequencyrange would be emphasized over another. Itcan also be described as easy on the ears.

Soft – A soft tone typically lacks the hardermidrange frequencies. Therefore, it is safe tosay that extreme lows, extreme highs, or a

108/710

combination, creates a softer sound. It couldalso refer to volume. If it is too soft, turn itup. If it's not soft enough, turn it down.

Thick – See beefy. A sound that is thick hasplenty of lows and low-mids. The thick areais between 20 and 300 Hz.

Thin – A sound that is not very fat or deep.A thin sound is dominated by upper-midsand high frequencies above 4 kHz.

Tight – Tight sounds have very little reverbor environment in the sound. Close mikingan instrument or voice will result in a tightsound. A tight sound is dominated by thedirect signal instead of the early reflectionsor reverberant field. Any frequency rangecan be considered tight, but it is often usedto describe a bass or kick drum sound that istoo boomy or resonant.

Tinny – A tinny sound is a thin sound dom-inated by the mid-mid and upper midrange.If the vocals are described as tinny, it is not a

109/710

compliment. Try cutting between 2 and 7kHz or adding some low or low-midfrequencies.

Tiny – A sound with extreme highs and al-most no lows will likely sound tiny. Notenough volume may also make a sound tiny.

Tubby – An unflattering term that de-scribes too much low or low-mids in asound. Try cutting between 100 and 400 Hz.

Warm – A warm tone accentuates the lowand low-mid frequency range. Analog tapeand tube amps are often described as warm.The opposite of a warm sound would be acold or brittle sound.

Wet – A wet sound or wet mix would havean obvious amount of FX present. The op-posite of a wet sound is a dry sound. If thevocals are drenched in reverb and the guitarsounds like it is floating in space, then youhave achieved this adjective.

110/710

Here are some more helpful terms when com-municating with others about the quality ofsound:

If a sound lacks highs, it may be described asdark, distant, or dull.

If a sound lacks midrange, it may be de-scribed as mellow, soft, or unclear.

If a sound lacks lows, it may be described asthin, small, or bright.

If a sound has too little reverb, it may be de-scribed as dry, dead, flat, or lifeless.

If a sound has too much reverb, it may bedescribed as wet, muddy, washy, distant, orcavernous.

If something is too loud in a mix, it may bedescribed as in your face, up front, on top,forward, masking, dominating, hot, orseparate.

111/710

If something is too quiet in a mix, it may bedescribed as buried, masked, hidden, lost, inthe background or distant.

People communicate differently when refer-ring to the quality of sound. By learning to de-scribe sounds in a descriptive manner, you willbe able to identify and execute a sound changemuch more quickly than randomly searchingfor an unknown frequency or sound. Theseterms offer a starting point when equalizing,applying reverb, or executing other audio en-gineering functions. Without this startingpoint, much time will be wasted turning knobswithout direction.

112/710

Chapter 4. People Skills. Re-cording Isn't All Technical!

In this Chapter:

No Knobs or Faders Required 37

Word of Mouth 37

Vibe 39

What About My Opinion? 40

The Insecure Artist 40

Patience 41

Communication Skills 42

Song Structure 42

Body Language 43

Scheduling, Time Management, andOrganization Skills 44

How to Meet People to Record 45

Before we go much further, let's talk about something that is not technical, isoften overlooked, and is usually underrated: people skills.

Keywords: Body Language, Communication Skills, Faders, Insecure Artist,Knobs, Organization Skills, Patience, Scheduling, Song Structure, Time Man-agement, Vibe, Word of Mouth

No Knobs or Faders Required

Before we go much further, let's talk aboutsomething that is not technical, is often over-looked, and is usually underrated: peopleskills.It will be helpful to you as a recording engineerif people like you. You will work with all typesof people and personalities and it will benefityou if you are somewhat likeable. When anartist shares their songs with you, they are put-ting their very closest emotions out to bejudged. A good engineer will be sensitive to thevulnerability that this can create. One of theeasiest ways to influence a recording does notrequire a knob or fader, or any technical skillsat all. It requires you to be positive and sup-portive of the artist(s). Not to mention, a bad

114/710

attitude can negatively affect a recording ses-sion or performance.Other non-technical skills such as time man-agement and organization can come in handy.In addition, showing up on time and keepingtrack of your own schedule will be necessaryskills for your success. After all, if you decideto become an audio engineer for a living, muchof your competition will be musicians whoaren't known for being punctual! Show up ontime, or better yet, show up early, and you willonly increase your odds for success.

Word of Mouth

You are likely to get hired in the recording fieldthrough word of mouth. If the word is that youare difficult or unpleasant to work with, thenyou may not get a lot returning clients or refer-ences for new clients. If an artist has a positiveexperience working with you, they are likely toshare their success story with other musiciansand return to you the next time they want to

115/710

record something. Often musicians play inmore than one band or quit and move on toother musical projects. A friend of mine, John,who owns his studio and is an engineer saysthat he attributes his first three years of clientsall to the first band he recorded. The bandrealized that they didn't really like each otherenough to continue their initial project. Mem-bers of the original band went on to create sev-eral other bands, which chose to record withJohn, because they had such a good experiencewith him the first time around.I have clients whom I have continued to workwith over the years and clients who moved onto record with other people for a variety ofreasons: they wanted to record in a new studio,they were looking for a new vibe, they werewon over by studio hype, or they needed somenew inspiration. When a client moves on,whatever the reason, you can't take it person-ally. Many of those clients will return at somepoint. Again, if they initially had a good

116/710

experience working with you, they are likely tosuggest working with you again when it is timeto record their next project or recommend youto a friend's band. This is also why it is import-ant to get to know your local music scene. Yourlocal music scene is where you will find mostof your future clients and contacts.

Tip

You never want musicians to guess what youare thinking, especially if it is negative. Lookand act positive.While recording AVOID

? Staring blankly at the artist(s).

? Looking disinterested in the project.

? Saying negative things.

? Body language that says, “I would ratherbe anywhere but here.”

? Getting into arguments.

117/710

? Picking sides if an argument or disagree-ment breaks out between band members.

Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.2.

118/710

Vibe

One of the intangible qualities that occur dur-ing a recording session is the “vibe” of the re-cording. Vibe is that underlying feeling that ex-ists with the music and the people surroundingit. It is often up to the engineer to keep a goodvibe going during a session by saying positivethings, encouraging people to go for it, andmaybe even smiling more than usual. Somemusicians will light candles, put down a spe-cial carpet, dim the studio lights, or do a vari-ety of other things to enhance the mood for aparticular performance. An artist needs to bein the moment to perform the song at his orher best level, and creating a good atmosphereassists with that. If you can capture this higherlevel, or good vibe, it will make the recordingthat much better.Pointing out things you like during a recordingsession contributes to good energy being cap-tured. Don't focus on the negative. Always tell

119/710

an artist what they are doing well if they ask.For instance, “that vocal take had great energy,but I think you can do it even better” insteadof, “you were kind of pitchy, try again.” Keepthe mood light and accentuate the positive!When designing a new studio, the designer of-ten keeps the idea of vibe in mind. Elementsthat can assist in creating a good vibe are notlimited to the recording space. A comfortablespot in the studio or outside that welcomes themusicians to relax, hangout, and get out of thestudio can go a long way. A comfy couch, anespresso machine, a box of percussion toys,vintage equipment, or anything that says“Come and hang out here, and create music,”can enhance the vibe of a session. A studioshould be a place to escape from the world andcreate music. As an engineer, don't bring yourpersonal problems or issues into a session. Younever want to risk bringing the vibe down on asession. Besides, it isn't about you, it is abouttheir music.

120/710

The vibe can influence how the music comesacross. After all, you are recording vibrations.Are they good or bad? This is something thatcan't be controlled with a knob or fader or thelatest technology. A good vibe always creates abetter recording. As in life, if you stay positiveand move forward, good things happen. Thisalso holds true when recording music.

What About My Opinion?

There are two areas where opinions can beoffered: the technical and the creative. Youshouldn't be afraid to express your opinion ontechnical matters, such as if the guitar player isasking “Which guitar amp sounds better, theVOX or the Marshall?” Equipment choices,tone selection, and technical aspects of record-ing are typical areas where an engineer voicesan opinion. As an engineer, your primary job isto record the music as best you can and not toput your personal preferences ahead of theartist or band. Some bands may demand or

121/710

expect your opinions about the creative areas.If asked, choose your words wisely. It is pos-sible that the honest opinion the band is ask-ing for isn't the honest opinion the band wantsto hear! Don't forget that you work for theband and not the other way around.It really isn't your place to give your opinion onthings like song selection, song structure, bandpolitics, or picking good takes. Those are theresponsibilities of the band and the producer.However, many recording sessions do not havea producer so you will get stuck with some ofthose duties. If you are asked your opinion,you certainly want to remain positive and atthe minimum remain neutral. Always be en-couraging. If you do have an opinion onsomething you really feel passionate about,present a good argument and don't get emo-tional. It helps to know the skill level of theartist or band you are recording, so you can ac-curately give them feedback. Don't get caughttelling the band or artist that they could do a

122/710

better take unless you actually know what thatband or artist's “good take” sounds like. I madethat mistake early on in my career telling aband “you can do that better” and they cameback saying, “Really, that was the best we'veever performed that song.” My opinion endedup crushing the band's momentum. A goodtake for one artist may not be an acceptabletake to another.

The Insecure Artist

Artists can often feel insecure. Can you blamethem? They are sharing something very closeand personal with you and a potential audi-ence. This is especially true of singers and ac-tual songwriters, if they are performing. Putyourself in the artist's shoes: imagine singingand feeling like everyone is judging yourchoice of words and melody. For some artiststhis is a nightmare, especially for the inexperi-enced! If you aren't engaged with the session,and you are texting your buddies, offering a

123/710

big yawn, or a glazed stare, at the end of a take,you run the risk of affecting everything fromthe artist's delivery to their attitudethroughout the session. They may think youare in the control room bored with their per-formance. You will never create a good vibethis way. Even if you aren't fully into the mu-sic, the band is still owed your full attentionand support. This isn't to say that all artistsneed special attention. You will learn over timeto recognize the clients who do need special at-tention and provide it.Some vocalists perform better with a smallaudience in the studio: friends, family, bandmembers, and fans. One band I recorded hadbetween twenty and thirty people hangingaround for most of the performance. Itpumped them up and inspired their recording.I was willing to go along because it did posit-ively affect the band's performance. They fedoff the energy of friends and fans plus it gavetheir music the party beach vibe they wanted

124/710

to share with listeners. On the opposite end ofthe spectrum, some singers appreciate a low-key environment, preferring only to work withthe engineer or producer in the studio. Youmay have to ask guests or even band membersto leave the studio while a singer performs sothat the singer doesn't feel intimidated or toonervous. Feel it out. If the singer seems af-fected by other people listening and watching,politely ask the offenders to find something todo outside the studio. In general, an insecureartist will require more positive reinforcementthan a more confident artist.

Patience

A high level of patience will be required fromyou, if you decide to become an engineer foryour career or even if you are just helping re-cord your friends. You may have to listen to asong over and over again (sometimes a songyou don't want to hear over and over again), oryou may have to listen to fifty takes of a vocal

125/710

that makes you want to scratch out your eyes,but you will need to take a deep breath andpush forward. Exhibiting your impatience maymake the artist feel even more pressure to fin-ish up, which may make the performanceworse. I once listened to a drummer attempt adrum fill for three hours! Being a drummer, Iwanted to kick the person off their drumthrone and do it in one take, but I didn't, andthe drummer eventually got it. More inexperi-enced players will generally require more ofyour patience as they are learning how to con-trol their instruments or voices.Of course, there are just some people that re-quire additional patience to deal with in gener-al. Patience is a great life lesson and invaluableskill and will help you tremendously in studiosituations.

126/710

Figure 4.3.

Communication Skills

Communication skills are key to being a suc-cessful recording engineer. You need to be ableto clearly communicate a variety of things, ran-ging from listening to and understanding whatthe artist(s) or band is trying to achieve interms of a “sound,” to understanding when topunch in on a particular track to how to coaxthe best performance out of the band.Since communication skills often involveverbal cues, it will be helpful to have a vocabu-lary that musicians and other engineers under-stand. Chapter 1 provides you with some of the

127/710

necessary technical vocabulary, whereas theprevious chapter provides you with descriptiveterms often used in audio engineering.To communicate well, you will have to be agood listener. You will also have to choose yourwords wisely. Gaining the techniques and lan-guage to deal with clients will come with time.Many artists, and people in general, aren't thebest communicators. It may be up to you to getan artist to express what they are thinking tokeep the session moving forward and on theright track. The only thing worse than toomuch feedback on a session is when an artistthat says little or nothing. You may have to bemore animated and extraverted than normal ifyour client isn't providing some necessaryfeedback for you to better perform your job.Maybe the artist is intimidated by the process,or by you, or just doesn't know how to expresstheir opinion. Encourage them to speak up.Use tact, be patient, and don't be a jerk when

128/710

you are trying to communicate during asession.

Song Structure

Recognizing song structure is a common areawhere communication skills are necessary. Itcan be a tool to help effectively communicateabout a client's music. Being able to recognizesong structure will not only give the band con-fidence in you, it will help you locate punch inpoints faster. If the guitar player wants to over-dub a solo and says “take me to the solo sec-tion, after the second chorus,” it would benefityou to recognize and quickly locate that sectionof the song. Don't be afraid to take notes.Write down the time next to each section. Mostrecording software gives you the option to laydown markers in a song and label each part ac-cordingly. You should do this to identify thedifferent sections. Songs are typically made upof three distinct sections: verses, choruses, anda bridge or solo section.

129/710

A verse is usually at the beginning of the song.It generally isn't the hook but more of a sectionto set up the hook or chorus. The lyrics of mostverses aren't repeated in a song as they are in achorus. This may also be referred to as the “A”section.Some songs may start off in the chorus andtypically end on a chorus. Choruses are oftenbigger in spirit and lift the song to a higherpoint. From a dynamic standpoint, chorusestypically are the loudest, fullest sections. Thismay also be referred to as the “B” section.Some songs have bridges. Bridges are usuallynot repeated in a song and occur once. Abridge often occurs between two choruses butcan occur almost any place in a song. A bridgeis used to connect two sections of a song. Thismay also be referred to as the “C” section.

Tip

Quickly memorizing song structure is an ef-fective tool to help communicate during a

130/710

session. If this isn't one of your strengths, youshould practice the following exercise until youcan easily memorize song structure.Listen to a song and quickly identify eachsection:

What is a song structure? A classic pop songwill be verse, chorus, verse, chorus, bridge,and chorus.

How many verses are there?

How about choruses?

Is there a bridge, and if so, when does it ap-pear in the song?

Is there an instrumental solo section, and ifso, when does it occur in the song?

Are there any other sections that are notverses, choruses, solos, or considered abridge? Maybe there are pre-choruses, orshort sections of only instruments before theactual verse begins. After a few listens, youshould be able to identify the song structure.

131/710

A good engineer can listen to a song onceand will find the song structure.

Since a recording session usually involves re-cording songs, you will need to understand ba-sic song structure to be able to effectively com-municate with musicians. Austin CommunityCollege as well as other colleges and universit-ies offer classes in song writing to learn thesebasics.

Body Language

Body language is the non-verbal way in whichwe communicate. As an engineer, be awarethat musicians are interpreting your body lan-guage, whether positive or negative. Make aconscious effort not to give off pessimistic orindifferent body language, such as rolling youreyes, avoiding eye contact after a take, or shak-ing your head in disgust, as this can heavily in-fluence a studio performance. Though you maybe mulling over your bad choice of micro-phone, the musicians who just finished

132/710

recording a take do not know this, and may in-terpret these negative cues as a reaction totheir performance. Musicians should neverhave to worry about you being on their side.Don't give them an opportunity to create scen-arios that don't exist.You need to be not only aware of your ownbody language, but also cognizant of the bodylanguage demonstrated by the musicians youare recording. Being able to read this non-verbal language is an important skill to devel-op if it doesn't come naturally. Recognizinggestures, eye movements, and postures mayhelp you interpret an artist's true feelings. Forinstance, a singer with an averted gaze may in-dicate he or she is unhappy with a vocal take. Ifyou are focused and pick up on this cue, youcan positively encourage another vocal at-tempt. This may take pressure off a musicianwho is too intimidated to make the request.

133/710

Tip

Specific body language to watch for:Slumped shoulders may indicate that the mu-sician is unhappy or disappointed in their per-formance or the way the session is going.If a musician who normally has no problemmaking eye contact suddenly stops making eyecontact, take notice. This may indicate that themusician is dissatisfied and is trying to avoidan argument or potential disagreement.If the musicians are eyeing one another andnot you while listening back to the recording,they may not be happy with how things sound.Clearly, if the musicians are smiling, upbeat,and making eye contact with you during therecording process, they are likely happy withthe vibe of the session.

134/710

Scheduling, Time Management,and Organizational Skills

Good scheduling, time management, and or-ganizational skills can help a session runsmoothly.Below is a typical schedule for four-piece bandrecording a few songs at my studio.Although every session is different, this shouldgive you a general idea of the time frame of arecording session, which in my case is usuallyabout 12 hours. In most recording sessions,more experienced musicians get more done ina shorter period.

1. 10 A.M. I set up for the session. Thedrummer arrives.

2. 10:30 A.M. Set up drums, mic drums,and get sounds.

3. 11:30 A.M. The bass player arrives withthe drummer, so we take advantage of it andget bass sounds too.

135/710

4. 12 p.m. The rest of the band shows up.

5. By 1 P.M. we are tracking bass and drums,listening back, and discussing how thingssound.

6. 3 P.M. We finish recording the drums andbass (rhythm tracks) on the three songs theband planned to record.

a. Everyone takes a quick break, thedrummer breaks down the drums, I re-patch, and then rest my ears and brain.

7. 3:30 P.M. We start rhythm and any otherguitar tracks (overdubs).

8. 5 P.M. Pizza is ordered, so we can keepworking.

9. 5:15 P.M. We start recording lead vocals.

10. Between 6 and 7 P.M. I grab a slice ofpizza and I eat during vocal takes.

11. 7 P.M. We are done with recording leadvocals. We spend the remaining few hours

136/710

doing a few backup vocals, percussion over-dubs, and some bonus fun tracks.

12. 9 P.M. The band is tearing down andloading out. I take another quick ear breakand then I get some rough mixes going.

13. Around 10 P.M. we listen back to whatwe did, talk it up, and celebrate ouraccomplishments.

14. 11 P.M. We schedule another day formixing and I see the band off.

Recording music is like preparing a meal – it'svery much about timing and organization. Justas a good cook must organize and prepare tohave all dishes on the table at one time, somust a recording engineer prepare and organ-ize to produce a finished project. Being pre-pared for what comes next keeps the sessionand the creativity flowing. Musicians aren'tthrilled when they are ready to go and you arenot. Mild tantrums could ensue and spoil the

137/710

session's good vibe. Remember that you workfor the artist as an engineer, and be ready torecord.It is unlikely that your audio engineering gigwill be a Monday-through-Friday 9–5 P.M.situation. This is why you want to make sureyou keep some type of work calendar. As an in-dependent recording engineer, you will be incharge of your work schedule. No one is goingto remind you that you work Friday night atthe club and Saturday morning in the studio.Keeping a work calendar will ensure that youdon't double book yourself or forget to showup for a gig.Knowing what comes next is another essentialelement that isn't often discussed but canmake a real difference in how a recording ses-sion transpires. The more sessions you run, thebetter you will become at keeping a sessionmoving forward. Since most bands have a lim-ited budget, being efficient can benefit you asan engineer. The band will be happy that they

138/710

didn't go over budget and they are likely to feelmore satisfied with the outcome of the session.The ways to be efficient are to plan ahead, beorganized, and communicate effectively.Chapter 9 covers studio session procedures indetail.

How to Meet People to Record

Another benefit of having decent communica-tion skills and being a likeable person is that itwill help you make connections and meetpeople to record. A great way to meet bandsand musicians is to run live sound. This will bediscussed further in Chapter 13. Running livesound gives you access to potential clientsevery night. If you aren't running live sound,go out and see local shows and get to knowsome people and musicians in your town. Ifpeople get to know you and like your vibe, theymay trust you to record their music. As men-tioned earlier, this is a word-of-mouth busi-ness. You have to get out there so that people

139/710

know you and will want to record their musicwith you. It will be hard for people to discoveryou and your audio skills if you never leaveyour bedroom!Playing in a band can also help you meet othermusicians and bands. I met many bands that Iended up recording this way. Your first clients,or guinea pigs, may be your own band if youplay in one or maybe a friend's band. Offer torecord your own band or a band that you knowfor free. Get the experience and don't worryabout the money. Your band mates or yourfriend's band may be a little more understand-ing of your limited skills and would love a freedemo while you learn the ropes. Don't beafraid to tell people what you do but don't acttoo anxious, cocky, or pushy about it.You may be lacking in technical skills whenyou first get started, so having these otherskills can compensate for your lack of technicalprowess. Don't underrate people skills! Goodcommunication skills, time management,

140/710

knowing your local music scene, and patiencecan only add to your value. Remember that re-cording is more than turning knobs. I can'tstress how important it is to make a recordingsession run as smoothly as possible. Don't for-get your reputation is built by word-of-mouthfrom your clients and your job is to serve theclient. If even just one client has a problemwith you or your attitude, that could affectyour future business. Bite your tongue if neces-sary and don't take things too personally. Myformer band manager gave me some good ad-vice early on in my career, “don't burn bridges,no matter what.”

141/710

Chapter 5. Microphone Guideand Their Uses. Hey, Is ThisThing On?

In this chapter:

Microphone Basics 47

Basic Vocabulary 48

Transducer Types 52

Directional Characteristics 53

Video 2 Pickup Patterns 53

Frequency Response 55

Microphone Placement 57

Where to Place the Microphone? 57

Four Fundamental Styles of Mic Place-ment According to Distance 58

Two Great Stereo Miking Techniques toKnow 60

Video 3 Phase 60

Direct Box 62

Quick Mic Setups 62

Microphone Guide and Uses 66

Dynamic Mics 66

Condenser Mics 75

Ribbon Mics 86

Microphones, or mics, are used to capture a sound much like our ears. Micro-phones are one of an audio engineer's finest tools. If you were an artist, micro-phones would be analogous to your color palette. Every microphone choice islike a stroke of the brush adding texture, tone, and color. Which microphonesyou choose can influence whether a recording is bright or dark, edgy or mel-low, or muddy or clear. Three steps are involved in recording: capturing thesound, storing the sound, and listening back to the sound. The microphonerepresents the first step, capturing the sound. Getting to know how a micro-phone captures a particular instrument or sound takes time and experience.So what differentiates one microphone from another? Besides cost and esthet-ics, there are many other factors.

Keywords: Condenser Mics, Direct Box, Directional Characteristics, Dynam-ic Mics, Frequency Response, Microphone Placement, Quick Mic Setups,Pickup Patterns, Ribbon Mics, Transducer Types

143/710

Microphone Basics

Microphones, or mics, are used to capture asound much like our ears. Microphones areone of an audio engineer's finest tools. If youwere an artist, microphones would be analog-ous to your color palette. Every microphonechoice is like a stroke of the brush adding tex-ture, tone, and color. Which microphones youchoose can influence whether a recording isbright or dark, edgy or mellow, or muddy orclear. Three steps are involved in recording:capturing the sound, storing the sound, andlistening back to the sound. The microphonerepresents the first step, capturing the sound.Getting to know how a microphone captures aparticular instrument or sound takes time andexperience. So what differentiates one micro-phone from another? Besides cost and esthet-ics, there are many other factors.When choosing a microphone, there are threemajor categories to consider:

144/710

? Transducer/element type

? Directional characteristic

? Frequency response

What is a transducer? A transducer convertsone form of energy into another. Speakers, ourears, and microphones are all transducers. Aspeaker converts electrical energy into acousticenergy. Our ears convert acoustic energy intomechanical energy and then finally into elec-trical energy, which is sent to our brains. A micconverts acoustic energy into electrical energy.

145/710

Figure 5.1.

Transducers are often considered the weakestlink in the recording chain. This is becausethey exist in almost every stage of the signalpath. For instance, there are quite a few trans-ducers involved in recording an electric guitarplugged into an amplifier. First, the pickup inthe electric guitar is a transducer. This trans-ducer takes the acoustic vibrations from theguitar strings and converts them into the elec-trical equivalent. This electrical signal is sentto the amplifier and converted back to acoustic

146/710

energy through the amp's speaker. The micplaced in front of the amplifier converts theacoustic energy from the speaker back intoelectrical energy. The signal is then sent toheadphones or monitor speakers and conver-ted back to acoustic energy. Finally, acousticenergy travels to our ears where it is convertedback to electrical energy, and then sent to ourbrains to be processed as sound. In this partic-ular scenario, we have identified five trans-ducers in the signal path of an electric guitarrecording: the guitar pickup, the amp's speak-er, the mic placed in front of the amp, head-phones/studio monitors, and our ears. If anyone of these transducers is flawed or inad-equate, the end result of capturing a qualityguitar sound could be jeopardized.

147/710

Figure 5.2.

Basic Vocabulary

Transient – A short, quick burst of energy thatis non-repeating. Commonly associated with

148/710

the attack of percussive instruments. However,all music contains transients. In speech, tran-sients are associated with consonants. Transi-ents are typically weak in energy and associ-ated with the higher frequency range.Transient response – How quickly the micro-phone reacts to a sound wave and specificallyto those transients just described. This differ-entiates one mic sound from another.Condenser mics typically have the best transi-ent response.Preamp – A control used to boost an audiosignal's level. Microphones are plugged intopreamps. The preamp knob is turned up to auseable and desired signal level. This level isgenerally sent to a recorder or a set of speakers(Figure 5.3).

149/710

Figure 5.3

Leakage aka bleed-over – The amount ofsound that bleeds into the source being recor-ded. Leakage could be anything from roomambience to another instrument sound. This iscommon when a full-band performs togetherwith all the instruments in the same room orstage. Microphones with tighter pickup pat-terns provide less leakage from other sourcesand the environment. A mic with a hypercardi-oid pickup pattern provides the best isolationand prevents the most bleed-over from othersounds.

150/710

Pop filter – A nylon screen around a hoop or aperforated metal disk placed in front of the mi-crophone in order to avoid plosive “b,” “p,” and“t” sounds that create destructive air move-ment. Pop filters are usually mounted on themic stand with the mic or on a separate micstand and are placed a few inches away fromthe mic. Pop filters are typically used whenmiking vocals. Some mics have built-in screensbut an external filter is still needed. Filters alsokeep saliva off the actual microphone.Common switches found on microphones:dB pad – Used to attenuate gain on a mic. Typ-ically found on condenser mics. Usually spe-cifies the amount of gain cut in dB: −10, −15,−20. Use this when miking louder sounds.Many mic preamps also have this function.This pad can identify a condenser mic, al-though not all condensers mics have dB pads.

151/710

Figure 5.4.

Low-cut or high-pass – Used to roll-off lowfrequencies and pass highs. Typically found onmics with cardioid pickup patterns. The usercan select where the cut takes place, such as20, 75, and 100 Hz. Great for non-bass instru-ments. Can help clear up a sound, cut out mud,and reduce low frequencies.Pickup pattern selector – Allows the user tochoose the directional characteristic of themicrophone.

152/710

Figure 5.5.

Shock mounts – Helps isolate the mic fromtraffic, thumps, and microphone stand trans-mission of sound. Included with many micro-phones, especially condenser mics.

153/710

Transducer Types

The first category to consider when choosing amicrophone is the transducer type.Dynamic mics are built tough and can handleloud sound pressure levels. General character-istics and uses of a dynamic mic:

? Very rugged, which makes it the main mi-crophone type utilized in live sound.

? Great for loud things such as amplifiers,kick and snare drums, toms, and horns.

? Generally used in conjunction with closemiking. This makes sense, considering thatthey are extremely rugged (they may be hitby a drumstick or two) and good with highsound pressure levels (a cranked amplifier).

? General frequency response is between 40Hz and 15 kHz.

154/710

? Common dynamic microphones: ShureSM57 or SM58, AKG D 112, Sennheiser MD421, Electrovoice RE 20, Audix D1 – D6.

Condenser microphones are best at reprodu-cing transients and generally provide greaterclarity. General characteristics and uses of acondenser mic:

? Excellent transient response; therefore,great for reproducing higher frequencies andquiet sounds. Adds “air” to a sound. Becausethe transducer is lighter, it reacts better toweaker sounds (highs).

? Most require external power known asphantom power. Phantom power is usuallylocated near the microphone preamp. It isoften labeled +48 V. Engaging this buttonwill supply a condenser microphone with itsrequired charge. Some condenser mics canuse 9 V or AA batteries to supply the charge.

155/710

? Fragile. Condenser mics, unlike dynamicmics, are considered fairly fragile. Hitting acondenser mic with a drumstick or droppingit could be the end of this mic's life.

? Often have a dB pad. A db pad, used to at-tenuate input into the microphone, can helpidentify a mic as a condenser microphone.

? Available as a Large-Diaphragm Condens-er (LDC) or Small-Diaphragm Condenser(SDC).

? Small-diaphragm condensers (SDC) arebest at reproducing transients. Great for re-cording acoustic instruments, high hat,overheads on drums, room mics, flute, andshaker. Sometimes referred to as pencil con-densers. Common SDC microphones: AKG C451 B, Shure SM81, Rode NT5, NeumannKM184, and MXL 600.

? Large-diaphragm condensers (LDC) aretypically my choice for recording vocals.They add presence to vocals and usually help

156/710

vocals sit in the right place. A LDC also ex-hibits better response to low frequencies andcan help to fatten up an instrument or voice.It should be mentioned that ribbon mics anddynamic mics can also record vocals quiteeffectively.

? General frequency response – 20 Hz–20kHz.

? Common LDC microphones: AKG C414;Neumann U 47 or U 67; AT4050; and ShureKSM27, 32, or 44.

Ribbon microphones are often used to take the“edge” off an instrument's tone. General char-acteristics and uses of a ribbon mic:

? Extremely fragile.

? Great for digital recording!

? Usually darkens and makes a sound ap-pear smoother.

157/710

? Great for room sounds, acoustic instru-ments, drum overheads.

? Not meant for outdoor application (theydon't like wind) although there are modelsthat can be used in live sound or outdoorsituations.

? Can often provide a “retro” type sound.

? Typically excel in the low-mid frequencyrange.

? General frequency response is between 40Hz and 15 kHz.

? Common ribbon microphones: RoyerR-121 or R-122, RCA 44, Beyerdynamic M160, and Cascade Fat Head.

Tip

Try setting up three mics, one dynamic, onecondenser, and one ribbon. If you don't haveall the three available to you, just use what youhave. Mic a tambourine or shaker from about 1

158/710

ft away. These instruments produce a lot oftransients and have very weak energy. Note theresults. Which mic changed the source themost? Which one darkened the sound?Brightened the sound? Sounded most like thesource? The lightest, most sensitive transducerwill likely reproduce more highs. Note the res-ults for future sessions.

Directional Characteristics

Pickup Patterns

The next category to consider when choosing amicrophone is the directional characteristic ofthe microphone, also referred to as a mic'spickup or polar pattern. The directional char-acteristic of the mic determines the directionfrom which the mic will be able to pick up thesound. When the mic is positioned as de-signed, this is called “on axis.”

159/710

Figure 5.6.

The pickup pattern also determines how wellthe recorded sound is isolated. Determiningwhether the microphone is a side or top ad-dress is also important.

160/710

Figure 5.7.

Cardioid pickup patterns are the most com-mon. Their pickup pattern is heart-shaped.Cardioid mics are sometimes referred to asunidirectional. With a top address microphonethe sound is rejected from the rear of the mi-crophone. Lots of cardioid pattern mics areused with live sound. This is because the micrejects sound from the monitor and decreasesthe chance of a feedback loop.Supercardioid has a pattern that is tighterthan a cardioid pickup pattern. It rejects morefrom the sides, but picks up a small amount ofsound from the rear. Most beta series micshave a supercardioid pickup pattern, such as aShure beta57.

161/710

Hypercardioid is the tightest pickup patternof all. It provides the most isolation for an in-strument and virtually excludes theenvironment.Subcardioid has a pickup pattern that is across between omnidirectional and cardioid. Itrejects some sound from the rear of the mic.

Figure 5.8.

Microphones with cardioid pickup patterns ex-hibit proximity effect. Proximity effect is a low-end boost of 100 Hz + 6 dB when you get with-in a ¼″ of the diaphragm. Basically, you get abassier tone as you place the mic closer to thesource.There are three ways to avoid proximity effect.

1. Back away from the mic.

162/710

2. Use a low-cut filter or roll-off. Low-cut fil-ters are located on the microphone itself ornear the preamp section.

3. Use a microphone with an omnidirection-al pickup pattern. Mics with an omnidirec-tional pickup pattern do not exhibit proxim-ity effect.

Tip

Take advantage of proximity. A beefier, bassiertone can be achieved by placing a cardioidpickup pattern mic right next to the source.Beware, this can also make sounds muddy andoverly bassy.Directional characteristics determine how isol-ated a sound will be from other sounds andhow much environment will be heard in the re-corded sound.Bi-directional, or Figure 8, pattern picksup sound from the front and the back of themic and rejects sound from the sides. Ribbon

163/710

microphones tend to be bi-directional, al-though they come in all pickup patterns.Omnidirectional pattern picks up soundpressure equally from all directions. It doesnot exhibit proximity effect and tends to havemore “environment” in the sound and a flatterfrequency response. It is often used when areference mic is needed. Most lavalier mics areomnidirectional.It is worthwhile to mention that mics can be acombination of transducer types and direc-tional characteristics. Any transducer can haveany pickup pattern. Some microphones willhave a pickup pattern selector switch whereyou can select different patterns. Theseswitches are found on multi-pattern mics suchas the AKG C 414, AT 4050, and CascadeElroy.The transducer type influences the coveragearea the mic picks up. If a condenser, dynamic,and ribbon mic with the same pickup patterns

164/710

are placed in the same room, a condenser micwill pick up a much larger area.

Frequency Response

The last category to consider when choosing amicrophone is the frequency response. Fre-quency response refers to how well a particularmic is able to respond to all the frequenciesthat strike it. Put simply, does the final resultsound like the original source or does it darkenor brighten the original source?Frequency response can be divided into twocategories: linear and non-linear. Since a mi-crophone is used to reproduce the source of asound, the concern is how the microphone willrepresent and capture the original sound. Amicrophone with a non-linear frequency re-sponse will affect the source and alter the ori-ginal sound. Will it make the original soundbrighter or edgier? A microphone with a non-linear frequency response will have peaks and

165/710

valleys in its frequency response. Some engin-eers refer to this as “coloring” the sound.

Figure 5.9.

Tip

For example, you are miking a guitar amp thatis very bright, with a lot of mid-highs/highs inthe sound. Your intention is to darken thesound, or at least, not accentuate the higherfrequencies. In these circumstances, you mightchoose a microphone that has a frequency

166/710

response to boost the lows or reduces the high-er frequencies, most likely using a dynamic orribbon mic to help color the sound. If you hadchosen a mic with a brighter frequency re-sponse, like a condenser, the result would havebeen an extremely bright recording. Coloring asound can be good or bad, depending just onwhat you are trying to achieve.A microphone with a linear frequency re-sponse is said to have flat frequency response.That means that it reproduces the sound in amuch more transparent way. A mic with a flat-ter frequency response will be the best choice ifthe source does not require any tone altera-tions. Most mics come with a frequency re-sponse chart or at least specifications. You canalso find additional technical information onthe manufacturer's website.A microphone with a non-linear frequency re-sponse will color or alter the way the sourcesounds and will not capture the source in atransparent way. A microphone with a linear

167/710

response will capture the sound in a muchmore transparent way altering the tone little, ifany.

Microphone Placement

Where to Place the Microphone?

Now that you know a little more about how mi-crophones work, it is time to discuss where toplace them.Mic placement is an art and is one of theengineer's most important tools. Mic place-ment is as important as mic selection. A cheapmic placed in the right place can be as effectiveas an expensive mic placed in a wrong place.Before you determine a microphone's place-ment, consider where the performers will beplaced according to sight, feel, and acoustics.Don't overlook the importance of sight andfeel, because both can heavily influence amusician's performance. Musicians use non-verbal cues to communicate when they are

168/710

performing. Make sure the musicians have aline of sight between them in the studio. It isalso important for the musicians to feel com-fortable where they are placed. For instance,placing a musician who is claustrophobic in asmall isolation booth probably will not resultin a good performance, no matter what mic isused. Finally, have the musicians play their in-struments in different locations and hearwhere they sound best. Many instruments willjump out when placed in the optimum spot ina room.Next, before deciding mic placement, it needsto be determined where the majority of thesound is coming from and the direction it isbeing projected. Note: some instruments' bod-ies have a single area from which the sound isbeing projected (a trumpet), while others mayhave several areas from which the sound is be-ing projected (a saxophone).The easiest thing to do is simply listen to theinstrument to find out where it sounds best

169/710

and start by placing a mic there. After all, a mi-crophone is being used to represent our ears.Be aware that moving a mic even a small dis-tance can dramatically change the sound. It isoften hard to determine how good somethingsounds without comparing it with anothersound. Don't be afraid to move the mic aroundand compare it with other mic positions. Re-cording these positions and comparing themcan be helpful.Keep in mind that sound is divided into threesuccessively occurring categories: direct path,early reflections, and reverberation. The directpath is the quickest path to the listener and ithelps determine where the sound is comingfrom and provides a clear sound. Early reflec-tions occur right after the direct path and clueus in to the surface(s) of the environment. Fin-ally, the reverberant field is the last part of asound heard and helps us identify the size ofthe space or environment. This is especiallyimportant when deciding where to place a mic.

170/710

The term “reverb” is described in more detailin Chapter 7.

Four Fundamental Styles of Mic

Placement According to Distance

Here are some great starting points for mikinginstruments. Note that each position yields adifferent result and each position either accen-tuates the sounds direct path, its early reflec-tions, its reverberant field, or any combinationof the three.

171/710

Figure 5.10.

1. Close miking – placing the mic from 0to 1 ft from the source. This provides thebest isolation for the source and reduces theenvironment in the sound the most. Picks up

172/710

the “direct path” primarily with little or noearly reflections or reverberation present inthe sound. Provides an “in your face sound”that can be described as tight and clear. Ul-timately, it isn't very natural (how manytimes have you stuck your head in a kickdrum?); that is why it is common to combineclose miking with other techniques or to addartificial reverb to the sound. Watch forproximity effect when close miking.

Audio Clip 5.0

2. Accent miking – 1–3 ft. Common withlive sound. As the name suggests, it helps ac-cent a sound. Great for soloists and en-sembles. This miking technique capturesboth the direct path and early reflections,with a small amount of reverberation in thesound.

Audio Clip 5.1

173/710

3. Room or distant miking – 3 ft – Crit-ical Distance is the point where the soundsdirect path and reverberant field are equal. Iwould consider this the most natural mikingtechnique. This is the distance we wouldlisten to someone playing drums or playing aguitar through an amplifier. This techniqueis often combined with close miking. Roommiking doesn't provide much isolation andwill have a good amount of the environmentpresent in the sound. When miking this way,the sound will be made up of the direct path,early reflections, and reverberant field moreevenly.

Audio Clip 5.2

Tip

Try miking drums with a single large dia-phragm condenser from 3 to 6 ft away. Drumswill sound big and likely won't interfere spa-tially with close mics used on other

174/710

instruments. Because the drums cannot be in-dividually balanced, a good or an interestingsounding environment is essential with thismethod as well as good sounding drums.

4. Ambient miking – Miking beyond thecritical distance. Like room miking, it is of-ten combined with close miking to retainclarity. With ambient miking the reverber-ant field is dominant and the source is usu-ally less intelligible and clear.

Audio Clip 5.3

Two Great Stereo Miking

Techniques to Know

Phase

What is stereo miking? Why would I use it?

175/710

Stereo miking involves using two or more mi-crophones to represent an image. It makes asound wider, bigger, and thicker. Actual stereomiking provides greater localization than tak-ing a mono mic and applying a stereo reverb/effect to the sound. In the age of digital record-ing, stereo miking will make an mp3 sound alot more interesting and the sound will havemore depth and character to it.With stereo miking you will record each mic toa separate track. You can then pan each trackto opposite directions or anywhere in between.Make sure you hit the MONO button on yourconsole, audio interface, or software applica-tion to insure that the mics are in phase.XY is a great technique to use when mikingyourself playing an instrument. This techniqueis considered coincident miking, meaning thatthe transducers are placed in the same place.XY provides a pretty good stereo image withlittle or no phase issues. Because time is not anissue between the transducers, phase is not an

176/710

issue. This technique translates well in mono.Typically, two like microphones are used forthis technique. SDC are often utilized in thistechnique, such as a pair of SM81s.

Figure 5.11.

177/710

Spaced pair is a common stereo miking tech-nique involving two mics spaced apart to cap-ture a sound. Unlike XY, spaced pair can havesome phase issues. This is due to the fact thattime does become an issue with the spacedpair setup. Again, any time there is a time dif-ference between two or more microphones,you will likely have some phase issues. Thistechnique typically provides a more extremestereo image than XY but doesn't translate aswell in mono. Make sure that the two mics areplaced three times the distance from each oth-er as they are placed from the source. This willhelp with phase issues. Keep in mind the 3:1rule when using multiple microphones.

178/710

Figure 5.12.

Tip

When I am not sure where to mic an instru-ment, I usually ask the musician where it hasbeen mic'd before or if they have a preference.When you are unfamiliar with an instrument,this is a good starting point. Besides that, itwill also make the musician feel included inthe recording.

179/710

Direct Box

In some cases, you may use a direct box in-stead of miking up an instrument. A direct boxis most often used with bass guitar and electrickeyboards. Direct boxes are also used withstringed instruments such as violin, cello, andacoustic guitar. It eliminates the need for a micby taking the instruments line out and convert-ing it into a mic input. This direct signal is sup-plied by the instrument pickup or line out. Dir-ect boxes can be either passive or active andsome require phantom power.

Figure 5.13.

180/710

Quick Mic Setups

How to Mic a Drumset

Unless you have an unlimited amount of time,keep it simple when miking a drumset. Manyclassic drum sounds used only a few mics. Ofcourse, that technique won't work for all stylesof music but it works for most. Dynamic micsare typically used for close miking of drumsand overheads and room sounds are represen-ted with condenser or ribbon mics. In the fol-lowing illustrations, I demonstrate four waysto mic up a drumset. Try using a single largediaphragm condenser or ribbon mic and pla-cing it about waist high 3 ft from the kickdrum. Raise the mic up if you want less kickand you desire more snare drum. Close mikinga kit takes time but it can result in a tight, drysound. Place a dynamic mic a few inches awayfrom each drumhead at an angle of 45–60 de-grees. Place a stereo pair of condenser or

181/710

ribbon mics in the room. Remember that if youuse a spaced pair, don't forget to apply the 3:1rule discussed earlier in this chapter. A simpleway to get a quick and decent drumset sound isby placing one mic over the center of the kit tocapture the snare, toms, and cymbals. Try us-ing a condenser or ribbon mic for this. For thekick drum, try placing a dynamic mic insidethe drum and adjusting it until you get the de-sired tone. A great stereo drum sound can beachieved easily with the top/side miking tech-nique. With this method place two mics equaldistance from the snare (a mic cable is handyto measure the distance), one mic is placedover the drummer's shoulder and the othermic is placed lower on the floor tom side. Panthe mics opposite directions. Since the twomics are equal distance from the snare, thesnare will be in phase and no mic will beneeded to hear the snare drum. Place a mic in-side the kick drum for the low-end.

182/710

Figure 5.14.

How to Mic a Bass

The most common practice is to use the directsound from the bass and avoid using a mic. Trya direct box or a direct output from the basshead. If you do mic the bass amp, try a dynam-ic mic up close and/or a condenser mic in theroom. To get tricky, you could blend all thethree sounds: the direct signal, the close mic,and the room sound.

183/710

Figure 5.15.

How to Mic a Guitar Amp

The fastest way to mic up a guitar amp is toplace a close mic on the speaker. If you want abrighter, tighter sound, position the mic closeto the center of the speaker. A darker, loosertone is achieved by placing the mic more to theouter edge of the speaker. If you have morethan one track for guitar at your disposal, trycombining the close mic with a ribbon mic thatis placed 1–3 ft away from the amp. Some en-gineers like to record a DI signal from the gui-tar at the same time as the microphones.

184/710

Although you may not use it in the final mix, itwill be invaluable later on if you need toreamp.

Figure 5.16.

How to Mic an Acoustic Guitar

The easiest and fastest way to get a goodacoustic guitar sound is to place a mic about 5″away from the 12th fret (the double dots on aguitar).

185/710

Figure 5.17.

How to Mic a Vocal

Every voice is unique. Once you figure outwhat mic sounds best on the singer, place themic about 6″ away from the singer. To determ-ine what mic sounds best, setup two mics at atime, side by side, and compare the results.Repeat this until you are satisfied.

186/710

Figure 5.18.

How to Mic Backing Vocals

Try placing an omnidirectional mic in theroom and have the musicians circle around themic. Move the singers around until you haveyour desired blend. Try doubling the backupvocals and panning the two tracks for an evenbigger, thicker sound.

187/710

Figure 5.19.

For more on microphone techniques check outPractical Recording Techniques, Bruce Bart-lett, Focal Press, 2008.

Microphone Guide and Uses

There are more microphone choices than everbefore. There could be a whole book on justmicrophones and their uses. The following

188/710

section will feature common mics and touchon a cross section of what is out there. I haveincorporated mics that a home recordist couldafford as well as a fewer high-end mics thatyou may encounter in a professional recordingstudio. This is only a taste of what is out there.The guide below provides a picture to helpidentify the mic, a price guide, themicrophone's transducer type and pickup pat-tern, specifically what the mic was designedfor, what instrument to try it on, and a fre-quency response graph.Price key:

$ – under $200

$$ – $200–$500

$$$ – $500–$1000

$$$$ – over $1000

Dynamic Mics

AKG D 12

189/710

Figure 5.20.

190/710

Figure 5.21.

$$

Dynamic

Cardioid

30 Hz–15 kHz

Designed with a special “bass chamber” thatgives this large-diaphragm mic great bass re-sponse. Exhibits a slight boost at 60 and 120Hz. Introduced in 1953.

Try on: trombone, tuba, acoustic bass, andkick drum.

AKG D 112

191/710

Figure 5.22.

192/710

Figure 5.23.

$/$$

Dynamic

Cardioid

20 Hz–17 kHz

Designed for kick drum.

Try on: kick drum, trombone, and bass amp.

Audix D6

193/710

Figure 5.24.

194/710

Figure 5.25.

$

Dynamic

Cardioid

30 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for Kick drum.

Try on: kick drum, floor tom, bass amp, andLeslie speaker bottom.

Beyer M 201

195/710

Figure 5.26.

Figure 5.27.

$$

196/710

Dynamic

Hypercardioid

40 Hz–18 kHz

Designed to work well with both live and re-cording sound on hi-hats, snare drums, racktoms, and percussion.

Try on: snare drum, hi-hat, drum overhead,piano, acoustic guitar, and strings.

Electrovoice RE20 Variable-D

197/710

Figure 5.28.

198/710

Figure 5.29.

$$

Dynamic

Cardioid

45 Hz–18 kHz

Designed for radio and television broadcastannouncers.

Try on: kick drum, bass amp, vocals, horns,and guitar amp.

Sennheiser E 609

199/710

Figure 5.30.

Figure 5.31.

200/710

$$

Dynamic

Supercardioid

50 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for percussion and brassinstruments.

Try on: guitar amps, snare drum, and livevocals.

Sennheiser MD 421

Figure 5.32.

201/710

Figure 5.33.

$$

Dynamic

Cardioid

30 Hz–17 kHz

Designed for most instruments, group vo-cals, and radio broadcast announcers. Intro-duced in 1960.

Try on: kick drum, snare drum, toms, andany other percussion. Often works great onbass amps, guitar amps, and horns.

Shure Beta 52A

202/710

Figure 5.34.

Figure 5.35.

$

Dynamic

203/710

Supercardiod

20 Hz–10 kHz

Designed for miking a kick drum live.

Try on: kick drum, bass amps, and otherlow-end instruments.

Shure Beta 57A

Figure 5.36.

204/710

Figure 5.37.

$

Dynamic

Supercardioid

50 Hz–16 kHz

Designed for drums, guitar amps, brass,woodwinds, and vocals.

Try on: snare drum (helps eliminate high-hat bleed), congas, and other percussion.

Shure SM57

205/710

Figure 5.38.

Figure 5.39.

206/710

$

Dynamic

Cardioid

40 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for amps and instruments. Excelsin live sound but is common in the studio;it's rugged and inexpensive.

Try on: snare drum, toms, guitar or key-board amp, horns, and vocals.

Shure SM58

207/710

Figure 5.40.

Figure 5.41.

$

208/710

Dynamic

Cardioid

50 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for vocals, especially for liveperformance.

Try on: vocals, backing vocals, horns,strings, and snare drum.

Shure SM7B

Figure 5.42.

209/710

Figure 5.43.

$$

Dynamic

Cardioid

50 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for radio broadcast announcersand vocals.

Try on: kick drum, bass amp, loud vocals,and horns.

Condenser Mics

AKG C 414

210/710

Figure 5.44.

211/710

Figure 5.45.

$$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Omni, wide Cardioid, Cardioid, Hypercardi-oid, Figure 8

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for recording detailed acousticinstruments.

Try on: vocals, group vocals, acoustic guitar,room sounds, and drum overheads.

AKG C 12

212/710

Figure 5.46.

213/710

Figure 5.47.

$$$$

Large-Diaphragm Tube Condenser

9 selectable patterns from Omni to Figure 8

30 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for recording brass, strings, andvocals.

Try on: acoustic guitar, flute, strings, vocals,and guitar amp.

AKG C 451 B

214/710

Figure 5.48.

215/710

Figure 5.49.

$$/$$$

Small-Diaphragm Condenser

Cardioid

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for capturing rich transients suchas with an acoustic guitar or drumoverheads.

Try on: piano, hi-hat, cymbals, acoustic gui-tar, and percussion.

Audio Technica AT4050

216/710

Figure 5.50.

Figure 5.51.

$$/$$$

217/710

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Omni, Cardioid, Figure 8

20 Hz–18 kHz

Designed for vocals, piano, strings, anddrum overheads.

Try on: group vocals, lead vocals, roomsounds, and acoustic guitar.

Avantone CV28 Tube Mic

218/710

Figure 5.52.

Figure 5.53.

$$

Small Diaphragm Tube Condenser

3 Interchangeable capsules: Omni, Cardioid,Figure 8

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for acoustic instruments, drumoverheads, percussion, and piano.

Try on: acoustic guitar, violin, mandolin,and drum overheads.

219/710

Avenson STO-2

Figure 5.54.

Figure 5.55.

$$/$$$

Small-Diaphragm Condenser

Omni

20 Hz–20 kHz

220/710

Designed to be used as a matched pair.

Try on: room sounds, drum overheads, andacoustic guitar.

Blue Dragonfly

Figure 5.56.

Figure 5.57.

221/710

$$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Cardioid

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for high-frequency sources likealto and soprano vocals, percussion, electricguitar, and drum overheads.

Try on: vocals, strings, and room sounds.

Earthworks TC30

222/710

Figure 5.58.

Figure 5.59.

$$$

Small-Diaphragm Condenser

Omni

9 Hz–30 kHz

Designed for recording louder sources.

Try on: drums, amps, live club recordings,and room sounds.

223/710

Mojave Audio MA-200

Figure 5.60.

224/710

Figure 5.61.

$$$/$$$$

Large-Diaphragm Vacuum Tube Condenser

Cardioid

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for anything you would use anexpensive large-diaphragm condenser on.

Try on: vocals, voice-overs, acoustic instru-ments, drum overheads, and piano.

MXL 990

225/710

Figure 5.62.

Figure 5.63.

$

Medium-Diaphragm Condenser

Cardioid

30 Hz–20 kHz

Designed as an affordable vocal mic and foracoustic guitars.

Try on: vocals, acoustic guitars, and roomsounds.

Neumann TLM 103

226/710

Figure 5.64.

Figure 5.65.

$$$/$$$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Cardioid

227/710

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for quiet acoustic sources.

Try on: acoustic guitar, room sounds, flute,and vocals.

Neumann U 87

Figure 5.66.

228/710

Figure 5.67.

$$$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Omni, Cardioid, Figure 8

40 Hz–16 kHz

Designed for orchestral recordings, as a spotmic for individual instruments, and vocalsfor music or speech.

Try on: vocals, acoustic guitar, room sounds,and drum overheads.

Peluso Microphone Lab 22 251

229/710

Figure 5.68.

Figure 5.69.

$$$$

230/710

Large-Diaphragm Vacuum Tube Condenser

9 switchable patterns from omni to bi-directional

20 Hz–24 kHz

Designed after and inspired by the vintage“251.”

Try on: vocals, acoustic guitar, room sounds,and upright bass.

Rode NT5

Figure 5.70.

231/710

Figure 5.71.

$$

Small-Diaphragm Condenser

20 Hz–20 kHz

Cardioid

Designed for small choirs and ensembles,cymbals, drum overheads, and acousticinstruments.

Try on: acoustic guitar, hi-hat, drum over-heads, and live recordings.

Shure KSM27

232/710

Figure 5.72.

Figure 5.73.

$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

233/710

Cardioid

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for general purpose and a widerange of applications.

Try on: a nasally vocal, acoustic guitar, flute,and room sounds.

Shure KSM44

Figure 5.74.

234/710

Figure 5.75.

$$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Cardioid, Omni, Figure 8

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for woodwinds, acoustic guitar,studio vocals, brass, percussion, strings,acoustic bass, piano, and voice-overs.

Try on: flute, vocals, and acoustic guitar.

Wunder Audio CM7 FET

235/710

Figure 5.76.

Figure 5.77.

236/710

$$$$

Large-Diaphragm Condenser

Cardioid, Omni, Figure 8

30 Hz–20 kHz

Designed for larger-than-life kick drum andbass guitar sounds and thick vocals.

Try on: kick drum, bass amps, vocals, andfor beefy room sounds.

Ribbon Mics

Beyerdynamic M 160

237/710

Figure 5.78.

Figure 5.79.

$$/$$$

Double ribbon

Hypercardioid

40 Hz–18 kHz

Designed for miking strings, pianos,saxophones, hi-hat, and toms.

Try on: strings, snare drum, toms, anddulcimer.

Cascade Fat Head

238/710

Figure 5.80.

Figure 5.81.

$

Ribbon

Figure 8

239/710

30 Hz–18 kHz

Designed for a Blumlein setup as well aswith live application.

Try on: drum overheads, room sounds, gui-tar amps, vocal, piano, and strings.

Coles 4038

Figure 5.82.

240/710

Figure 5.83.

$$$$

Ribbon

Figure 8

30 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for broadcasting and recording ap-plications. Used by the Beatles and the BBC.

Try on: drum overheads, guitar amps, vo-cals, and room sounds.

Nady RSM-2

241/710

Figure 5.84.

Figure 5.85.

$

Ribbon

Figure 8

242/710

30 Hz–18 kHz

Designed for recording studio vocals, acous-tic instruments, ambient sounds, strings,and horns.

Try on: room sounds, drum overhead, vo-cals, and guitar amp.

Royer R-122

Figure 5.86.

243/710

Figure 5.87.

$$$$

Phantom powered ribbon

Figure 8

30 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for a wide variety of acoustic andelectric instruments, brass, and drumoverhead.

Try on: guitar amps, room sounds, drumoverheads, acoustic guitar, horns, andstrings.

244/710

RCA 44

Figure 5.88.

Figure 5.89.

245/710

$$$$

Ribbon

Figure 8

50 Hz–15 kHz

Designed for radio and television broadcastannouncers around 1932.

Try on: room sounds, acoustic bass, strings,and female vocals.

sE Electronics Voodoo VR1

246/710

Figure 5.90.

Figure 5.91.

$$$

247/710

Ribbon

Cardioid

20 Hz–20 kHz

Designed to be one of the first ribbon micsto capture frequencies above 18 kHz.

Try on: electric guitar, percussion, and voice.

248/710

Chapter 6. Mixing Consoles. SoMany Knobs, So Little Time

In this Chapter:

The Mixing Console 91

The Channel Strip 91

Video 4 The Channel Strip 92

Preamp 93

EQ Section 94

Auxiliary Section 96

Monitors, Faders,and Busses 96

Master Section 98

Meters 99

Other Console Functions 101

Monitoring Sound 101

Patchbay 102

Introduction to Mixing 103

All Mixed Up 103

How to Improve Your Mixing Skills? 105

A mixing console may commonly be referred to as a mixer, a desk, a board, asoundboard, an audio production console, or by a list of other names. No mat-ter what a console is called they all perform the same basic functions. All con-soles have faders that allow for volume control, pan knobs to position a soundfrom left to right, an auxiliary section to control effects, headphones or monit-ors, and a whole host of other functions that will be discussed in this chapter.Mastering the console will be necessary to succeed in audio production. Thinkof the console as command central, controlling audio and its various compon-ents. Much like the dashboard of your car that has controls for the A/C, radio,and lights, a console has audio-related controls. Consoles are used in record-ing, live sound, or in conjunction with digital audio workstations (DAWs). Inthe all-digital world, there are virtual mixers, but there are also Control Sur-faces that allow you to work on hardware instead of clicking a mouse when us-ing a DAW.

Keywords: Auxiliary Section, Busses, Channel Strip, Console Functions, EQSection, Faders, Master Section, Meters, Monitoring Sound 1, Monitors,Patchbay, Preamp

The Mixing Console

A mixing console may commonly be referredto as a mixer, a desk, a board, a soundboard,an audio production console, or by a list ofother names. No matter what a console is

250/710

called they all perform the same basic func-tions. All consoles have faders that allow forvolume control, pan knobs to position a soundfrom left to right, an auxiliary section to con-trol effects, headphones or monitors, and awhole host of other functions that will be dis-cussed in this chapter. Mastering the consolewill be necessary to succeed in audio produc-tion. Think of the console as command central,controlling audio and its various components.Much like the dashboard of your car that hascontrols for the A/C, radio, and lights, a con-sole has audio-related controls. Consoles areused in recording, live sound, or in conjunc-tion with digital audio workstations (DAWs).In the all-digital world, there are virtual mix-ers, but there are also Control Surfaces that al-low you to work on hardware instead of click-ing a mouse when using a DAW.

251/710

Figure 6.1.

The Channel Strip

Whether you are working on a physical or avirtual console, many of the controls are thesame. If there are 32 channels on the board,understanding the controls on one channel is ahuge step because understanding one channelmeans you will understand all the 32 channels.Once you learn one channel strip, you willknow quite a bit about the console or virtualmixer.

The Channel Strip

252/710

Figure 6.2.

Most console channel strips, real or virtual,will include the following functions:

1. Preamp – Used to amplify a microphone'ssignal.

253/710

2. +48 V – Provides phantom power re-quired by most condenser microphones.

3. Reverse/flip return – Usually a functionwith in-line consoles. This button gives youanother option besides the fader to send orreturn a signal. This return option is often achoice between a pot and a fader.

4. Line/mic – Determines if the channel willbe used with a mic (send) or as a line(return/monitor).

5. Phase flip – Flips the polarity 180 degreeson the channel selected. This is a great fea-ture to use when checking phase betweenstereo mics.

6. EQ section – Varies from console to con-sole and with the type of software beingused. It can change the tone of the signalthat is being routed through the channel.

7. Auxes/auxiliary – Used for monitoringand effects (FX). With live sound, they

254/710

control the mix sent to the stage monitors.In the recording studio, auxes are used tobuild a headphone mix. When the aux isused for monitoring you will typically select“pre.” Both in the studio and with livesound, auxes are used to apply FX to a par-ticular channel. When the auxes are used forFX you will typically select “post.” This en-sures that the FX isn't heard unless the faderis up.

8. Pre and Post – Allows the user to selectwhether Aux sends are before or after thefader. In “pre,” the aux path would be beforethe fader, meaning the fader would not af-fect what is being processed. As previouslymentioned, “pre” position is typical whenthe aux is being used for headphones ormonitors. When you turn a fader up or downit will not affect the headphone mix. In“post,” the auxiliary knob would be after thefader, meaning the fader position would af-fect the aux send. The “post” position is used

255/710

when the aux is being used for FX, unlessyou still want to hear a ghostly FX soundwhen the fader is all the way down. I haveonly used this method once in about 25years, so that should tell you something…

9. Monitor section – Another option to re-turn the signal from the recorder to monitorthe sound. This section is typically used dur-ing tracking and can also be referred to asthe tape return section or as Mix B.

10. Pan – Allows you to place a sound any-where between the left and right speakers.

11. Fader – Controls level being sent to a busor a recorder.

12. Bus(es) – A common path that allows theengineer to combine signals from as manychannels as you select. A bus on a console istypically configured for 4-, 8-, or 24-channelmono or stereo L/R. Often the Bus section isshared with the Group or Subgroup section.

256/710

13. Solo – Allows you to isolate the channelselected from the others. However, multiplechannels can be soloed at the same time.

14. Mute – Turns off sound on the selectedchannel; opposite of solo.

Tip

Don't rely on using the solo function too muchwhile mixing. It is more important for music tosound good as a whole, rather as individualsounds. It is not uncommon that an individualsound may not be what you really had in mindbut it sounds perfect in the mix. If you rely onsolo you may not discover how a sound workswith all the other sounds.

Preamp

The preamp controls the gain and is used toboost a microphone signal. The preamp sec-tion usually has a +48 V button to applyphantom power to the required mics. The line

257/710

button is often found in the preamp section.When the line button is pressed down, it re-ceives signal and acts as a tape return. Al-though many consoles don't say it, when theline button is up, mic is selected. So really theline button is either line or mic depending onyour selection. If the console is an in-line type,there will be a reverse or flip button possiblynear the preamp to allow the channel to sendand receive signal simultaneously. The phaseflip option gives the user the ability to flip thepolarity 180 degrees on the channel selected.This can be helpful when checking phasebetween two or more mics.

258/710

Figure 6.3.

EQ Section

The EQ section gives control over the tone orcolor of the instrument being run through theselected channel. Both amplitude and fre-quency adjustments are made in this section.This allows the user to boost or cut a frequencyor range of frequencies. The most commonparameters associated with an equalizer arefrequency, amplitude, and slope (Q).

259/710

Figure 6.4.

EQ sections are divided into specific frequencybands. Many consoles will be broken up intothree bands with a low-frequency knob, a mid-frequency knob, and a high-frequency knob.Some consoles will have a fixed set of frequen-cies to choose from, while other consoles givecontrol to select virtually any frequencybetween 20 Hz and 20 kHz.

260/710

Next to each frequency knob will be anotherknob, or pot, to adjust the amplitude of the fre-quency you have chosen. There will be a centerpoint on the amplitude knob, where nothingwill be boosted or cut. Adjusting the knob tothe right of this point will increase the amp-litude of the frequency selected. Adjusting theknob to the left of this point will decrease theamplitude.The slope is the area around the frequency se-lected. If you have the ability to adjust theslope you are working with a parametric equal-izer where slope settings range from extremelynarrow, or notching, to extremely wide andgentle. A narrow slope is helpful when notch-ing out noise. Choosing a narrower slope willaffect a smaller range of frequencies. A widerslope will affect a larger range of frequencies.Choosing a wider slope may allow you to elim-inate unwanted noises, but in doing so youmay likely alter or affect your desired soundsas well.

261/710

Most EQ sections include a low-cut and/orhigh-cut filter. The frequency associated withthis filter varies from console to console and isoften indicated next to the button you areselecting.More affordable consoles tend to have at leastone fixed frequency knob to save on cost. Thisis usually some type of shelving EQ. With ashelving EQ, the preset or frequency selected isthe starting point and not the center point aswith many other EQs. These fixed points areeither high or low frequencies and when selec-ted all frequencies are boosted or cut the sameamount above or below the point, creating ashelf. Some common presets would be a lowshelf (LF) at 60 or 120 Hz and a high shelf(HF) at 12 or 16 kHz. With these controls, onlyamplitude can be adjusted and not frequency.

262/710

Figure 6.5.

Auxiliary Section

Auxes are used to control FX sends. They arealso used to control headphone and monitormixes. I have worked on consoles that haveanywhere from 2 to 18 auxes per channel. Inthe studio, auxes are used to create a head-phone mix or are used as FX sends. For livesound, auxes are used to create a stage ormonitor mix and to control FX. The “pre”

263/710

button located near the aux send, when selec-ted, puts the aux path before the fader. The preis selected when the aux is being used as aheadphone or monitor send. By this way, theengineer can have their own fader mix and theadjustments won't affect the headphone mix.The pre will not be selected when you want touse the aux as an FX send.

264/710

Figure 6.6.

Monitors, Faders, and Busses

Some consoles, especially those known as in-line, will allow the user to both send and

265/710

receive signal on a single channel when record-ing. If you are using the channels preamp, it isnecessary to have both a tape send and a tapereturn. The fader would typically be your mon-itor level, but when recording it controls theamount of signal going to your recorder. If thefader is being used to send level to the record-er, you obviously won't be able to monitor thereturn on that same fader. In-line consoles al-low you to send level on a channel and alsomonitor level on the same channel because ofan additional pot or fader. On some consoles,the monitor return is called “Mix B” with “MixA” represented by the fader. When recordingwith a split console, half the console's fadersare used for sending level to the recorder andthe other half of the faders are used to monitorthe sound. With a 32-input console channels,1–16 could be used for sending level to tapeand channels 17–32 used to monitor the sound(return). Channel 1 would send level to track 1and channel 17 would be used to monitor the

266/710

track. Channel 2 would send level to track 2,channel 18 would monitor track 2, and so on.A fader controls the volume for that channel. Itis almost always found at the bottom of theconsole, and to some, it appears as a “slider.”As previously mentioned, if a mic is pluggedinto a channel, the fader may control the out-put level sent to the recorder. Faders can act asreturns to monitor signal or as sends to controloutput to a recorder. There will be more dis-cussion about signal flow in Chapter 8.The bus section can be found near the fader atthe bottom of the console or at the top of theconsole near the preamp. When the signal re-turns to the channel, it must be assigned to abus to be heard. The most common selectionwould be to press L/R or stereo bus on thechannel. This would send the signal to the ste-reo fader, which in turn feeds the speakers andtwo-track recorder. Besides the L/R or stereobus, consoles have additional busses. Mostconsoles have eight busses, but some have up

267/710

to 24 busses. The bus allows you to assign thechannel to a variety of signal paths. If level isreturning to a channel and can't be heard itmight be because a bus (path) for the signalhas not been selected.

268/710

Figure 6.7.

Master Section

In addition to the channel strip, recording con-soles have a master section. The master sectionwill have the master controls for the faders,auxiliaries, speakers, and other inputs and out-puts, like an external two-track or CD player.The master fader is where all individualsounds are summed to two channels: left andright. The output of this commonly feeds thespeakers and any external two-track recorderssuch as an Alesis Masterlink or ½″ tapemachine.The master auxiliary section controls the over-all volume of the auxiliary selected. Most con-soles have both an Aux Send master sectionand an Aux Return Master section.The master solo controls the overall solovolume when you solo a track. I set this tomatch my overall listening volume. When you

269/710

solo an instrument, it will sound like yourlistening volume and you will be less likely tomake unnecessary adjustments based on thevolume. Often we think louder is better…Main, sometimes called monitor, volume con-trols overall listening volume for speakers.This typically controls the volume for the ste-reo bus, two-track returns, or any other signalplayed through speakers.Some additional controls common on an audioproduction console are as follows: Alt(ernate)Monitor switch, Mono button, and Talkbackmic and button. These controls are oftengrouped together on the board.The alternate monitor button will allow theuser to switch between multiple sets of speak-ers. Studios typically have at least two sets ofspeakers that the engineer will use to A/B(compare) sounds. Consider having at leasttwo sets of speakers that specialize in differentareas. Make sure mixes sound good on lowerquality speakers as well as the best pair.

270/710

Always remember that if a mix sounds good ona lower quality pair of speakers, it'll more thanlikely sound good on just about anything.When the mono button is pressed, the stereoimage is summed to mono. I constantly checkmy mixes in mono to make sure that they arein phase and that they would hold up if playedon a mono system.The talkback mic is useful when the musiciansare wearing headphones, using stage monitors,or if there are playback speakers in the studio.Talkback mics are often mounted flush withthe surface of the console. Other talkback micscan be attached to the console. The talkbackbutton is pushed to activate the mic. In thestudio, the talkback mic signal is usuallyrouted through the aux sends feeding theheadphone mix. This makes it easier for theengineer or producer to communicate with themusicians in the studio.

271/710

Figure 6.8.

Meters

Meters on a console indicate the amount ofsignal input or output from the channel, stereobus, groups, or auxiliary section. Meters comein many forms, with the most common being a

272/710

variety of peak and VU meters. Modern audioequipment uses peak meters because they re-spond instantaneously to an audio signal. Thisis necessary with digital audio equipment.VU stands for volume units and this type ofmeter responds much more slowly than a typ-ical peak meter used with digital audio. MostVU meters will have a needle that measuresthe average amount of signal. This is similar tohow our ears react to sound. This type of meteris common with analog gear.Peak meters typically have green, yellow, andred LED light indicators. With digital audio, ameter is needed to quickly respond to transi-ents to ensure that no levels exceed zero andsquare off the sound wave. A peak meter re-sponds quickly and is essential with digital au-dio because recording levels in the digitalworld cannot exceed 0 dBFS. Unlike a VUmeter that measures the average amount ofvoltage, a peak meter measures the peaks.

273/710

No matter what kind of meter is being usedyou should always trust your ears first. Believeit or not, meters are not always accurate. If itsounds good, it is good. Meters are there as aguide and should give you confidence that youare operating your equipment at acceptablelevels. Meters are not just found on consoles,they are also found in audio software programsand on most pieces of analog and digital out-board gear.

274/710

Figure 6.9.

Other Console Functions

Monitoring Sound

Monitors, or speakers, are an important part ofany studio. After all, monitors are how you

275/710

evaluate and listen to a sound. You need to befamiliar with both the speakers and the roomin which you are working. Although some lar-ger commercial studios still have “Big” speak-ers, most studios stick to midfield and near-field monitors. In fact, most home and smallerstudios have only nearfield monitors. Nearfieldmonitors are placed on the console bridge oron speaker stands very near the console. Theytypically have a woofer in the 5″–8″ range anda small tweeter. I prefer two pairs of nearfieldmonitors. One pair that emphasizes themidrange and another pair that scoops out themids, emphasizing the lows and highs thatmake it easier on the ears for long listeningsessions. You don't need the most expensivepair of monitors to mix successfully. You justneed to be extremely familiar with yourspeaker's frequency response. The same can besaid for the room. You don't have to have aperfect acoustic space to mix in but you dohave to be familiar with its sound. If you know

276/710

that your control room cancels out bass fre-quencies, you won't add more bass becauseyou are familiar with the amount of bass youshould hear in a typical mix when mixing inthat particular space. Listen to a lot of music inthe room you will be mixing in. It will help youget to know how things sound in the room.It's a good idea to listen to mixes on differentspeaker systems. In addition to listening onyour main speakers, you may want to referencemixes on an old school jam box, headphones,surround sound system w/subwoofer, or yourcar. The car is a very common place to listen tomixes because most people listen to more mu-sic in their cars than anywhere else. Many mu-sicians prefer to hear the mixes in their owncars since they are familiar with the soundquality and EQ settings. This often gives themconfidence that the mix meets their expecta-tions. Monitoring on different systems canhelp you determine if your mixes will translateon multiple speaker set-ups and not just your

277/710

studio monitors. You may even want to refer-ence your mixes on computer speakers or earbuds since many people now listen to musicthis way. You would hate for your dance mixnot to have kick drum in it when people arechecking out a mix online.For the best, stereo image monitors need to beproperly placed. A traditional way to setupspeakers is to make a triangle with equal dis-tance between each point and sit at the pointof the triangle. This is known as the “sweetspot.” Make sure you point the speakers in-ward at approximately 60-degree angles.Otherwise, the stereo image won't be properlyrepresented. If you set your monitors too closeto each other, the stereo field will be blurred. Ifyou set your monitors too far apart, the stereoimage will have a hole in the center. In termsof height, try and make sure that your tweetersare at ear height.

278/710

Figure 6.10.

Patchbay

A patchbay contains all the inputs and outputsof most, if not all, of the equipment in the re-cording studio. The patchbay allows you to ac-cess and redirect signal flow. A patchbay typic-ally contains the console direct outs, the multi-track inputs and outputs, the console line-insand line-outs, and all the outboard gear (com-pressors, FX processors, gates, and equal-izers). The patchbay usually has tie lines to thestudio so you can redirect the mic inputs.

279/710

If you are using more than eight tracks, espe-cially if you are using all analog gear, a patch-bay will be your best friend. You will quicklyrealize this if you try operating without apatchbay. Without a patchbay you will have togo behind your console and outboard gear topatch and un-patch any cables. Say you wantto patch in a compressor to a particular track,you would have to run a cable from your tapeoutput into your compressor and then run an-other cable from the output of that compressorinto the console line-in. Believe me, this willget confusing and old quickly! With a patchbayyou will take a patch cable and make the samething happen in seconds.Even if you are working entirely in the box (do-ing everything with a computer) you may wantto consider a patchbay. If your computer is do-ing all the processing (FX, dynamics controls,and automation), it will take a lot of CPUpower to keep up. Your computer will runmore efficiently if you use outboard gear to do

280/710

most of the processing. Plug-ins are great, butthe real deal is even better. If you use outboardgear, you will need a patchbay to access thisgear or you will be running a bunch of unne-cessary cables every time you want to use yourprized possessions.

Figure 6.11.

Many studio owners have expressed to me thatyoung engineers have no idea how to make asimple patch. Literally, learning the ins andouts of a patchbay can separate you from otherup-coming engineers lacking this skill.

281/710

Professional studios have patchbays and youwill eventually need to learn how to use one.

Introduction to Mixing

All Mixed Up

The term “mix” comes up quite a bit whentalking about recording. This section will clari-fy different ways to use this term and intro-duce you to a few basic mixing techniques.

Mixing (verb) – The art of blending, editing,EQ'ing, and processing the recorded tracksto a stereo, L/R mix. As in, “I have been mix-ing this track for three days.”

Mix (noun) – The result of mixing. A stereo,two-track, L/R mix. As in, “I did a vocal upmix.”

Mixed (verb) – Past tense of a mix. Usuallymeans a mix that has been completed. As in,“I mixed ten tracks last week.”

282/710

Mixer (noun) – The person doing the mixingor the audio-production console. Both canbe referred to as “mixers.”

The three steps of the mixing process are asfollows:

1. Visualization. Picture how you want themix and the individual instruments tosound. Instead of aimlessly turning the EQknob trying to find a frequency range thatsounds good, visualize how you want thesound to end up. Fatter? Brighter? Edgier?You can then turn the knobs with a purpose.

2. Application. This involves fader adjust-ments, panning, signal processing, equaliza-tion, and applying FX to the mix.

3. Evaluation. Evaluate the changes you justmade. Were you able to achieve your visionwith the action taken? Evaluate what isworking and what isn't and continue this

283/710

three-step process until everything istweaked the way you like.

A major difference between the professionalengineer and the novice is that the professionalcan visualize how they want something tosound and quickly apply the necessary tools toachieve that vision. A novice, on the otherhand, is more apt to search for sounds withless direction. The more you mix the easier itwill become to achieve a particular sound inless time. Practice mixing as much as possible.This is really the best way to improve yourmixing skills.A good mix should

? Allow the listener to focus on what youwant the listener to focus on.

? Sound good on all speakers, not just ahigh-end pair.

? Highlight the best elements and mask theweaker elements. Just as a photographer

284/710

uses lighting to accentuate positive details, arecording engineer can apply this same prin-ciple. For example, maybe the backing vo-cals aren't as awesome as they could havebeen for one reason or another. Find a wayto mask the backing vocals so they don'tstick out and/or use an FX to make themsound interesting without too much focus ordetail in the overall mix.

? Have a good balance between the instru-ments, vocals, and other sounds. If the mixconsists of a folk band with an acoustic gui-tar, vocals, fiddle, acoustic bass, and a smalldrum kit and all you hear is kick drum,probably safe to say this is not a good mix.

? Be appropriate for the song and the genre.This isn't to say you shouldn't break therules, but you should know that musicalgenres often have their own style and sound.Make sure you understand the sound theband is seeking. Mixing outside the accepted

285/710

norm of these genres can make you a hero orit can be a disaster, should you stretch toofar or get it wrong. You need to know therules before you can break them success-fully. I encourage bands to give me a fewCDs of music they like to listen to weeks be-forehand so we can have some referencepoints later. The band will also respect youfor knowing more about their genre of mu-sic. It is always a good idea to have the refer-ence material close to hand when mixing.Although you're not trying to copy it exactly,it will give you a rough idea how it shouldsound in relation to the genre.

? Have some dynamics. Keeping everythingat a loud volume will get old. Not to men-tion, dynamics are an excellent way to createemotion. When you see a scary movie, themusic slowly goes from quiet and soft toloud and shrill, to indicate a rise in the ac-tion and keeps you at the edge of your seat.Watching the staircase scene in Psycho, with

286/710

the volume turned off. It is a very differentexperience. This dynamic experience createsthe tension and emotion. Along the sameline, dropping out multiple tracks can be avery effective way to make the listener awareand emotionally invested in the song. Don'tbe afraid to drop out the drums or guitar.Just because it was recorded or alwaysplayed that way doesn't mean that it has tobe in the final mix.

? Make the listener react as the songwriterintended. A dance track should make youwant to get up and dance just like an ag-gressive metal song should make you wantto rock out and bang your head.

? Leave the listener humming the melody orvocal line.

? Move you and the listener emotionally.Music is about vibrations and creating afeeling. If you can bring that out as an engin-eer you have done a great service!

287/710

Tip

Instead of searching for what you want in mixby trying different EQs, reverbs, and other sig-nal processing, visualize what you would liketo hear and then apply those tools and tweaksnecessary to achieve your vision.

How to Improve Your Mixing

Skills?

Analyze mixes of different genres and listenclosely how the songs are mixed.Practice! It takes years and years of terriblemixes to become halfway decent.Compare other people's mixes to your own.What is different? What is similar? Makenotes. “My mixes don't seem to have as muchbass.” or “My mixes lack dynamics.”Learn how to recognize the different frequencyranges and how they make you feel.

288/710

More practice—this cannot be overstated! Be-coming a good mixer will take years and yearsof practice.Don't let the pressure get to you. There will besituations in the studio that you will have tolearn to deal with, like, everyone wanting theirinstrument turned up the loudest, orsomeone's friend or relative that has no obvi-ous musical talent suggesting to you how tomix the song. Other pressures may include get-ting a decent recording or mixing within ashort time frame and within the artist's budgetand keeping the artist happy. Making the artisthappy is tricky and can bring out insecuritiesas an engineer. Presenting a band mix is simil-ar to them presenting their songs to you. Youreally want people to like it but you questionwhether or not it is worthy. The chances areyou won't make everyone happy. Maybe thebass player doesn't like his tone or the guitarplayer wanted his solo even louder in the finalmix. Whatever the reason someone doesn't like

289/710

the final mix, you will need to get used to deal-ing with the fact that you can't please every-one. Be confident in your decision-making butdon't be cocky, defensive, or unreasonable.Put your heart into it. To most music lovers,music is an emotional experience and oftenquite personal, so imagine how it feels to havepeople judging you whether or not you havemade a good mix or written a good song. Ihave been mixing for over 25 years and everytime I present a mix for the first time I havebutterflies. I try not to show it, but I care whatthe band thinks. I put my heart and soul intothat mix and I hope the band gives me thethumbs up, the metal horns, or whatevermoves them to express their emotion.Don't worry about things beyond your control.There are some things you won't have controlover as an engineer, like the song selection.Unless you are also producing the band, thechances are you have zero control as to wheth-er or not the song presented to you is a “hit.” A

290/710

good song is a key component to any good mix.I didn't realize this early on in my career and Iwould often ask myself why my mixes didn'tsound as good as my mentor's mixes. Onereason is that the level of talent I was workingwith was much lower. My mentor was record-ing experienced songwriters with great sound-ing instruments. Their arrangements alsomade it easier to achieve a good mix. Eventu-ally, I figured out that a weak song, with weakplayers, and weak sounding instruments arealmost impossible to make sound good. As youimprove your skills, access to record bettersongwriters and musicians will make your re-cordings sound even better. As a young engin-eer you should expect your results to be pro-portional to the band's talent. However, yourultimate goal should be to make the artistsound even better than their talent level. As anengineer, it is rewarding when someone com-pliments how great a band sounds and howmuch he or she enjoys the recordings of a

291/710

particular artist. Only the engineer knows thetruth. It took a lot of hard work to make an av-erage band sound better than average. Regard-less of anything else, the reward is in knowingyou did a good job and your audio skills ser-viced your client well.Mixing is both a technical and an artistic ad-venture. It will require more than just turningknobs. It isn't something you will learnovernight and it will require both patience andperseverance. Not only will you have to learnthe technical side you will have to learn how todeal with people, make hard decisions, and beat your creative peak. In the end, you will needto understand the tools of the trade and alsounderstand how to bring out the emotionalcomponents of the mix to be an exceptionalmixer.For more information on mixing check outthese two books: Mixing Audio:Concepts,Practices, and Tools, www.MixingAudio.com

292/710

(Izhaki, Focal Press, 2008) and Zen and theArt of Mixing (Mixerman, Hal Leonard, 2010).

293/710

Chapter 7. Signal Processors.Toys You Could Play with forDays!

In this Chapter:

What Are Signal Processors? 109

Controlling Dynamic Range 110

Video 5 Compression 110

Gates 113

Creating Sound FX 113

Reverb 113

Delay 116

More Time-Based FX 117

Plug-ins versus the Real Deal 119

Signal processors take an original signal and manipulate it to produce a newsound. The original sound can be blended with the processor or can be rundirectly into the processor. They can be purchased as plug-ins, pedals, and

rack-mounted or stand-alone units. Signal processors can do everything frommaking a sound more consistent to making a sound appear to be from out ofthis world. Basically, they are used to treat a sound for a desired effect or con-trol. Compressors, limiters, gates, equalizers, reverbs, and delays are a few sig-nal processors you may run across.

Keywords: Compression, Controlling Dynamic Range, Delay, Gates, Plug-ins, Reverb, Signal Processors, Sound FX, Time-Based FX

What are Signal Processors?

Signal processors take an original signal andmanipulate it to produce a new sound. The ori-ginal sound can be blended with the processoror can be run directly into the processor. Theycan be purchased as plug-ins, pedals, and rack-mounted or stand-alone units. Signal pro-cessors can do everything from making asound more consistent to making a sound ap-pear to be from out of this world. Basically,they are used to treat a sound for a desired ef-fect or control. Compressors, limiters, gates,equalizers, reverbs, and delays are a few signalprocessors you may run across.When beginner audio students are turnedloose in the control room, they naturally grav-itate toward the effects processors. Students

295/710

tend to be attracted to the time-based effectslike reverb and delay, probably because, unlikecompressors, effects are easily heard. Scrollingthrough endless effects units can be mesmeriz-ing. Searching through every possible effect onevery effect unit can take countless hours, asure way to get lost in an audio vortex! Eventu-ally, you find the ones you love and store thoseto your memory to recall next time you wantthat special guitar tone or spacey vocalsomeone requests. You will probably do thesame thing with compressors and other signalprocessors, that is, experimenting with all theeffects patches at your disposal. It will just takelonger to learn how to control and hear theresults of nontime-based processors likecompressors.

296/710

Controlling Dynamic Range

Compression

Compression helps control the dynamic rangeof an instrument, voice, or recording. Com-pression is harder to master and much moredifficult to initially hear and understand thanthe other signal processors discussed in thischapter. The dynamic range is the differencebetween the softest and loudest sound with aninstrument, recording, or mix. A compressor isgreat for that emo, punk, or hard-core singerwho whispers and then screams as loudly aspossible. A compressor can help even out aperformance or make two instruments reacttogether. This is a useful signal processing toolwhen you want a vocal to sit more consistentlyin a mix or make any instrument sound con-sistent in volume. Because a compressor turnsdown the loudest sound, it essentially bringsup the quietest sound. Be aware of what that

297/710

quietest sound is… A/C noise? hum? hiss? Itcould be a noise, rather than an instrument. Ifthe noise is too loud and is destructive to thedesired sound, don't compress the signal toohard (aka squash). Squashing the sound willintroduce more of the unwanted noise into thedesired sound. Compression can also be usedto bring up that quiet sound in the mix. Let'ssay you recorded a band with one mic in theroom and the guitar was really quiet and thedrums were really loud. Using compressioncould make the guitar sound louder and thedrums quieter, in essence, making the two in-struments more even in volume.Compression is used to:

? Even out the dynamic range of a sound, in-strument, or recording.

? Glue two instruments together so they“move” together, such as with a bass andkick drum track.

? Bring up a quiet sound.

298/710

? Control a loud sound.

? “Color” the track a particular way. For ex-ample, a Tube Compressor could be used todarken and fatten up a bright and thin track.

? Make a creative or different type of sound,like setting a very fast attack and a superslow release to a recorded cymbal sound.This creates a cymbal hit with very little at-tack that gradually gets louder while em-phasizing the “wash,” a great effect for sometypes of music.

Tip

Audio Clip 7.0

Try miking a drum set with one mic in theroom. Compress the sound and listen to howthe compression can bring up the quiet drumsor cymbals in the mix and how it turns downthe loudest sounds. Compression can workgreat on room mics!

299/710

Although compression can be applied to anyinstrument, the most commonly compressedsignals are vocals, bass, and kick drum. Manyengineers also apply a stereo compressor tothe stereo bus to control peaks, color thesound, or glue the entire mix together.The main parameters on a compressor are thefollowing:

? Threshold or input

? Gain reduction (GR)

? Output or makeup gain

? Attack

? Release

? Ratio

? Link

? Side chain

? Bypass

300/710

Threshold controls when the compressorkicks in and reduces the dynamic range.Gain reduction (GR) indicates how muchthe dynamic range is being reduced. Usually,there is some kind of meter that will identifythe amount of gain reduction.Output/makeup gain “makes up” the reduc-tion from the compression of the loudestsound with the output, sometimes referred toas the makeup gain. If you reduced the gain −3dB, setting the output at +3 dB would make upthe gain you lost and now the processed soundwould have the same apparent volume as theunprocessed sound.Attack tells the compressor how fast to kick inwhen the signal reaches the threshold. A fastattack will kill the transient and deaden thesound (drum tom will sound like a box). A fastattack setting will range from approximately0.01 to 10 ms. A slow attack will let the transi-ent pass, resulting in a much punchier, liveliersound (kick drum beater will be in your face).

301/710

A slow attack setting will be approximately 50ms and up.Release indicates how long the original signalwill be held after it is compressed. Althoughthere are no fast rules here, the release is com-monly set based on the tempo of the song sothat the sustaining of the original signal doesnot interfere with any new signals. Many en-gineers use faster release times for faster songsand slower release times for slower songs. Inpop music, faster release times are used so theeffect of the compressor is not heard. Again,there are many ways to set both attack and re-lease times. You will need to experiment untilyou become familiar with what different attackand release compression settings produce.Ratio (2:1, 4:1, 10:1, etc.) determines theamount of output based on the level of input. A2:1 ratio indicates that for every 2dB overwhere the threshold is set will result in avolume increase of 1dB. A 4:1 ratio indicatesthat every 4dB over the threshold will result in

302/710

a 1dB increase. Ratios of 10:1 or greater are re-ferred to as limiting instead of compression.Limiting provides a kind of “brick wall” effect.You may also see “soft knee” or “hard knee”when dealing with a compressor.A hard-knee setting will abruptly reduce thesignal's gain as soon as it reaches the thresholdsetting. This is a much more noticeable setting.A soft knee will gradually compress the signalas it reaches the threshold setting and is amuch more subtle setting. Most “auto” settingsapply a soft knee.

Tip

Until you are familiar with compression, I re-commend using “auto” settings and not com-pressing the sound too much (maybe a decibelor two of gain reduction at a 3:1 ratio). Ofcourse, don't be afraid to experiment with dif-ferent levels of compression and settings, soyou will be familiar with the compressor con-trols when it counts.

303/710

Link allows you to join a two-channel com-pressor or a single-channel compressor toanother single-channel compressor for stereouse. You may choose to use this feature whenusing stereo bus compression or stereo micsetups. In this operation mode, it is typical forone channel to act as the master control forboth the channels, subsequently overriding thesecond channel or second compressor settings.Side chain allows you to use a signal otherthan the main input to control the amount ofcompression. Often an EQ is used, resulting incompression being applied to what is beingequalized. The side chain is also used for de-essing, multiband compression, and selectivegating.Bypass is used to compare a signal with andwithout compression. It's a good idea to switchback and forth between the compressed anduncompressed signal. You may find that youdon't need any compression after all or that

304/710

the output will need to be increased (makeupgain) to match the original volume.

Tip

Some styles of music require and expect moreof a compressed sound than others.Pop, rap, hip-hop, metal, new country, andmodern rock typically are more compressedthan other styles. Loud and bass heavy musicrequires more compression to control thesemore extreme amplitudes and frequencies. Acompressed sound is also common with com-mercial ready music.Folk, jazz, bluegrass, classical, old country, andmost indie rock tend to have a less compressedsound. This helps to retain the natural dynam-ics and authenticity of these particular styles.Whether compression is used to control thedynamic range or for special effect, it is a com-mon signal processing tool that will requiremuch interaction and experience to master its

305/710

results. Unlike EQ, compression and limitingare much harder to initially hear and control.

Gates

A noise gate, or gate, allows the user to turn onand off a sound. If the gate is open, it allowsfor a sound to be heard. If the gate is closed, nosound will be heard. Gates are typically amp-litude based. For instance, a drum mic may begated so that the mic is only “open” or “on”when you strike the drum. The gate would re-main closed until a certain volume orthreshold has been met. Like a compressor, thethreshold parameter will control when the gateis activated. Gates are most commonly usedwith drums and in live sound. Some gates havethe ability to adjust to frequency as well asamplitude, like the classic Drawmer gates. Theopposite function of a gate is known as a“duck.” Many gates have this function as well.A duck allows you to bring down a sound when

306/710

triggered. Ducking is common in broadcast ra-dio to bring down music when a voice-over ispresent.

Audio Clip 7.1

Creating Sound FX

Although some signal processors are used tocontrol the dynamic range, others are used tosimulate or recreate an environment or ima-ginary space. The following effects (FX) fall in-to the latter category. These signal processorscan add delay, reverb, chorus, flanger, har-monization, distortion, and do just about any-thing to a sound. FXs are time based, usingdelay times to create the different sounds. Likecompressors, limiters, and gates, they areavailable as plug-ins, pedals, or rack-mountedunits. Let's start with reverb.

307/710

Reverb

The remainder of sound that exists in a roomafter the source of the sound has stopped iscalled reverberation or reverb. The sound is of-ten characterized as an undefined wash ofsound created by different delays. Reverb isprobably the most common FX used when re-cording and mixing music. It can be applied toany instrument, vocal, or sound. Traditionalreverbs are halls, plates, rooms, or spring re-verbs. Modern technology has provided uswith a variety of reverbs that simulate all typesof real and imaginary spaces. Reverb can helpunify sounds together, as well as help separatesounds. For instance, applying a “small hall”reverb FX to all tracks in a recording wouldglue them together. The effect applied to all in-struments may inadvertently make the instru-ments sound less distinct and muddy the mix.Applying the “small hall” effect on a select few

308/710

instruments will help separate the affected in-struments from the unaffected, or dry, instru-ments, creating more depth and less clutter inthe mix.

Audio Clip 7.2

Figure 7.1.

The main parameters with reverb are thefollowing:

? Choice of FX

309/710

? Input

? Mix

? FX balance

? Decay time

? Predelay

? EQ, usually a high-frequency (HF) roll-off

? Bypass

Choice of FX: The first thing to do is choosethe FX that you want to hear. Most outboardgear will have a knob or selector button thatwill allow you to scroll through the FX options.If you are using software, you will also scrollthrough a list of possible FX and select the oneyou would like to hear. This could take hourswhen you are getting to know the various FX atyour disposal. As you become more familiarwith your FX choices, you will be able to pickand choose much faster. Make notes of theones you like for future reference. Until you

310/710

have your list of favorites, prepare to be lost inthe land of endless sounds. It will be wellworth your adventure!

Figure 7.2.

Input controls the amount of dry signal (un-processed sound) to be processed. The input

311/710

signal can usually be adjusted to make surethere is plenty of gain. Be careful not to use toomuch gain or the signal will be distorted. Gen-erally, there will be an input meter that willhelp you determine the amount of input com-ing into the FX.Mix control usually determines the amount ofdry signal (unprocessed sound) versus the wetsignal (processed sound) you would like tohear in the mix. It is a balance control betweenthe wet affected signal and the dry unaffectedsignal.Decay time allows you to adjust how long ittakes the reverb to disappear. Most reverbunits have decay adjustments from about 1 msup to several seconds. Longer decay timesmake a sound bigger and appear in a largerspace. Shorter decay times make things soundmore upfront. Make sure the decay timematches the tempo of the music. A long, slow,reverb decay could make the tracks soundmuddy or disjointed if the song is fast. Try a

312/710

longer decay time on a slower tempo song anda shorter decay time on a more upbeat temposong.Predelay adjusts the amount of time beforethe dry signal is affected by the wet (delayed)sound. Think of predelay as the time it takesthe dry signal to bounce off a wall or surfacebefore it is affected by the reverb. A longer pre-delay can help the dry vocal sit more upfront inthe mix along with generating a clearer soundthat isn't muddied by the reverb.Bypass allows you to hear the signal with orwithout the FX in the signal chain. This is ba-sically an on/off function.

Tip

A majority of reverb units allow you to adjustthe tone of the reverb or at least offer a high-frequency (HF) roll-off. One way to make a re-verb sound less digital and more natural is toroll-off the high frequencies. This is the areawhere most digital reverb units (especially

313/710

cheaper ones) tend to sound fake and thin. Tryrolling off some high frequencies and note theresult.

Delay

A delay is a time-based effect. A delay can takea signal and process it to be played back at alater predetermined time. A delay can repeat asignal once or an infinite number of times. Itcan be used to separate a vocal from the rest ofthe mix or for a special effect. It appears natur-al when used subtly. Apply a large amount ofdelay and it can make a sound appear spaceyand from another world.The main parameters with delay are thefollowing:

? FX

? Input

? Output

? Time/tap

314/710

? Repeat/feedback

? Mix

? EQ

Audio Clip 7.3

FX: There are a variety of types of delaysavailable. Some delays are straight delays,whereas others offer a variety of delay selec-tions. On a few units, you may only be able toselect short, medium, or long delay times. Oth-er delay units will offer delay types such asanalog or digital echo, ping pong, delay withmodulation, sweep echo, slapback, dynamicdelay, tape delay, and many others.Input indicates the amount of signal enteringthe processor. Be careful not to overload.Output indicates the amount of signal exitingthe processor. This is typically the blend of thedry and processed signal.Time/tap allows you to adjust the amount oftime between the dry, unprocessed signal and

315/710

the wet, processed signal. Some newer delayunits, especially pedals and rack-mounted FX,provide a “tap,” a button, to determine thedelay time. This is extremely handy when set-ting a delay time in a live situation or whenseeking a particular delay rhythm.Repeat/feedback controls how many repeatsof a delayed sound you desire. It can be adjus-ted to repeat anywhere from one to an infinitenumber of times. Increasing the repeat/feed-back to the maximum amount creates a uniquesounding feedback loop.Mix controls the blend of the dry and wetsignals.EQ: Different processors give you different EQoptions. The most common is a high-frequencycutoff.

Tip

How to make an echo or delay sound in time:

316/710

Divide 60,000 (number of milliseconds in aminute) by the BPM (beats per minute) to cre-ate a synchronized quarter-note delay.For example:60,000 divided by 100 BPM = 600 ms.Therefore, a 600-ms delay would result in aquarter-note delay.For a half-note delay, double the result = 1200msFor an eighth note delay, divide the result by 2= 300 msFor a sixteenth note delay, divide the result by4 = 150 ms, a kind of slapback effect useful fordance music.Another delay type is an echo, which shouldnot to be confused with a delay. Echo is a clas-sic FX that creates a repeating signal that be-comes progressively quieter over time. A slap-back echo is used to recreate the sound of anearby echo source such as a gym wall orcanyon. It is created with an unmodulateddelay time between about 50 and 150 ms. A

317/710

popular 1980s effect often used with Dub Reg-gae, but like any FX, it can be used on virtuallyanything.

More Time-Based FX

The parameters of the following FX will besimilar to those of a delay or reverb. Any ex-ceptions will be pointed out.Most of the following effects differ because ofdelay times or because the signal is eithermodulated or unmodulated. If a signal is mod-ulated, its signal is constantly swept at a prede-termined or adjusted speed. A modulatedsound sweeps through a specific frequencyrange. If a signal is unmodulated, there is nosweeping effect or whooshing sound.Chorus generates a detuned double of the ori-ginal signal that modulates in pitch slightlyover time. Essentially, it is an FX where theoriginal signal is mixed with a modulated delayof itself creating a “chorus” effect. The delay

318/710

times are generally between 10 and 60 ms.This can happen naturally with groups ofstrings and vocals. Chorus is often applied tovocals, guitar, bass, keyboards, or strings tomake them sound more in tune, thicker, anddreamier than a single sound, while stillsounding more or less like a single sound. Achorus FX can come in a pedal form, rackmount, plug-in, or be made naturally by re-cording multiple takes of a single instrumentand mixing them together.Chorus FX may provide additional control overthe following:Depth: The amount and intensity of chorusand/or modulation.Sweep: The speed and/or range at which thechorus modulates.Speed: Adjusts the rate of the LFO and pitchmodulation.

Audio Clip 7.4

319/710

Tip

The next time a vocal or group of vocals soundout of tune, try a little chorus and note the res-ult. I find this as a great FX, especially for out-of-tune strings or vocals. Even if the sourceisn't out of tune or you don't have a chorus FX,you can have a singer, guitarist, horn player, orstring player double or triple their part. Thisoften creates a natural chorus FX for a lusherand thicker sound.Doubler is used to approximate the sound oftwo instruments or vocals performing in uni-son. Most commonly heard on vocals, thisdoubling effect is created with unmodulateddelay times between 40 and 90 ms.

Audio Clip 7.5

Flanger creates a “whooshing” or “jet-like”sound. It is created with a delay setting of 1–25ms. The delay is then modulated by a Low-fre-quency oscillator (LFO). The LFO setting

320/710

determines the rate and depth of the effect.There are several claims on when it was firstused, word is that John Lennon apparentlycoined the term “flanging” when referring toGeorge Martin about this effect, actually call-ing it “Ken's Flanger” naming it after one ofAbbey Road's Engineers.

Audio Clip 7.6

Phaser causes various frequencies in the ori-ginal signal to be delayed by different amountscausing peaks and valleys in the output signal.These peaks and valleys are not necessarilyharmonically related. This effect sounds verysimilar to a flanger. Flanging, on the otherhand, uses a delay applied equally to the entiresignal. This is similar in principle to phasingexcept that the delay (and hence phase shift) isuniform across the entire sound. The result is acomb filter with peaks and valleys that are in alinear harmonic series.

321/710

Audio Clip 7.7

Harmonizer creates a harmony with the ori-ginal signal.

Audio Clip 7.8

Overdrive or distortion can make a “clean”sound “dirty.” Overdrive or distortion canmake a sound fuzzy, crunchy, edgy, and evenretro sounding. Most common with guitar ef-fects pedals, however, distortion or overdrivecan be applied to any sound.

Audio Clip 7.9

Tip

I like to blend distortion into a recorded snaredrum track. Try applying this effect next timeyou need a snare drum to cut through a bigrock mix or you just want to give it a uniquesound.

322/710

Plug-Ins Versus the Real Deal

Plug-ins are a set of software components thatadd specific abilities to a larger software ap-plication such as Pro Tools or Nuendo. It islikely that you have already used plug-ins withother computing activities. Adobe AcrobatReader, Quicktime, Real Player, and anti-virussoftware are just a few types of plug-ins thatyou may already be using. Many people arecurious if plug-ins are comparable to the realdeal. The real deal being the hardware ororiginal rack-mounted version of the com-pressor, limiter, or FX unit. Although plug-insmimic the controls and look similar to theseclassic pieces of gear, they do not sound thesame. This is not to say plug-ins aren't valu-able and effective, but they rarely sound likethe original versions, with real transformers,tubes, and discreet electronics that warm upand color the sound. These classic pieces of

323/710

gear can still be found used, as reissues andnew.There are a few advantages to owning audioplug-ins, instead of hardware. You basicallyown an unlimited amount of copies of a partic-ular effect. They are compact. With plug-ins,you don't need a bunch of extra space in thecontrol room for racks of gear. They are moreaffordable. While you could maybe only affordone real LA-2A limiter (a classic piece of out-board gear that isn't cheap), you can own theLA-2A plug-in, along with a load of variousother plug-ins. Owning an LA-2A plug-in islike owning an unlimited number of LA-2As.Well, kind of… like I mentioned, they don't ne-cessarily sound as good, or even close to theoriginal, but they are getting closer every day.Some prefer plug-ins because they are cleanerand generally provide less noise. The settingsare easy to recall and automate. Another cooladvantage of using plug-ins is when you get a

324/710

chance to operate the real deal, you willalready be familiar with its knobs and controls.Plug-ins are not just designed to mimic classicpieces of gear. Plug-ins can do all kinds ofthings unique to the virtual world. Plug-ins canbe used to help with restoration of old recordsby removing pops and other anomalies to spe-cializing in mixing and mastering. My favoriteplug-ins change the sound in interesting andunique ways and don't necessarily copy classicgear. The future with audio plug-ins is limit-less and exciting.It doesn't matter if the signal processors youuse are real or virtual. These are just tools thatcan make your job easier or more difficult ifyou don't know what you are doing. At somepoint, you will need to learn how to operateand manipulate sound with these tools. Likemuch of audio production, it can take youyears to figure out what the heck you are do-ing. Be patient, learn the tools of the trade, andforge ahead.

325/710

Chapter 8. Signal Flow. TheKeys to Directing Audio Traffic

In this Chapter:

Signal Flow 121

What Is Signal Flow and Why Is It So Im-portant to Understand? 121

Setting Levels and Gain Structure 122

A/D Converters and Audio Interfaces 123

Analog Model of Signal Flow 124

Video 6 Signal Flow 124

Applying Signal Flow 126

Laptop with Audio Interface 126

Four- and Eight-Track All-In-One Units128

Recording a Live Performance to a Laptop129

A key component of audio engineering is to fully understand the analog modelof signal flow, that is, how sound travels from the beginning to the end of itsaudio path. Much of audio engineering is troubleshooting different issues thatoccur during music production. Understanding signal flow can help youquickly pinpoint and solve a problem in order to keep a session runningsmoothly. When recording, the signal flow path starts where you plug in themicrophone and ends at the speakers, or two-track recorder. Once thisconcept is understood, you will be able to hook up most gear, understand apatchbay, and troubleshoot yourself out of just about any mess! Knowing theanalog model of signal flow will translate to almost any audio situation. Don'tget frustrated if you don't fully understand the concept at first. It usually takessome experience and practical application to totally grasp signal flow.

Keywords: A/D Converters and Audio, Analog Model of Signal Flow, Apply-ing Signal Flow, Eight-track, Four-track, Gain, Interfaces, Laptop, Laptop withAudio Interface, Setting Levels, Signal Flow, Structure, Units

Signal Flow

What Is Signal Flow and Why Is It

So Important to Understand?

A key component of audio engineering is tofully understand the analog model of signalflow, that is, how sound travels from the begin-ning to the end of its audio path. Much of

327/710

audio engineering is troubleshooting differentissues that occur during music production.Understanding signal flow can help youquickly pinpoint and solve a problem in orderto keep a session running smoothly. When re-cording, the signal flow path starts where youplug in the microphone and ends at the speak-ers, or two-track recorder. Once this concept isunderstood, you will be able to hook up mostgear, understand a patchbay, and troubleshootyourself out of just about any mess! Knowingthe analog model of signal flow will translateto almost any audio situation. Don't get frus-trated if you don't fully understand the conceptat first. It usually takes some experience andpractical application to totally grasp signalflow.To understand signal flow you will need to re-view and become familiar with the followingterms:

Pre-amp

328/710

Mic

Line

Input ready

Tape send

Tape return

Stereo bus

I/O

A/D

Speakers/monitors

There are many ways to record music. Musiccan be recorded with a separate mixer andmulti-track recorder, or on a laptop with anaudio interface. You can even purchase an all-in-one mixer and recorder like an old schoolcassette, or digital four-track. Some engineersuse a MIDI controller and software to createsongs. It is even possible to record the bandlive from the soundboard. The followingchapter will help you understand how to hook

329/710

up your gear and figure out exactly what is go-ing on along an audio path. The analog modelis also valuable in understanding many aspectsof digital recording and can be applied whenrunning or recording live sound.Recording involves three specific stages. Thefirst stage is capturing the sounds with a mic.The next stage is storing the sounds in a re-corder/line. The third stage is hearing thestored sounds on speakers or headphones. Al-ways keep these specific stages in mind whenyou are recording.

Setting Levels and Gain Structure

The preamp is the first link in a recordingchain when a microphone is used. Preampssound best when run (turned up) between 10%and 90% of their potential. The sound qualityis not all that good at maximum or minimumsettings. If the preamp volume is set all theway down when recording a loud instrument,

330/710

it will be necessary to pad the mic or preamp.This padding will allow the preamp to beturned up. Conversely, if the preamp is turnedup all the way when recording a quiet instru-ment, a more sensitive mic will be needed inorder to turn down the level.Be aware of the input level sent to a digital re-corder. If the level is too hot, the signal willclip in a displeasing way. Keep the levels below0 dBFS. It is not imperative that the level benear zero if recording at 24-bit. Strive for set-ting recording levels somewhere between −20and −6 dBFS. This will allow headroom forvolume spikes, insuring that you won't damagethe integrity of the audio signal. If using ananalog recorder, store signals much hotter toincrease the signal-to-noise ratio. Levels in theanalog world can exceed zero and are typicallyset from −3 to +9.Some audio devices or console settings are saidto have “unity gain.” A device that has unitygain neither amplifies nor attenuates a signal.

331/710

Most signal processors have unity gain; there-fore, when a compressor or other device is in-serted into an audio system, the overall gain ofthe system is not changed.

Analog-to-Digital Converters (A/D)

and Audio Interfaces

A recording studio's collection of gear often in-cludes both analog and digital components(learn more about analog and digital audio inChapter 11). An analog-to-digital converter,abbreviated as A/D or D/A converter, allowsthese different devices to interact. These areusually rack-mounted units, but can also comein the form of a sound card or audio interface.An A/D converter is an electronic device thatconverts an analog signal into its digital equi-valent. The D/A converters do the opposite byconverting digital information back into analogform. However, all converters perform both

332/710

A/D and D/A functions. A/D converters comein varying price ranges and configurations.Many professionals would agree that the qual-ity of the converter makes a huge difference inthe quality of the sound. Speed and accuracyare two of the most important characteristicsto consider when you are looking to purchase agood converter. Also, the better the converter,the less likely you will encounter problemssuch as quantization and jitter. Some A/Dconverters perform only A/D functions and donot include other options.Audio Interfaces include A/D converters, pre-amps, and other record/mix controls. Audiointerfaces are often paired with dedicated soft-ware, but many interfaces are not proprietaryand can work with any software type. Picturedbelow are the two-channel Focusrite Interfaceand the TC Electronic Konnekt 6 AudioInterface

333/710

Figure 8.1.

334/710

Figure 8.2.

These particular units have mic preamps,phantom power, headphone outputs, monitorcontrols, USB 2.0, Optical ins/outs, MIDI ins/outs, S/PDIF ins and outs, and additionalI/Os. Both of the aforementioned units are af-fordable options. Other brand name audio

335/710

interfaces include: Apogee, Lynx, M-Audio,Behringer, Mackie, Digidesign, Presonus, andMOTU. The price ranges are anywhere from$50 a channel up to thousands per channel.

Analog Model of Signal Flow

Signal Flow

When using a separate console and multi-trackrecorder signal flow can be represented by thefollowing stages: Capturing sound, storingsound, and monitoring sound.

1. CAPTURE. First, plug in the microphone.

2. Turn up mic (preamp) and make sure thattrack(s) are armed and in input mode on therecorder.

3. Send signal to an assigned track on the re-corder. It doesn't matter if the recorder isreal (multi-track tape machine) or virtual

336/710

(digital representation such as Pro Tools).The fader often controls the amount of sig-nal being sent to the recorder when a physic-al console is used. If a fader is not involved,the pre-amp output will dictate the amountof signal being sent to the recorder.

4. STORE. Now that the signal has arrived atthe recorder, the signal can be stored.

5. The signal will return from the recorder tothe console, often to a fader or monitorsection.

6. At this point, the signal usually has to beassigned to a bus to be heard. Most often thesignal is sent to the L/R or stereo bus.

7. MONITOR. Once the signal arrives at thestereo bus fader sound should be heard ifthe speakers are on and turned up.

8. The signal from the stereo fader may alsobe sent to a two-track recorder during mixdown.

337/710

Figure 8.3.

This path will never change when recording.The only thing that changes is what is beingused for the tape machine/recorder. Whenmixing, steps 1–4 are eliminated and the audiopath would start at step 5. When running live

338/710

sound, you need to only feed the signal to thespeakers to monitor.Additionally, each one of these steps may berepresented on a patchbay. If they are, here area few ways they may be labeled:

? (CAPTURE) Mic tie line, mic input

? Mic output

? Preamp in/out or direct out or tape send

? Preamp out or direct out or tape send

? (STORE) Multi-track in, tape in, Pro Toolsin (or any other software-in)

? Multi-track out, tape out, Pro Tools out (orany other software-out)

? Fader in, console or line in, tape return

? Bus out

? Master fader in, stereo bus in

? (MONITOR) Speaker out

339/710

Three levels of power correspond to the threestages of signal flow:

1. Mic level (CAPTURE)

2. Line level (STORE)

3. Speaker level (MONITOR)

Between each stage, an amplifier is required toboost the signal to the next power level.Just like a microphone, a pre-amp can colorthe sound. For instance, tube pre-amps arepopular with digital recording because theycan make a thin, clean sound darker andthicker.When you plug in a mic, you will likely bepresented with the choice of “mic” level or“line” level. For a microphone, choose “mic,”and for an instrument or tape return, choose“line.”Eventually, the signal works its way down thechannel strip and is sent to be stored as a

340/710

recorded track. This recorded track is stored atline level.The stored signal is then returned to the con-sole, or fader, to be monitored.Monitoring is the final stage in the signal'spath, and can be achieved by listening tospeakers. Speakers are either self-powered orneed an amplifier to boost the audio signal.Once the signal is boosted, it is at speakerlevel. This is the end of the signal path wherewe can relax and listen back to all of our hardwork.When recording, always picture the three mainstages: capture, store, and monitor. Mic, line,and speaker are the hardware equivalents ofthese stages, respectively. This helps determ-ine where the signal is and where it can be in-terrupted, if necessary, for manipulation andprocessing. Knowing these stages and corres-ponding levels will also make troubleshootingmuch easier.

341/710

Applying Signal Flow

Recording with a Laptop and Audio

Interface

The analog model of signal flow directly relatesto using a stand-alone recorder with a separateconsole or mixer. Understanding the analogmodel of signal flow is useful when workingstrictly in the box or with other recording setupconfigurations.When recording instruments or vocals, signalflow always starts with plugging in the mic andadjusting the mic preamp.Here is an overview of signal flow when re-cording with a laptop/computer audiointerface:

(CAPTURE) Plug the mic into a preamp oraudio interface such as an MBox. Make surethat a cable is connected between the audio

342/710

interface and the laptop. Most interfaces usea USB 2.0 connection (see connectorsChapter 15).

Turn up the mic at the preamp.

(STORE) Send the signal to a recorder/com-puter. Make sure that the correct input andoutput is selected (often this is IN 1 and 2and OUT 1 and 2/ stereo bus selected in thesoftware).

Return signal from the recorder/com-puter. This means selecting the correctbus or output.

(MONITOR) Turn up the monitor or mainoutput knob on the interface.

If speakers or headphones are plugged in andturned up, the signal will be heard.

343/710

Figure 8.4.

The two main differences between using alaptop/audio interface to record and using thetraditional console/recorder setup are

1. The audio interface's preamp captures thesound instead of the console's preamp.

344/710

2. The computer stores the sound instead ofa separate, stand alone analog or digitalrecorder.

Here are step-by-step details that can be fol-lowed when recording with most softwaretypes:

1. Turn on the computer and audio interface.

2. Open the software application.

3. Set the session parameters, bit depth,sample rate, and audio file type.

4. Determine the file name and destinationwhere you will save the file. Very important!Pick an easy-to-remember location and beconsistent with file naming so that you canretrieve files quickly.

5. Create a new track and name it.

6. Put the track into record pause (inputready) by pushing the red button.

345/710

7. Make sure that the correct input isselected.

8. Plug your mic into the interface and ad-just the preamp. If no mic is required, im-port the audio track to a desired location.

9. Make sure that the level isn't set too highor too low. Most interfaces will have a meterto check the mic level.

10. Record the track.

11. Unarm the track (take it out of input/re-cord ready).

12. If you can't hear the recorded sounds, se-lect the correct output. Most default settingsdirect the output to the stereo bus or OUT 1and 2.

13. Turn up the monitor/volume and listenback. Monitor/volume adjustment is typic-ally found on the audio interface.

346/710

Tip

Make sure that you properly label and savetracks so they are easy to locate and identify.Don't leave audio tracks labeled Audio 1.0, Au-dio 1.1, etc. Many engineers label tracks by themic or specific instrument that was recorded.Also, don't forget to back up your audio files toan external drive or other additional storagedevice.

How to Record Using an Analog or

Digital Four- or Eight-Track

All-In-One Recorder

347/710

Figure 8.5.

Most analog and digital four-tracks pack acomplete studio, minus the mic and speakers,into a powerful little recording unit. These all-in-one units provide multiple mic inputs withpreamps. They also provide controls that allowyou to adjust EQ, FX, and the volume of eachtrack.With an analog four- or eight-track you willlikely record to a cassette. It certainly is notcutting edge, but it is an affordable way tolearn about recording. Fostex and Tascammake classic units that provide a unique qual-ity of sound. These units are completely

348/710

portable and, if properly maintained, can last along time. Use high-bias cassette tape andclean the tape heads regularly with 99% alco-hol. Cassettes are still available for purchaseonline.With a digital four- or eight-track, you arelikely to record to a hard disc or flash drive.Some of the routing may be done digitally, butthe concept is the same. Digital units are alsolikely to have some type of two-track built in tobounce down your mixes to stereo, like a CDrecorder.Here are step-by-step details that can be fol-lowed when recording with most all-in-oneunits:

1. (CAPTURE) Plug in the mic. Make surethat mic, not line, is selected.

2. Assign the track to a bus. You may have touse the pan knob. If you were to select the1/2 bus, panning all the way left would selecttrack 1, while panning all the way right

349/710

would select track 2. With busses, if you panall the way left, it will assign the signal to theodd numbered tracks. If you pan all the wayright, it will assign the signal to the even-numbered tracks.

3. Turn up the mic at the preamp (likely onthe top of the channel).

4. If the correct bus is assigned, the fader isup, and the track is armed, you should seethe level at the stereo fader or meter. Makesure that the stereo fader and monitorvolume are up at this point in order to hearthe signal.

5. (STORE) Record the signal when you areready.

6. (MONITOR) To listen back to the recor-ded sound, you will likely flip the channelback to “line” and unarm the track.

With most analog recorders, you will need atwo-track recorder for mix down, such as an

350/710

Alesis Masterlink, or stand alone CD recorder.This will allow you to combine the four- oreight-tracks down to two-tracks (stereo leftand right), and store them.

Recording a Live Performance

Recording a live performance can be tricky. Ina live recording situation, there is typicallyvery little control over acoustics and a host ofother issues may arise. You also may have topiggyback off another system or engineer's EQsettings, which may or may not be sufficient.One of the easiest ways to get a live recordingis to take a pair of stereo outputs from themain mixing console, known by engineers as“getting a split off the board.”

351/710

Figure 8.6.

Stereo outputs can be recorded to a variety oftwo-track recorders or straight to your laptop.One potential issue is that your mix will end upbeing whatever the house sound person hasmic'd. A smaller club or venue may not mic theinstruments because they are loud enough forthe room. As a result, your mix will most likelyend up vocal heavy (vocals will be mic'd), and

352/710

be lacking louder instruments (electric guitar,bass) that were not mic'd by the sound person.Another potential issue is that you are at themercy of the venue's sound person to set thelevels properly.Another way to record a performance is toplace a pair of stereo mics in a good spot andrecord to your laptop or stereo recorder. Theproblem with this method is in finding an op-timal spot in the room for mic placement. Ifthe mics are placed too far away, you will pickup more of the unclear ambient wash and lessof the direct, clear audio. If the mics are placedtoo close, you may not pick up all the instru-ments equally. Show up early and scout out thevenue or club prior to recording.

353/710

Figure 8.7.

Tip

Try using the XY stereo miking techniquewhen recording a live performance. This tech-nique was discussed in Chapter 5 and demon-strated in Video 3.Many engineers bring their own mobile re-cording rigs to record live performances. A fewengineers have mobile trucks or vans set up ascomplete studios. There are even a few folks

354/710

out there recording live music out of the backof their cars with minimal recordingequipment.Frequently, people record live bands straightto laptop computers. Keep in mind that this isa live situation. A computer may crash orlockup, which can be a very stressful situationwithout a backup recorder.Here are step-by-step details that can be fol-lowed when recording a live performance toyour laptop or other recorder:

1. (CAPTURE) Place stereo mics in a goodspot to capture the overall sound.

2. Plug mics into a preamp or audiointerface.

3. Assign mics to inputs and ready tracks byplacing them into input or record pausemode on your recorder or laptop.

4. Turn up the mics and monitor the signal.

5. (STORE) Record the signal when ready.

355/710

6. (MONITOR) Unarm tracks and listenback.

7. Headphones, not speakers, are used tomonitor in live situations.

Venue management, the house sound person,or various setup limitations will determine thelocation where you will monitor and recordsound. Common areas to setup are next tofront of house (FOH) sound or to the side ofthe stage.When recording a live performance, make surethat you stay out of the way of the other pro-fessionals working on the production. Try to beas transparent as possible. Do not take overthe house engineer's space or adjust the houseengineer's controls. Most of the engineers arewilling to work with you if you are courteousand don't overstep your boundaries in theirvenue.If you do not completely grasp signal flow atthis stage, do not be discouraged! You may

356/710

initially have to mimic what you have beentaught to get a session going. Eventually, youwill get the picture. Until then, memorize thesteps and any patching needed to record, over-dub, and mix. Listen to and observe othersthat have more audio experience. When you doget to the point where you understand exactlyhow audio is traveling between any two points,you will have learned an important conceptthat will help propel you to the next level.

357/710

Chapter 9. Studio SessionProcedures

How a Recording Session Happens and inWhat Order…

In this Chapter:

Seven Stages of Recording 133

Preproduction 133

Setup 136

Basic or Rhythm Tracks 139

Overdubs 140

Rough Mixes 142

Mixing 143

Mastering 145

Four Questions to Ask Before You Re-cord a Band 147

Although every recording session tends to be different, most recording ses-sions will include these seven stages:

Keywords: Basic Tracks, Mastering, Mixing, Overdubs, Preproduction,Rhythm Tracks, Rough Mixes, Setup

Seven Stages of Recording

Although every recording session tends to bedifferent, most recording sessions will includethese seven stages:

1. Preproduction

2. Setup

3. Basic or rhythm tracks

4. Overdubs

5. Rough mixes

6. Mixing

7. Hopefully, some mastering!

It is important to be familiar with the differentstages of recording so you can mentally

359/710

prepare for what comes next. In Chapter 4, Italked about time management and schedul-ing. You can be better at both of these skills ifyou know these seven stages inside and out.So, where do you start?As an engineer, you will probably start with thesetup. However, it is advisable that musiciansstart with preproduction.

Preproduction

As an engineer, you generally aren't involvedduring preproduction. I realized early on in mycareer that you should at least make the re-cording artist(s) aware of this stage. It willmake the session run more smoothly and likelymake the overall recordings better. If a record-ing session doesn't include a producer and theband is inexperienced, the engineer may getstuck producing the session. If this happens,make sure the band or artist understands the

360/710

importance of preproduction and what itinvolves.Preproduction for the band or artist includespicking the songs for the session, working onthe songs, evaluating and working out tempos,instrument repair and maintenance (makingsure their instruments work!), rehearsing, re-cording rehearsals or live shows, discussion ofoverdubs and mixing, and anything you do be-fore the actual recording takes place. If theartist is better prepared, it can save the artistsome cash too.First, make sure the artist(s) have actually re-hearsed before they show up to record. Youwould be amazed how many bands want me torecord them immediately, but didn't evenknow their own songs once they are in the stu-dio. Encourage the band to record a rehearsalor live performance.Often, artists record an album and monthslater think how much better they are now. Fre-quently, they wish they would have been this

361/710

good when they originally recorded the songs.One reason is because this is the first time theyheard the songs recorded and now they knowwhat they actually sound like. If the artist(s)would have recorded these songs first andevaluated them beforehand for things liketempo and song structure, they may haveavoided the feelings of regret.

Tip

When evaluating a live performance or re-hearsal, consider some of the following:

? Does the song drag or rush in tempo?

? Should it be faster?

? Should it be slower? Is the singer squeez-ing in all the words?

? Does the drummer need a click track ordoes he or she just need to practice more?

? Should there be a different arrangement?Just because the band has always played the

362/710

song in a particular way, doesn't mean it isthe best way. Don't be afraid to explore thesong with a different arrangement or…

? Should it be recorded in a different key?Does the singer sound like he or she is strug-gling to sing the song? It is not uncommonfor songwriters to change the key to fit thesinger's best vocal range.

? Does it sound like everyone is playing to-gether? It isn't unusual for musicians to getlost in their own part and not pay attentionto what the other musicians are playing. Arecording of a performance or live show willallow the musicians to listen to the overallsound.

? Also, could an instrument drop out andhelp create a nice dynamic, like the classicbreakdown in hip-hop, rap, R&B, and vari-ous styles of dance music. If everything is onand up the whole time in a mix, the songmay become tedious and will likely lack as

363/710

much emotion as a song that builds and isdynamic.

These are just a few of the questions youshould ask.Ultimately, preproduction will make your re-cordings better and along the way save theband time and money.Preproduction details the band or artist shouldconsider:

1. Set tempos: The songwriter should estab-lish tempo. If you leave this up to the drum-mer, it may not be the tempo needed for thevocalist. If the song is too fast, the lyrics mayseem forced or rushed. If the tempo is tooslow, the lyrics may drag and the singer mayhave to hold out notes longer than theywould like. A click track, or metronome, maybe needed to stay in time; however, makesure the drummer practices with one first.The click track is fed to the drummer's head-phones. BEWARE! Playing to a click isn't

364/710

easy if the musicians haven't played to onebefore. A click can be a metronome, key-board sequence, drum machine, or anythingthat keeps time. Tempo is measured by beatsper minute (BPM).

2. Pick songs: Do this before you show up tothe studio to keep the band drama to a min-imum and to help focus the recording ses-sion. Of course, have some backup songs orsecondary songs to record if you have timeor in case the songs that were picked justaren't working.

3. Song structure: Work out arrangementsand settle any disagreements around songstructure upfront. You want to avoid any po-tential arguments, preproduction can getthese awkward moments out of the way.Listen for parts that you could eliminatewhere there is nothing or too much goingon. Be objective! Is the solo section too long?Do you need a bridge? Can the thirty-two

365/710

bar intro be cut in half? How about the end-ing? How can you build the song to havemore impact? Should some instruments stopplaying or dropout during the verses to cre-ate dynamics?

4. Rehearsal: The easiest thing an artist cando before they record is to actually rehearsebefore the session. This will make theirbudget more predictable and will surelymake the recording better! Why pay for stu-dio time when you can rehearse for free athome or for a much smaller fee at a rehears-al room? Again, rehearsing will save time,which equals money in the band's pocket!

5. Record rehearsals or live shows: This willhelp the band identify spots that can be im-proved or changed. Use these recordings tohelp with tempo, song selection, song struc-ture, and anything else you hear that needswork. These live recordings don't need to behigh fidelity or professionally produced. Use

366/710

what you have at your disposal to record aperformance for evaluation. The purpose isto hear the song and not to be concernedwith the audio quality.

You may want to suggest these things to moreinexperienced bands. Most experienced musi-cians are already aware of preproduction. Theyunderstand that being prepared will save time,money, and will likely make the recordingbetter.

Setup

This next stage is where the engineer usuallybegins. Setup involves tuning drums, address-ing isolation issues, picking mics, preparingheadphone mixes, starting track sheets or tem-plates, labeling the console, tracks or inputs,getting levels, and other miscellaneous dutiesneeded before actually pressing record.

367/710

368/710

Figure 9.1.

Mic selection: I typically show up about anhour before a session and get everything pre-pared. It is much easier to do this when theband isn't around and you can take your time.Many studios will allow thirty minutes to anhour for setup and tear down.Setup details are as follows:

369/710

1. Isolation issues: You probably will knowthe instrumentation you will be workingwith in the session beforehand. I often drawthe setup to get a visual and determinewhere to place the amps, the drums, the vo-calist, etc. See Figure 9.2. The purpose is toprovide isolation for individual instrumentsand also to retain a line of sight betweenmusicians, so they can communicate. If youare working with an electronic musician, youwill probably set up in the control room andtake direct outputs, so you will not have isol-ation issues. See Figure 9.3.

370/710

Figure 9.2

371/710

Figure 9.3

2. I will pick the mics I plan on using for thesession before the band sets up. Just be-cause you pick a particular mic doesn't meanyou can't change it. The point is to makesure everything is working before the bandshows up. If the mic you choose doesn'tsound good, at least you already haveeverything patched in and ready to go. Most

372/710

studios will have their microphone selectionon their website or can send you a list uponrequest. If no mics are being used, youwould likely be taking the output of the in-strument and plugging it into a direct box or¼″ input on a preamp. You can then testwith a drum machine, keyboard, or any oth-er instrument.

3. Get levels: This is much easier to do whenyou don't have musicians looking over yourshoulder. Since you have already plugged inand set up mics, you can apply phantompower to the necessary mics, turn up thepreamps, arm the tracks, and make sureeverything is working. You can snap yourfingers in front of the mic or pump somemusic into the studio and look at your re-cording device to make sure you are gettinga signal. Again, there is a lot less pressure todo this before the band arrives.

373/710

4. Labeling: Label all the gear that you willbe using during the session. If you are usingoutboard gear, label what is going to bepatched into it. Also, label the console andfill out any necessary tracks sheets. If youare working on a computer, pull up a tem-plate or at least label all the tracks. Don'tleave the tracks reading Audio 1, Audio 2,etc. Later this will make your life very diffi-cult! What if you sent your tracks to anotherengineer or opened them up at another stu-dio and they weren't labeled? It would take agood amount of time to decipher what wason each track. Some track labels can includekick, snare, bass, keys, synth, acoustic gui-tar, vocals, etc.

5. Headphones: If you are using head-phones, go ahead and plug them in andmake sure they are all receiving audio beforethe musicians arrive. It is also possible toask the musicians what sort of headphonemix they would like before they arrive. This

374/710

enables you to build a very rough headphonemix ready for when the artists arrive, freeingup lots of possible recording time.

6. Tune the drums: If there is a drummerand he or she plans on playing his or herown kit, have them arrive earlier than every-one else and make sure the drums are intune. If you or the drummer doesn't knowhow to tune the drums, the drummer shouldtake his or her drums to a local music storeor drum shop and get the kit reheaded andtuned. It will be some of the best money theband can spend on the session! In tunedrums rule!

Tip

Troubleshooting a problem is part of an audioengineer's job. Showing up early, clearly la-beling gear and tracks before the session, andmaking sure you are getting signal are some ofthe things that can help you with potentialtroubleshooting issues. Again, this is much

375/710

easier to do alone, rather than with the bandlooking over your shoulder. Make sureeverything is working before they show up andyou will start off the session with a lot lessstress.

Basic or Rhythm Tracks

Basics or rhythm tracks involve recording the“bed” of a song. This stage revolves aroundwhat the song will be built on and occurs afteryou have set everything up. Think of basictracks as the initial stage of building a house.You must have a solid foundation to build astructurally sound house. At this stage, thesong needs to be “in time” and “in tune.”Basic track details are as follows:

1. Establish time and tune: With songwritersyou may record a click first to establishtempo and the length of the song and thenan instrument track such as acoustic guitaror piano to establish the tune. If you are

376/710

recording dance- or rap music, it is commonto start with the beat and the hook ormelody. This establishes the time and thetune. Songs are often created in programssuch as Reason, Ableton LIVE, Acid, Reakt-or, or GarageBand beforehand.

2. Scratch track: A scratch track is a trackthat you aren't expecting to keep. Its pur-pose is to provide a guide for the other musi-cians, so they know where they are in thesong. Sometimes, it is also requested be-cause the musicians are used to cueing offthat particular instrument and they believethey will perform the song better with ascratch track. With a full band you are likelyto record at least drums during this stage. Ifthere are no drums, then the bass, rhythmguitar, and maybe a scratch vocal arerecorded.

3. Multiple takes: If there are multiple takes,make sure to clearly mark which take is to be

377/710

used. You would hate to build the song usingthe wrong take! Maintain track sheets andmake sure your templates reflect the correctinstrumentation.

4. Correcting rhythm tracks: It is common tofix bass mistakes or other rhythm tracksduring this stage to make the foundation assolid as possible before overdubbing.

Tip

Avoid using headphones during basic trackingif possible. Getting separate headphone mixesfor each musician can take a lot of extra time.If you are working with a band, have the bandrehearse the songs without vocals. Then whenyou record, the band can perform the songs alltogether without headphones. This is a greatway to get that initial energy and avoid head-phone mixes.

378/710

Overdubs

Overdubs take place after a solid basic trackhas been recorded. This is the stage where youbegin to layer a song with additional instru-ments not played during the initial basic track-ing. Make sure if the person overdubbing ismonitoring with headphones that they have agood mix. Some people love to hear their in-strument blasted in their mix, whereas otherpeople want their instrument turned downlow. Don't be afraid to consult the person over-dubbing about what they would like to hear intheir headphone mix. Really loud headphonescan mess with pitch, so be careful not to blastthem!You can also do overdubs in the control roomand the musician can listen over the monitors.See Figure 9.4. I prefer this method to head-phones, because it makes for easier commu-nication between you and the musician. Some

379/710

people really like overdubbing this way, where-as others prefer to be in a separate room wherethey can get lost in the music without the pres-sure of being in the control room with the en-gineer. See Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.4

380/710

Figure 9.5

Overdub details are as follows:

1. Fix anything that needs fixing. Badrhythm guitar track? Bad tone? Wrong bassnote? This may be your last chance to makeit better before you mix the song.

2. Solos: Now that the foundation is recor-ded it is time to spice it up! Solos are

381/710

generally cut during this stage. Lead guitarplayers love this stage!

3. Vocal performances: Most lead vocal per-formances are overdubbed. A handful ofsingers may track their vocals during the ba-sic stage to get a live or spontaneous feel.However, it is more typical for the singer tooverdub the vocals so they can get it justright. Backing vocals are also overdubbed.

4. Doubling: Some instruments may bedoubled, tripled, or even quadrupled duringoverdubs. You can thicken tracks and makethem more interesting during this stage.

5. Additional instrumentation: Need strings?Horns? Slide guitar? Or other unique instru-mentation? These additional layers are usu-ally overdubbed.

6. Additional percussion: The time is now toadd that shaker, tambourine, or other addi-tional percussion.

382/710

7. Editing and clean up: It is common to editthroughout the recording process. Clean upunwanted tracks and erase bad takes toavoid confusion down the road.

8. In essence, overdubs, or overdubbing, areanything you record after the initial basic/rhythm tracks. Overdubs are the layers thatadd different colors and textures to the re-cording. Often one musician at a time willoverdub. Some musicians will prefer monit-oring with headphones in another room,whereas others may prefer to listen to thecontrol room monitors and perform in thecontrol room. Most instrumentation is gen-erally completed during the overdubbingprocess. However, last-minute overdubs areoften times performed during the mixingstage.

383/710

Rough Mixes

At some point, before, during, or after over-dubbing, you may make some rough mixes ofwhat you have recorded so far and hand themout to the musicians. Think of rough mixes as aquick sketch. Rough mixes can be used by theartist(s) to evaluate their performance(s).These mixes will give the band a grasp of whatthey have done and what they could possiblyfix or add to the music. Rough mixes can alsobe very handy to other musicians who may beoverdubbing at a later date. Rough mixes oftenend up in the hands of horn players, stringplayers, a soloist, and backup singers. Theserough mixes will provide them with a copy ofthe material they are going to overdub to atsome point.

384/710

Tip

Warning! You may want to point out to theband not to spend too much time listening tothese rough mixes. Over listening to roughmixes is an affliction known as “demoitis” andhas some real side effects. Occasionally, peoplewill get so used to these mixes that no matterhow great you mix later it will never surpassthose first mixes. Keep in mind that roughmixes usually don't have the FX and mixingdetails that will occur when the song is finallymixed. I always tell my clients that they arecalled “rough” mixes for a reason.

Mixing

As I discussed in Chapter 6, mixing involvesthe blending and equalization of all the tracksto make a stereo, two-track, Left/Right mix ofthe material that you recorded. The exceptionwould be for a mix for 5.1 or other surround

385/710

sound formats that requires more than twotracks. I will usually perform any edits to therecorded material before I start mixing.However, you may perform additional editsduring this stage.Mixing tasks (please note, this is not an all-in-clusive list) are as follows:

1. Balance of instruments: Balancing thevolume between the recorded tracks is thefirst and most important step performedduring mixing.

2. Compression or limiting: Controlling thedynamic range helps sounds sit more con-sistently in the mix while squashing any sud-den peaks.

3. Panning: Panning helps the user separatelike instruments and open up the complete3D reference ball.

4. Equalization: Start with subtractive equal-ization then boost what is missing.

386/710

5. Additional editing: This is the engineer'slast chance to clean up and consolidate therecorded tracks.

6. FX: Effects are applied at this stage foradditional depth and texture. They can alsobe used to separate or glue instrumentstogether.

7. Automation: Typically the last stage ofmixing. Automation allows the user to pro-gram volume changes and other moves tolater be recalled and performedautomatically.

Creating a mix details (this is only one of manymethods):

1. Get a quick balance between all the tracks.

2. Roll off bass on instruments or voices thatshouldn't be sitting in the bass range. Thiscould possibly include guitar, snare, somevocals (exception would be Barry White),tambourine, shaker, etc. This is a good way

387/710

to clear up any unwanted mud in the mixand generally makes a mix much clearer.

3. Do the same thing to the high end-roll offany unwanted highs, likely on bass, kick,and any other low-end sounds that don'tneed the extreme highs.

4. Pan similar instruments to opposite sidesalong with any stereo mics. Try to separateinstruments with panning before equalizing.If you have two electric guitars, try panningthem to opposite sides, say 9 and 3 o'clockor hard left and hard right. Effective pan-ning can open up a mix and give it moredepth and dimension.

5. Although you will likely EQ instrumentsuntil the mix is done, you can usually startapplying some compression before EQing abunch of tracks. Compression will glue likeinstruments together. Compression alsomakes instruments more consistent. Thekick drum, bass guitar, and vocals are often

388/710

compressed. Of course, if compression isneeded on other tracks, you could apply it tothem as well.

6. Don't focus your attention on how an in-strument sounds alone, unless, of course, itis the only instrument being heard. Instead,focus on how the instrument sounds in theoverall mix. Often, novices will EQ the ringout of a snare while soloing only to find thatwhen the music is added back to the mix thesnare is lost. Maybe the snare needs thatring to cut through the mix. I typically onlysolo instruments when I am searching for anunwanted sound, like a mic being bumped,distortion, or another extraneous noise.

7. Always start with subtractive EQing andthen add what you are missing. (If you for-got what subtractive EQing is, refer back toChapter 3.)

389/710

8. Don't wait until the end to introduce thevocals in the mix; you may not have enoughroom left by the time you get to them.

9. The lead vocal is typically the focus of themix. Take extra care with the vocals. Arethey loud enough? Can you hear all the lyr-ics? If you or the band can't agree where thevocals should sit, ask someone who hasn'theard the song before. I have worked withsingers who insist their vocals are too loudand they can hear every word clearly. Ofcourse, they would understand the lyrics atany volume because they likely wrote thelyrics. A neutral party is never a bad idea toinclude, but don't end up with too manycooks in the kitchen.

10. Once you have good balance, spatial pos-itioning, EQ, and decent compression, addFX such as reverb, delay, and chorus. Likecompression, reverb and other effects canhelp separate instruments and can also be

390/710

used to glue things together. For instance, ifyou used a small plate reverb on the vocaland a medium hall on the drums, this couldcreate some front and back separation. Thevocals would appear more upfront becauseof the smaller space, and the drums wouldappear farther back in the mix because ofthe larger space. If you used just the mediumhall on everything, there would be less sep-aration between the sounds, and they wouldsound like they were all recorded in thesame space, appearing cohesive. It just de-pends on what you are trying to do.

11. Let's say you want a particular instru-ment turned up during a certain section andthen have it return to its original volume.This is something you would do during theautomation phase of the mix. A distinct ad-vantage of mixing digitally is that all yourmoves can easily be recorded and recalled atany time. There are recording consoles thathave automation where the board can

391/710

remember mutes, volume changes, andsome can even be programmed to rememberdynamic and EQ changes.

12. Start with mutes, especially at the begin-ning and end of the song. I will likely muteor erase any tracks that are not being playedat a given time to make sure I don't hearmystery sounds later.

13. After performing mutes in automation,you can move on to volume changes.

14. Make sure that you aren't overloadingthe stereo mix levels if you are mixing adigital two-track or bouncing to stereo.Don't worry about getting the levels as loudas possible. Maximizing volume isn't neces-sary if you are recording 24 bit. Don't goover ZERO in the digital world! Every engin-eer has his or her own preference; I set mystereo two-track levels around −6 dBFS.Some engineers prefer more room for transi-ent spikes and will set the level average

392/710

around −12 dBFS. If, by some chance, youhappen to mix down to an analog two-track,you will likely push the levels above zero toget the best signal to noise ratio.

15. Monitor on several systems. Don't justuse headphones! You want your mixes tosound good on several systems. Bass can behard to properly evaluate with headphones.Headphones can be deceiving but can behelpful for checking instrument placementand listening for specific details. I have acheap stereo jam box that I use to monitor.Think about setting up a monitor systemthat has both accurate speakers and spe-cialty speakers such as Auratone or Avatonemix cubes.

16. Make sure you note which mix or mixesthat you plan on using as the final mix. Youwould hate to give the band or the manufac-turer the wrong take.

393/710

Tip

Compare your mix to mixes with which you arefamiliar. Although a mastered CD will soundlouder, you can still compare the different fre-quency ranges and make sure your mix hasenough of each frequency range.Oh, and did I mention listen? Make sure youtake time to listen to how each frequency rangesounds. Throughout the mixing process youshould listen not only to an individual instru-ment, but how that instrument relates to theoverall picture. Don't get obsessed with oneparticular sound, but instead get obsessed withthe sounds as a whole. Many inexperienced en-gineers will key on one track, say the kickdrum. The kick will sound awesome andeverything else sounds weak and poorly rep-resented. After all, mixing is about relation-ships and how all the different sounds worktogether.

394/710

Keep in mind that this is only a guideline ofone way to mix a song. Other engineers may goabout the mixing process very differently. Justlike artists, engineers can paint a picture manyways. Mixing takes a lot of practice. The wayyou get better at mixing is to mix as much aspossible. Remember, it is how everythingsounds together. Don't spend too much time insolo mode!

Mastering

Mastering is the final stage in the recordingprocess. During this stage, your final mixes orstems are assembled together to make a stereomaster from your recording sessions. Manypeople aren't aware of this stage but this iswhat can make a demo sound like a finishedproduct. Professional recordings are mastered.Some engineers do both the mixing and mas-tering of a recording. However, many engin-eers prefer to stay clear of mastering a project

395/710

they have personally recorded and mixed, re-commending the final mixes be handled by anobjective mastering engineer. Mastering pre-pares your mixes to be sent off for duplicationor replication.Mastering details are as follows:

1. Equal levels: Mastering will ensure thatthe levels between all the songs are relativelyequal. Overall levels will be consistent ifyour music is put on shuffle or if youskipped from one song to another. Nobodywants to constantly adjust the volumebetween tracks.

2. Equal tone: Along the same lines, master-ing also ensures that the EQ between tracksis the same. Just like with volume, youwouldn't want to constantly adjust the tonebetween tracks. Mastering will keep thelisteners from constantly adjusting theirtone knobs. You wouldn't want the listenerto have to add bass on one song, then turn

396/710

around and cut the bass on the next song.Not cool!

3. Compression: Make sure you leave plentyof headroom with your mixes. This will allowthe mastering engineer to perform his or herjob to the fullest. There isn't much the mas-tering engineer can do if you give them a ste-reo mix that looks like a solid block from topto bottom or is maxed out at 0 dBFS.

4. Song order: A big part of mastering is se-quencing the recording. The mastering en-gineer does not decide the order. Song se-quences are usually provided to the master-ing engineer by the band, record label, orproducer of the project.

5. Editing: What if you wanted to eliminatean entire section and paste the remainingparts together after the song has beenmixed? You could even pick the best chorus,copy it, and insert it over the other chorusesthat weren't as good. This is something that

397/710

could be done in mastering. Most masteringis done digitally, a nonlinear editing format;therefore, the possibilities are prettyendless.

6. Insert space between tracks: Should thesongs be back to back with little or no timebetween songs? Or should the space varyfrom song to song? Maybe more emptyspace between a fast and a slow song? Ormaybe a nice cross-fade between the twotracks? Ultimately, you will have to listen afew times to determine the spacing and tim-ing between tracks. What happens here candirectly impact on how an album flows fromstart to finish.

7. CD Text: Would you like the artist's nameto appear on screen when the CD is played?Any CD Text or other data can be added dur-ing mastering. As a result, when you load aCD into a computer, car, and some CD play-ers, the artist name, album title, and song

398/710

name will appear along with any other in-formation you would like included. CD Textis an extension of the Red Book specificationfor audio CDs that allows for storage of addi-tional text information on a standard audioCD.

8. Index and time information: Your masterwill also include any indexing and time in-formation that is needed by the companythat is going to duplicate or replicate the CD,DVD, or vinyl record. Some duplicationcompanies use a DDP image (Disc Descrip-tion Protocol) format for specifying contentwith CDs, DVDs, and optical disc.

9. ISRC codes: Other information such asISRC codes would be embedded at this time.ISRCs are increasingly being used by majordownload sites, digital distribution compan-ies, and collecting societies as a tool to man-age digital repertoire and to trackcommerce.

399/710

10. Master copies: Finally, you will receive atleast one Master copy of your material andlikely a Safety Copy. You will probably re-ceive one to four additional copies to listento while you wait for an official copy withartwork and all. You may request a testpressing of the record if you are pressing tovinyl.

Mastering fees are typically separate from en-gineering fees. Some mastering engineerscharge per song, per project, or just an hourlyrate. Other fees can include per Master CD andfor additional copies of the Master. A few en-gineers may also charge you extra if there aremultiple or difficult edits. I make sure there isalways at least some minimum mastering workon my recorded projects. Mastering can helpglue the songs together and make the overalltone more consistent. With the right masteringyour mixes will be taken to the next level!

400/710

Four Questions to Ask Before YouRecord a Band

Now that you are familiar with the sevenstages of the recording process, let's discusshow to handle a potential client. These ques-tions are important, since you are likely to beself-employed as a recording or live soundengineer.Before a recording session, you should ask theband or artist the following four questions:

1. What is your budget? This will determinehow much time to spend on each stage. Thebudget typically determines when the pro-ject is over. It will also determine where werecord.

2. What is your instrumentation? This helpswith the setup stage but also helps decide ifthe budget fits the expectations. For in-stance, it would probably take less time andbe an easier session to record just two acous-tic guitars and a lead vocal versus recording

401/710

drums, bass, electric guitar, keyboard, leadvocals, backing vocals, and a trumpet player.

3. What is the purpose and length of record-ing? Is the recording for booking shows, apress kit, label release, or movie soundtrack?A demo to get shows is much different thanan actual label release. You will also need toknow how many songs and the length of thesongs to make sure enough studio time isbooked to complete what the artist wouldlike to accomplish.

4. What are your expectations? Is the personor persons you are recording expectationshigher than their budget? Often people wanta Porsche for the price of a Pinto.

As you gain more experience, determining abudget becomes easier and more predictable.If you can't meet an artist's expectation, don'ttake the work. It won't be good for either side.People generally want more for their money(would you blame them?), so it will be up to

402/710

you to determine if it will be worth the priceyou agree on.In Chapter 12, I am going to talk about intern-ships. One of the most valuable tools I learnedfrom my internship was how a recording ses-sion progress. Hopefully, this chapter hasmade you aware of how a recording sessionflows from start to finish. Keep in mind that notwo recording sessions are alike. That's whatkeeps it interesting. Experience counts for a lotwhen recording, and in most things, for thatmatter. Every new recording experience willhelp you become a better audio engineer andgive you more insight on how a recording ses-sion can be run smoothly.

403/710

Chapter 10. Basic Acous-tics…How to Make Your Re-cording Space Sound Better

In this Chapter:

Basic Acoustic Terms 150

Reflection 150

Absorption 150

Diffraction 152

Diffusion 152

Dealing with Acoustics 153

Room Modes or Standing Waves 153

Soundproofing versus Acoustical Treat-ment 154

DIY Projects 154

How to Make Your Room Sound Better154

How to Build a Gobo 155

Video 7 How to Build a Gobo 155

How to Build a Diffuser 157

How to Build a Random Diffuser 158

How to Build a Bass Trap 159

Additional Links and Resources 160

If you get into music production and decide to have your own home or projectstudio, you will need to learn some basics about acoustics. Acoustics is the sci-ence of sound and can help determine the quality of sound transmitted in aroom or space. Understanding sonic characteristics of a room will result inbetter decisions when recording or mixing.

Keywords: Absorption, Acoustics, Bass Trap, Diffraction, Diffuser, Diffusion,Random Diffuser, Reflection, Room Modes, Soundproofing, Standing Waves

If you get into music production and decide tohave your own home or project studio, you willneed to learn some basics about acoustics.Acoustics is the science of sound and can helpdetermine the quality of sound transmitted ina room or space. Understanding sonic

405/710

characteristics of a room will result in betterdecisions when recording or mixing.Different surfaces and materials can affect theacoustics in a room. Too much of one materialapplied to a wall or surface is generally de-structive to a sound. For instance, if a room iscarpeted from floor to ceiling, the room willsound dead and dark. Carpet does an excep-tional job absorbing higher frequencies andminimizing hard reflections. On the otherhand, it does little to deter the long low-endwaves. Whether it is carpet, concrete, tile, orany other material, too much of one type ofmaterial is rarely a good thing. Professional re-cording environments are typically construc-ted with many types of surfaces and materials.They may have wood floors with throw carpets,a brick or stone wall, diffusers, a few concaveor convex walls, and a variety of other acoustictreatments. Unlike most bedrooms or home of-fices, where many project studios are located,professional recording spaces are rarely

406/710

perfect squares with low ceilings. This is be-cause parallel walls and surfaces create stand-ing waves, or room modes, and can affect thefrequency response of your room. Many pro-fessional recording studios are acoustically de-signed, especially the control room.

Tip

Don't worry if you are unable to hire an Acous-tician to setup your studio. As with speakers,you are not required to have the perfect pair,or in this case the perfect space; knowing yourspace will allow you to consistently predict theway a mix will translate through other listen-ers' audio systems.We just discussed that carpet absorbs only alimited amount of the lower frequency range.If you completely carpet a room with the inten-tion of soundproofing, the carpet will do verylittle to stop the long, destructive bass wavesfrom traveling outside. If the neighbors are of-fended by loud music, carpet will not solve the

407/710

problem. Later in this chapter, the distinctionwill be made between soundproofing andacoustic treatment.This chapter will include only basic acousticterms and concepts, as the science of acousticsis too complex to be covered in a beginner'sguide to audio. This chapter also provides ado-it-yourself section to help you learn how tomake your room sound better by buildingacoustic treatments such as gobos, diffusers,and bass traps.As illustrated in Chapter 2, sound is dividedinto three successively occurring categories.Sound is made up of the direct path, its earlyreflections, and the reverberant field. With abasic understanding of acoustics, it will bemuch easier to manage these three elements ofsound.

408/710

Basic Acoustic Terms

Reflection

When sound strikes a wall, ceiling, or any ob-ject, the sound is reflected at an angle equal to,and opposite of, its initial angle of incidence.The surface material determines the amount ofenergy reflected. Sound and light have similarreflective paths.

Figure 10.1.

409/710

Tip

You may want to step outside for this one. Trythrowing a tennis ball or other bouncy ball atthe floor or ground near a wall. Notice how theball rebounds, or reflects, off multiple surfaces.This is similar to how sound would reflect offthe same wall.

Absorption

Absorption is the process in which acoustic en-ergy is reduced when a sound wave passesthrough a medium or strikes a surface. Ab-sorption is the inverse of reflection. Theamount of energy absorbed compared to theamount reflected is expressed as a ratio knownas the absorption coefficient. Different materi-als affect different frequencies (see chart be-low). If a material's absorption coefficient is0.25, it absorbs 25% and reflects 75% of thesound. An absorption coefficient of 1 means

410/710

that 100% of the energy striking the surfacewill be absorbed and none reflected. An ab-sorption coefficient of 0 means none of thesound is being absorbed by the surface and100% is being reflected.See how sound is affected by these differentmaterials.

Frequency125Hz

250Hz

500Hz

1kHz

2kHz

4kHz

Concrete/unpainted

0.36 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.39 0.25

Concrete/painted 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.08

Light drapes 0.03 0.04 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.35

Heavy drapes 0.14 0.35 0.55 0.72 0.70 0.65

Carpet 0.02 0.06 0.14 0.37 0.60 0.65

Plywood 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.09 0.10 0.11

Glass windows 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03

Marble/tile 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02

Notice that plywood and unpainted concreteabsorb lower frequencies the best, whereascarpet and heavy drapes are most suitable forabsorbing higher frequencies. Ultimately, the

411/710

goal is to combine materials so your room hasa flatter frequency response.

Diffraction

The ability of sound to bend around an objectand reform itself is known as diffraction. Bassfrequencies are great at this! Have you everheard bass from a car trunk thumping throughthe neighborhood? The reason why only thebass range is heard is that low frequencies caneasily escape the confines of the car or trunk.The lack of higher frequencies is due to the factthat objects such as buildings, trunks, trees,etc., easily impede more directional, higherfrequencies.

Diffusion

Diffusion is a way to control reflections andstanding waves. A diffuser can be used to

412/710

break up standing waves by reflecting sound ata wider angle than its initial angle of incidence.As previously mentioned, different surfacesand materials will reflect and absorb soundsdifferently. Figure 10.2 shows how sound re-flects off a 90° angle concave surface, convexsurface, and straight wall.

413/710

Figure 10.2

Dealing With Acoustics

Room Modes or Standing Waves

414/710

Figure 10.3.

Room modes, or standing waves, are createdby parallel surfaces. Acoustical problems mayarise from standing waves such as a level boostor cut off frequencies, or a creation of resonantfrequencies in a room.Have you ever sung in a bathroom or other re-flective space and noticed how a particular fre-quency resonates in the room? Standing wavescreate this resonance. Here is how to calculatea room's standing waves.

415/710

Frequency = 1130 (speed of sound or velocity)divided by the length × 2For instance, with a 10′ space between twowalls, the equation will be:

This would be the first resonating frequency inthe center of the room. There will be manyroom modes between two walls as the phe-nomenon will repeat itself at multiples of thefirst frequency: 2f, 3f, etc. Therefore, thesecond room mode would be 56.5 × 2 = 113 Hz,the third would be 56.5 × 3 = 169.5 Hz, and soforth.

Tip

How to deal with standing waves:Trapping bass is one way to lessen standingwaves in a room. Diffusers and other acoustic-al treatments may also be helpful.

416/710

Soundproofing versus Acoustical

Treatment

It is important to make a distinction betweensoundproofing a room and treating the roomto sound better. Soundproofing a room ismuch more difficult than acoustically treatinga room.Soundproofing involves completely isolatingsound so it does not escape the room. It ismuch more difficult and expensive to sound-proof after a room has been built versus pre-planning and building the room from theground up. Air space is a great way to sound-proof. Building a room within a room and leav-ing a small space between the new walls andthe original wall will be very effective in isolat-ing sound. Believe it or not, a little air spacebetween layers is good for isolation because ithelps slow the sound's momentum.

417/710

Acoustical treatment involves making a roomsound better. Generally, this can be achievedmuch more cheaply than completely isolating aroom. Acoustical treatments include basstraps, diffusers, Auralex, or other wall foams.These treatments may involve minor construc-tion, but generally not to the degree of sound-proofing a studio. There are many do-it-your-self (DIY) methods and resources. Here are afew of those DIY projects.

DIY Projects

How to Make Your Room Sound

Better

First off, identify your room's acoustical qualit-ies. Use the standing-wave/room-mode calcu-lation previously discussed to identify poten-tial sound quality issues.

418/710

There are also many software programs thatoffer tools to help identify acoustical qualities.A measurement microphone can be used witha variety of software programs or spectrumanalyzers to help identify your room'sanomalies.Here are a few RTA software programsavailable:Faber acoustical, www.faberacoustical.com–for Mac and iPhoneTrue Audio, True RTA, www.trueaudio.com–for PCARTA, Audio Measurement and Analysis,www.fesb.hr/~mateljan/arta/index.htm–Software/Shareware

Tip

As mentioned previously, meters are onlytools. Always trust your ears first. The meterscan help verify what you are or are not hearing.How to make your bedroom sound better:

1. Use smaller speakers.

419/710

2. Set up symmetrically.

3. Use a bed or a couch to help with basscontrol and to tighten up the room sound.

4. Don't set up your mix station and speak-ers in the corner or with your back too closeto the wall.

5. If your room is tiled or concrete, place acarpet or two on the floor to dampen the re-flections and echo.

6. Don't cover all your walls with the samematerial or treatment. This may end upcausing another set of problems… too muchof one material is detrimental to good soundquality.

7. Cover your windows with heavy curtainsto keep sound from escaping.

8. If needed, build bass traps to control thebass. See the DIY project below.

9. Try stacking empty boxes in the corner ofthe room. Place the open side against the

420/710

wall and fill them with sheets, dirty laundry,blankets, pillows, or similar material to helptrap and control bass.

10. If needed, build a diffuser to help breakup and disperse sound for a more accuratesounding space. Again, see the DIY projectbelow.

11. If needed, treat walls and ceilings withthe necessary acoustical materials.

12. If possible, remove appliances or noisyelectronics from the room.

There are many acoustical treatments you canbuild on your own. These treatments will helpyou control bass, midrange, and treble within arecording space, allowing you to effectivelymanage a room's imperfections. Threecommon, easy-to-build contraptions aregobos, diffusers, and bass traps. I suggesttreating your space over time and tweaking itas you go. The following projects should help

421/710

you affordably address at least a few acousticalissues.

How to Build a Gobo

How to Build a Gobo

A go-between, also known as a gobo, is a greatmobile way to control sound. It can be used tohelp isolate an instrument or lessen the reflec-tions and reverberation of a space. I oftenplace a gobo in front of an amplifier or kickdrum to isolate and absorb the sound. Gobosare also effective if placed around a drum kit,especially if they are being played in a “live”space such as a kitchen or on a tiled floor. Thiswill tighten up the sound and minimizereflections.In order to build a gobo, you will need the fol-lowing items:

422/710

1. R11/R13 wall insulation or Owens Corning703

2. Jute or polyester material

3. 1′−2.5′ wood screws

4. Stapler or staple gun

5. Utility knife

6. Scissors

7. Philips screw driver, but preferably a drill

8. Saw

9. 1 × 2, 2 × 2, 1 × 4 wood

10. Two small washers

How to build a gobo:

1. Build the frame to the desired size.

2. Cover one side with the jute, burlap, orother material by stapling to the frame.

3. Put the insulation inside.

423/710

4. Enclose insulation with material andstaple to frame.

5. Finish off with additional framing/trim ifdesired.

6. Attach feet with a single screw and wash-er. Don't tighten the feet too much, allowingthe feet to swivel.

Figure 10.4.

424/710

You can put plywood or masonite on one sidefor a more versatile gobo. One side will be hardand reflective and the other soft and absorpt-ive. The plywood or masonite will absorb someof the lower frequencies.

Tip

You can also use a mic stand with a boom armand acoustic blanket for a quick, mobile gobo.This is a great way to quiet down a drum kit ortighten up an amp or vocal recording. Fold themic stand into a “T” and drape the blanketover it. Easy and fast to set up and to teardown. Many hardware stores and moving com-panies sell quilted packing or acousticblankets. They are also available at companiesthat carry acoustical treatments.

How to Build a Diffuser

A diffuser is a great way to control reflectionsin a room and make your room sound flatter. If

425/710

your room is on the “dead” side, diffusers maybe more suitable than adding absorptive soundcontrol. Diffusers are often placed on the backwall behind the engineer's head. They can alsobe placed in the studio to help tighten up aroom, reduce flutter echo, and control reflec-tions. Here's a good way to make a diffuser us-ing a proven formula. This diffuser is designedto be effective up to about 600 Hz.In order to build a classic quadratic diffuserbased on the BBC RD report from 1995 (Figure10.5), you will need the following items:

426/710

Figure 10.5

1. 1 × 1, 1 × 2, 2 × 2 wood of your choice, 8′length. Quantity dependent on size ofdiffuser

2. Heavy duty wood glue

427/710

3. 12″ × 12″ or 24″ × 24″ ¼″ masonite orother wood

4. Heavy picture hangers or screws formounting

How to build a diffuser:

1. Cut the following pieces to the appropriatelength listed below. You will have a total of131 pieces with 13 blank spots.

1″−38

2″−38

3″−40

4″−15

2. Arrange the precut pieces of 1 × 1 or 2 × 2wood and glue them on the ¼″ 12″ × 12″ or24″ × 24″ masonite or other wood base inthe following manner:

0 3 4 1 2 3 3 1 4 2 3 3

3 0 1 4 2 1 1 3 3 2 1 1

428/710

3 1 1 3 1 3 2 2 1 0 2 2

2 2 2 2 0 4 3 2 3 2 1 1

3 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 4 3 1 3

2 3 2 1 2 0 3 2 4 2 1 0

2 3 2 1 3 1 2 2 3 1 3 4

2 0 2 4 4 0 1 2 1 4 2 2

3 4 1 0 1 3 3 1 0 2 3 3

1 3 3 1 2 4 1 2 0 1 3 1

2 1 2 3 1 3 3 2 4 2 3 4

2 4 2 3 3 1 1 2 0 3 1 0

3. Hang and enjoy.

How to Build a Random Diffuser

In order to build a random diffuser, you willneed the following items:

1. Scrap wood

2. Heavy-duty wood glue

3. Any size piece of plywood for use as a base

4. A handful of wood screws

How to build a random diffuser:

429/710

1. Use your imagination and arrange thescrap wood as you wish on the plywood. Al-though a random diffuser may not be to aspecific formula, it will help break up anddisperse sound effectively.

2. Glue scrap wood to base wood.

3. Hang and enjoy.

430/710

Figure 10.6.

How to Build a Bass Trap

Bass traps are effective in capturing and con-trolling low end and are often placed in room

431/710

corners because this is one place where basslingers. One of the easiest bass traps to build isknown as the “super chunk.” The materials arefairly inexpensive and it does the trick.In order to build a bass trap, you will need thefollowing items:

1. 12 panels of 24″ × 48″ × 2″ mineral woolor rigid fiberglass board or an 8′ ceiling

2. 1 × 4 or 2 × 4 wood for framing

3. Jute or polyester

4. Stapler or staple gun

5. Drill

6. Razor blade, kitchen knife, or other cut-ting edge

7. Gloves for cutting insulation

8. Glue for insulation

How to build a bass trap:

432/710

1. Cut the panels in half, this should give youplenty of 24″ × 24″ × 2″ squares.

2. Next, cut these squares into triangles.

3. Glue and stack triangles from floor to ceil-ing in corner of control room or studiospace.

4. Make sure stacked triangles are pushedup against the wall.

5. Build a rectangular frame out of the 1 × 4sto cover the stacked triangles.

6. Wrap the frame with material, preferablyjute or polyester, and staple it to the insideof the frame.

7. Screw frame into corner hiding thestacked triangles.

Learn before you build. Listen to your mixesand get to know how your room sounds beforeyou get excited and staple egg crates all overyour walls. Take your time and get it right.

433/710

Read more about acoustics, get to know yourrecording environment, and tweak your roomas needed.If you are not the DIY type or just don't havethe time, you can purchase gobos, diffusers,bass traps, broad band absorbers, and otheracoustic treatments at a variety of reputablecompanies. Some of these companies are listedbelow.

Additional Links and Resources

http://www.acoustimac.com/index.php/ecoustimac-eco-friendly.htmlwww.auralex.comwww.realtraps.comwww.tubetrap.comwww.atsacoustics.comwww.readyacoustics.com

434/710

Chapter 11. The History ofAudio

It Helps to Know Where You Came From

In this Chapter:

Audio History 162

A Brief History of Recording 162

Innovators Who Contributed to ModernRecording 163

Bill Putnam 163

Les Paul (Lester William Polsfuss) 164

Tom Dowd 164

Analog and Digital Audio 164

What Is Analog? 164

The Pros and Cons of Analog 165

Pros 165

Cons 166

What Is Digital? 166

The Pros and Cons of Digital 166

Pros 166

Cons 168

Digital Audio Terms 168

Lossy vs. Lossless 170

Computers and Audio 171

Making Music With Computers 171

Software Choices 174

The Best of Both Worlds 175

Music no longer has to be stored on reels of tape. Digital audio has taken theworry out of having to physically deliver or ship a master tape of the band's hitsongs at the mercy of the carrier. Even into the mid ’90s, it was common forengineers to travel with their master tapes, or for the masters to be mailed.There was always a chance these masters could be destroyed by the x-ray

436/710

machine or damaged during transit. Nowadays, a master session is easilytransferred over the Internet and mixes can easily be shared online through avariety of methods. This is why it is important to understand different fileformats, compression methods, and how audio files such as MP3s, AIFFs, andWAVs affect audio quality.

Keywords: Analog Audio, Bill Putnam, Digital Audio, Les Paul (Lester Willi-am Polsfuss), Lossy, Lossless, Tom Dowd

Music no longer has to be stored on reels oftape. Digital audio has taken the worry out ofhaving to physically deliver or ship a mastertape of the band's hit songs at the mercy of thecarrier. Even into the mid ’90s, it was commonfor engineers to travel with their master tapes,or for the masters to be mailed. There was al-ways a chance these masters could be des-troyed by the x-ray machine or damaged dur-ing transit. Nowadays, a master session is eas-ily transferred over the Internet and mixes caneasily be shared online through a variety ofmethods. This is why it is important to under-stand different file formats, compressionmethods, and how audio files such as MP3s,AIFFs, and WAVs affect audio quality.

437/710

To fully understand digital audio technology,you need to understand how, when, and whywe ended up digitizing audio. For over a cen-tury, analog was the only way we recorded andreproduced music. Digital technology openedup recording to the masses. Prior to the intro-duction of digital technology, most musiciansfrequented large, professional studios to re-cord their music, because there was no otheroption. These days, many musicians and en-gineers have the option of using professionalhome or project studios to record music.Many extraordinary people contributed to thismodern era of recording. Legendary engineerssuch as Les Paul, Tom Dowd, and Bill Putnamshaped the audio world as we know it today.Numerous audio advances occurred aroundWorld War II as the world at war sought outnew communication technologies. Until the1980s, music was recorded primarily to ananalog medium such as lacquer or tape. Al-though the technology to record music using a

438/710

computer had been around for more than fiftyyears, it wasn't until twenty years ago that itbecame commonplace. Currently, many peoplecombine the best of both worlds, recordingwith both analog and digital equipment.

Audio History

A Brief History of Recording

Sound was initially recorded to a single trackwith a single transducer. Early on, it was ex-tremely important to place the one and onlytransducer in the perfect spot to pick up all themusicians and get a good balance. This mikingtechnique applies even today when there is noother option. Eventually, music would be re-corded using many mics and recording to oneor two tracks. In the ’50s, people like Les Paulstarted using eight tracks with more mics andbegan to regularly layer (overdub) tracks. Thiswas really the beginning of modern recordingas we know it. Now, music production is much

439/710

more flexible, allowing engineers to recordlimitless tracks in their own home with an ar-ray of affordable equipment.Some notable moments in sound andrecording:

? The first method of recording and playingback of sound is credited to Thomas Edisonwith his invention of the phonograph in1877.

? The first flat, double-sided disc, known asa record, was invented by Emile Berliner in1887. That same year, Berliner also patentedthe gramophone.

? The first 10-inch 78rpm gramophone re-cord was introduced in the early 1900s. The10″ offered around 4 min recording time perside.

? Stereo recording was patented in 1933 byAlan Blumlein with EMI.

440/710

? The LP (long-playing) record was inventedby Columbia Records in 1948. LPs offeredaround 30 min recording time per side.

? The first multi-track recording was de-veloped in Germany in the 1940s; however,the first commercial multi-track recording iscredited to Les Paul in 1955.

? The first 7-inch 45rpm record was intro-duced in North America in 1949. The 7″offered around 5 min recording time perside.

? Ampex built the 8-track multi-track re-corder for Les Paul in 1955.

? Endless loop tape existed decades beforethe classic eight track player and cartridgewere invented by Bill Lear in 1963.

? Although Elisha Gray invented the firstelectronic synthesizer in 1876, Robert Moogintroduced the world to the first commer-cially available synthesizer in 1964.

441/710

? Before transistors, vacuum tubes were themain components in electronics. Today, thetransistor is the main component in modernelectronics. The transistor has contributedto things becoming smaller, cheaper, andlasting longer. Although the original tran-sistor patent was filed in the mid ’20s, tran-sistors were not commonly used to replacevacuum tubes until the ’60s and ’70s.

? Cassettes were invented by the PhillipsCompany in 1962, but did not become popu-lar until the late ’70s. Cassettes took up lessphysical space than vinyl records.

? MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Inter-face) was developed in the early ’80s, whichenabled computers and electronic musicaldevices to communicate with one another(MIDI is discussed later in this chapter).

? James Russell came up with the basic ideafor the Compact Disc (CD) in 1965. SonyPhilips further developed the idea and

442/710

released the first disc in 1979. CDs were in-troduced to the public in 1982. Just as cas-settes replaced vinyl, CDs brought the cas-sette era to an end.

? Pro Tools, originally released as “SoundDesigner,” was invented in 1984 by twoBerkeley students, Evan Brooks and PeterGotvcher. Pro Tools was introduced to thepublic in 1991 and featured four tracks cost-ing $6000.

? The ADAT-acronym for Alesis Digital Au-dio Tape. The ADAT recorder helped usherin the home project studio by making a com-pact and affordable multi-track tape ma-chine. It was introduced by Alesis in 1992.

? Although the initial idea for the MP3 wasdeveloped in the early ’70s to compress au-dio information, the MP3 wasn't adapteduntil about 1997. An MP3 requires less phys-ical storage space than its many prede-cessors: the vinyl record, cassette, and CD.

443/710

In fact, it takes almost no physical storagespace! Imagine storing 10,000 vinyl recordsas opposed to storing 10,000 MP3s.

Innovators Who Contributed to

Modern Recording

As previously mentioned, Bill Putnam, LesPaul, and Tom Dowd are three of the early pi-oneers of modern recording. These people in-troduced the modern recording console, multi-track recording, reverb, tape delay, multibandEQ, the fader, and many other developmentsnow taken for granted.

Bill Putnam

Often referred to as the “father of modern re-cording.” His company, Universal RecordingElectronics Industries (UREI), developed theclassic UREI 1176LN compressor, a signal pro-cessor that is highly regarded to this day.

444/710

Putnam is credited with the development ofthe modern recording console and contributedgreatly to the post WWII commercial record-ing industry. Along with his good friend LesPaul, Bill helped develop stereophonic record-ing. He is also credited with developing theEcho send and using reverb in a new way. Notonly was Bill Putnam a highly sought after en-gineer and producer, he was also a studio andrecord label owner, equipment designer, andmusician. Bill Putnam started Universal Re-cording in Chicago in the ’50s and recordedsuch artists as Duke Ellington, Count Basie,Hank Williams, Muddy Waters, and FrankSinatra. He eventually moved his company toCalifornia and renamed it United RecordingCorp. Bill passed away in 1989 and in 2000 hewas awarded a Grammy for Technical Achieve-ment for all his contributions to the recordingindustry.

445/710

Les Paul (Lester William Polsfuss)

You can't talk about early recording withoutmentioning Les Paul. Most people know of LesPaul because of his legendary guitar playing;but many engineers know of Les Paul for hiscontributions to the recording industry. Al-though not the first person to incorporate lay-ering tracks, Les Paul is credited with multi-track recording as we know it. Les Paul hadalready been experimenting with overdubbedrecordings on disc before analog tape. Whenhe received an early Ampex Model 200, hemodified the tape recorder by adding addition-al recording and playback heads, thus creatingthe world's first practical tape-based multi-track recording system. This eight-track wasreferred to as the “Sel-Sync-Octopus,” later tobe referred to as the “Octopus.” Les Paul is alsocredited with the development of the solidbody electric guitar. Many believe that this in-strument helped launch rock n’ roll.

446/710

Tom Dowd

A famous recording engineer and producer forAtlantic records. Tom worked on the Manhat-tan Project that developed the Atomic bombbefore he started his extraordinary career inmusic production. Tom Dowd was involved inmore hit records than George Martin and PhilSpector combined. He recorded Ray Charles,The Allman Brothers, Cream, Lynard Skynard,the Drifters, the Coasters, Aretha Franklin, J.Geils Band, Rod Stewart, The Eagles, andSonny and Cher, to name just a few. He alsocaptured jazz masterpieces by Charlie Parker,Charles Mingus, Thelonius Monk, OrnetteColeman, and John Coltrane. He came up withthe idea of a vertical slider (fader) instead ofthe rotary type knob used at the time. LikePutnam and Paul, Dowd pushed “stereo” intothe mainstream along with advancing multi-track recording. Tom Dowd was also one of thefirst engineers willing to make the bass lineprevalent in modern recordings. Dowd was an

447/710

incredible musician known for his remarkablepeople skills and received a well-deservedGrammy Trustees Award for his lifetimeachievements in February 2002.

Tip

Check out the DVD biography of Tom Dowd,“Tom Dowd, The Language of Music.”

Analog and Digital Audio

What Is Analog?

Sound that is recorded and reproduced asvoltage levels that continuously change overtime is known as analog. Examples of analogare cassette tapes, vinyl records, or analog re-corders. The up and down variations in pres-sure levels that sound creates are representedin the grooves of a record or the arrangementof magnetic particles on a tape. Analog gearcan be purchased in the form of FX processors,amplifiers, keyboards, tape machines,

448/710

compressors, audio production consoles, andother electronic components.

Figure 11.1.

449/710

The Pros and Cons of Analog

Pros

Tonal quality: Proponents of analog oftendescribe it as fat, warm, and easy on theears.

The soul: Many audiophiles and puristsswear by analog and the way that it capturesmore of the soul of the music.

Transients: An analog recorder softens thetransients. Unlike digital audio, analogdoesn't reproduce and record transients aswell. Many audio engineers enjoy this be-cause cymbals and other edgy or piercingsounds are toned down and mellowed.

Tape compression: In the digital world,levels can't go over zero, but with analog it isquite often desired. When the level is pushedon an analog recorder, the signal is satur-ated on the tape, a desired effect for many.

450/710

Holds its value: Quality analog equipmenttypically holds its value and can easily beresold.

Classic: Analog tape provides a classic tone.Especially useful for certain styles of musicwith more of a roots or organic feel such asclassic rock, jazz, folk, bluegrass, blues, surf,indie rock, and some country.

No Sampling: With digital audio, samplesare taken of the music. Analog means it isanalogous to sound. With analog you get allthe pieces and not samples. Therefore, themusic isn't relying on the listener to fill inthe gaps between samples, especially withlow-quality lossy files. Lossy files will be dis-cussed in greater detail later in this chapter.

Cons

Editing: Although almost any edit can bedone in the analog world that can be done in

451/710

the digital world, editing is destructive andtime consuming. With analog, the tape hasto be cut physically and there is no “undo,”there is only “do-over”!

Cumbersome: A typical analog recordingsetup requires more physical space thanmost digital setups.

Conversion: Most recordings end up digit-al anyway (unless you record all analog andpress to vinyl), so why not just start with di-gital? Obviously, you can't download or up-load music in an analog format. It has to bedigitized at some point.

Tape costs: A reel of 2″ tape needed foranalog recording cost about $250. A stand-ard 2500′ reel of tape can record about16–33 min of material, depending on thetape speed.

Sound quality: Digital enthusiasts de-scribe analog as noisy and muddy. Many likethe clarity that digital audio provides.

452/710

What Is Digital?

Unlike analog recording, digital recording isnot continuous in that the samples of soundare taken and reconstructed to appear like asine wave. Digital's main components aresample rate (related to frequency) and bitdepth (related to amplitude). Digital audiotechnology at its most basic level is a means ofencoding data through the use of the binarynumber system. Digital audio translates the al-phabet, base 10 numbers, and other types ofinformation into 1s and 0s, on/off voltage.

The Pros and Cons of Digital

Pros

Editing: The editing capabilities in the di-gital audio world are undoubtedly the highpoint. These editing capabilities are non-de-structive. Sections of songs can easily be

453/710

manipulated without damaging the qualityof sound. There is an “undo” function.

Efficient: It is much easier for an engineerto flip from one song to another or from onerecording to another during a session. Withanalog tape you may have to change tapereels or rewind the tape. With digital, a clickof the mouse allows you to flip between re-corded projects.

Transients: Digital audio reproduces tran-sients accurately. This is one of the reasonswhy it is known for clarity.

No noise: Tape hiss and extraneous noisewill most likely not be a problem in the digit-al world. You don't have to worry about re-cording a hot signal to cover the inherentnoise associated with analog tape.

Compact: In the digital world, a full re-cording setup can literally exist in the palmof your hand. Analog equipment requiresmore physical space.

454/710

Figure 11.2.

Convenient: You can stream your favoritemusic from any country with online siteslike SoundCloud (www.soundcloud.com).You can also store songs, mixes, and fullplaylists on many wireless phones. It wouldbe very difficult to lug around your favorite500 albums.

Storage capacity and costs: A hard driveor other digital storage device is cheaper and

455/710

can store hundreds to thousands of hours ofrecorded material in one place.

Recall: You can recall any previously storedsetting of a mix. If the band loves the finalmix, but just wants the bass up a dB or two,you can easily open the last mix file and ad-just. In the analog world, unless the consoleis completely automated, you have to make afresh start. Even then, you have to documentevery signal processors' settings and anyother settings that cannot be automaticallyrecalled.

Demand: People demand audio digitized.Whether it is in the form of an MP3 or astreaming audio file, digital audio is thestandard.

Cons

Tonal quality: Early on, digital audio wasvery harsh and although it has come a long

456/710

way, there are engineers who still wish itsounded more like analog. Digital audio isoften described as sounding thin and bright.

Value: Digital equipment is like buying anew car. Once you drive it off the lot, it losesvalue. It is not lucrative to re-sell outdatedsoftware or digital audio components.

Lossy files: Lossy files throw away “unne-cessary” information to condense an audiofile's size. Unfortunately, once you convertan audio file to an MP3, or other lossyformat, it cannot be returned to its originalaudio quality.

It can crash: If audio files are not backedup and the DAW crashes, you could loseeverything you recorded.

Digital Audio Terms

The following terms should help you increaseyour understanding of digital audio basics:

457/710

The Nyquist Theorem: States that thesignal's sample rate must be at least twotimes greater than the highest desired fre-quency. For example, a sample rate of 44.1kHz represents sound up to 22.05 kHz, anda sample rate of 48 kHz represents sound upto 24 kHz.

Sample or sampling rate: Factor in de-termining the frequency range in digital au-dio. The sample rate determines how manysamples (pictures) of the audio signal aretaken in a one-second period. A commonsample rate of 44.1 kHz means that overforty-four thousand samples are taken persecond. By cutting the sampling rate in half,we can determine the highest frequency thatwill be recorded and reproduced. For in-stance, a CD's standard sample rate is 44.1kHz, which represents up to 22.05 kHz. Oth-er common audio sampling rates are 48,88.2, 96, and 192 kHz.

458/710

Figure 11.3.

Quantization: Refers to the amplitudecomponent of digital audio and determineshow many steps or calculations are made.The more steps there are and the smaller thedistance between each step, the smootherthe representation. 8 bit = 256 steps, 16 bit= 65,536 steps, and 24 bit = 16,777,216steps. Basically, the higher the bit resolu-tion, the more the sound wave will appear asa sine wave.

459/710

Figure 11.4.

Bit depth: Determines the dynamic range.Common audio is 16- and 24-bit. Higher bitdepths increase the resolution of the audio.Think of bit depth as the knob on a pair ofbinoculars that allows you to sharpen theimage. Higher bit depth, in this case, makesa digital sample of square steps appearsmoother and much more like an analogsine wave.

460/710

Bit rate: The rate at which digital audio istransmitted. It is expressed in bits persecond, generally written as bps.

Normalize: A gain-related process in digit-al audio where the volume of the entire fileis increased to a pre-determined standard.Unlike compression, normalizing a file doesnot change the dynamic relationshipbetween the tracks. It keeps volume levelssteady from song to song. This is useful toknow if you are a DJ, creating mix tapes ortrying to bring up low volumes inrecordings.

Digital Audio Comparisons according to bitdepth, sample rate, bit rate, and file sizes.

Stereo AudioBit

DepthSample

RateBit Rate File Size: 1

minFile Size: 10

min

MP3 128 k/bit0.13 Mbit/sec

0.94 MB 9.4 MB

16 44.1 kHz1.35 Mbit/sec

10.1 MB 100.1 MB

461/710

16 48 kHz1.46 Mbit/sec

11 MB 110 MB

24 96 kHz4.39 Mbit/sec

33 MB 330 MB

A standard audio CD is 16-bits with a 44.1 kHzsample rate. A blank 700 MB CD would holdabout 80 min of stereo audio. As you can seefrom the chart, a 24 bit/96 kHz recordingtakes up at least three times the amount ofstorage space compared to a 16-bit/44.1 kHzrecording.

Lossy vs. Lossless

Many beginner audio engineers are confusedabout whether or not they should make beatsor use samples with lossy files (MP3s) ratherthan lossless files (WAVs) that are a higherquality audio file format. A professional useslossless files over lower quality audio files,lossy files, almost every time.

462/710

The two main differences between lossy andlossless audio files are storage space and audioquality.A lossy file is created for compressing sound,image, and video. MP3s and Ogg Vorbis arelossy formats used in audio. Lossy compres-sion is a data encoding system that compressesdata by throwing out information deemed “un-necessary” to decrease file size. When it comesto sight and hearing, our minds easily fill inany of these missing gaps of information so wecan see an image or hear a sound regardless ofany small errors or inconsistencies. Lossyformats take advantage of a human's ability to“fill in the gaps.” For instance, a low-resolutiondigital photo may be pixilated, but the image isdiscernible. We only need a limited amount ofinformation to be able to process an image orsound.File compression is meant to be transparent;however, if a file such as an MP3 is com-pressed below a certain limit, these gaps will

463/710

be noticeable. A high-quality MP3 bit ratewould be 256–320 kbps and a low-qualityMP3 would be in the 100 kbps range. One ofthe biggest arguments against using lossy filesis that once you compress the file down, youare unable to recapture the original informa-tion that was discarded. The advantage of us-ing a lossy over a lossless format is that a lossyformat provides a much smaller audio file.Lossy files are helpful when sending a largenumber of audio files by e-mail, or uploadingaudio or video to the internet. Lossy files arenot intended for storing final mixes or high-quality audio files.A lossless file is also compressed, though un-like a lossy file, when it is re-constructed, thelossless file is completely restored. No inform-ation is deleted and it is considered a perfectcopy of the original. A lossless file will main-tain the integrity of the original audio signaland does not leave it up to you to fill in thosegaps. As demonstrated in the chart seen

464/710

earlier, lossless formats offer the highest qual-ity audio but take up quite a bit more storagespace. AIFF (.aiff), WAV (.wav), and FLAC(free lossless audio codec) files are examples oflossless formats. Lossless files are used in pro-fessional recording environments.In short, think of quality (lossless) vs. quantity(lossy). Lossless formats are more suitable foraudio enthusiasts and professionals specific-ally interested in maintaining the integrity ofthe sound quality. The average consumer witha cell phone, computer, or iPod requires theconvenience and storage space provided by alossy format.

Computers and Audio

Making Music With Computers

In recent years, computers have become an in-tegral part of music composition, performance,and production. Although computers havebeen used to make music since the 1950s,

465/710

recent advancements in technology have al-lowed engineers, musicians, and producers vir-tually unlimited control and flexibility when itcomes to creating, editing, manipulating, andrecording sound.Musical Instrument Digital Interface, or MIDI,was developed in the early ’80s as a data pro-tocol that allows electronic musical instru-ments, such as a digital synthesizer and drummachine, to control and interact with one an-other. As computers became increasingly pop-ular, MIDI was integrated to allow computersand electronic musical devices the ability tocommunicate. Over the past decade, the termMIDI has become synonymous with computermusic. Now most commercial audio softwarehas MIDI integration.

466/710

Figure 11.5.

In addition to device communication, MIDIcan be used internally within computer soft-ware to control virtual computer instrumentssuch as software sequencers, drum machines,and synthesizers. Songwriters and composers

467/710

who use virtual scoring software to createsheet music also use MIDI.In many ways, MIDI works much like a musicbox or the player pianos from the early 20thcentury.

Figure 11.6.

In this example, the player piano uses a built-in piano roll with notches that trigger the ap-propriate notes on the piano as the roll is

468/710

turning. MIDI works in a similar fashion. Let'stake a look at a simple MIDI keyboardcontroller.

Figure 11.7.

This controller does not make any sound on itsown; rather, it connects to the computer andsignals to the software which key is beingpressed or which knob is being turned. Eachkey, knob, and button is assigned a uniqueMIDI number that allows the computer to dif-ferentiate which note is being played (pitch),how long the notes are held (envelope), andhow hard the key is pressed (velocity). This in-formation gathered from each key is stored in

469/710

a MIDI note packet that is sent to the com-puter whenever a key is pressed. When thecomputer software receives the note packet, itunpacks and translates the information, as-signing the incoming values to a virtual soft-ware instrument such as a synthesizer plug-in.The software then plays the appropriate pitchfor the correct amount of time, and with thecorrect velocity. Additional controls on theMIDI keyboard such as knobs, buttons, andfaders can be used to control virtual controlson the software instrument.In addition to allowing real-time performance,certain music software programs have exclus-ive MIDI tracks that can record the MIDI in-formation as a sequence, allowing of additionalediting and arrangement of notes and control-ler information.

470/710

Figure 11.8.

Since the early ’80s, MIDI has been theindustry-standard protocol for communicationbetween electronic musical devices and com-puters. However, it has more recently beenused to allow computers to control hardwaredevices in the real world such as lighting grids,video projections, and even musical robotics.Additionally, newer data protocols such asOpen Sound Control (OSC) allow of faster andmore flexible computer/hardware integration

471/710

utilizing the latest in both Internet and wire-less technology.

Software Choices

You want to start recording on your computer.With so many options of software, A/D con-verters and such, which set-up is best for you?Here is a list of some of the most commonlyused recording software/programs and associ-ated equipment:

DAW (unless notes, software OS compatiblewith both PCs and Macs.)

GarageBand (Mac only)

Nuendo

Ableton Live

Pro Tools

Cakewalk Sonar

Adobe Audition

472/710

Logic Pro

Cubase

Digital Performer (Mac only)

Analog-to-Digital Converters

Apogee Rosetta

Lynx Aurora

Avid

Presonus

SSL

Scoring Software

Finale

Sibelius

Sequencers

Reason

FL Studio (PC only)

473/710

Acid Pro (PC only)

VST Plugins (Virtual Studio Technology)

Native Instruments

Sonalksis

Waves

Advanced Synthesis

NI Reaktor

Max/MSP

C Sound

Supercollider

ChucK

OSC

TouchOSC iPhone App

MIDI Controllers

Korg

474/710

M-Audio

AKAI

Roland

Novation

Monome

Livid Instruments

Lemur

Pro Tools is one of the most popular softwareprograms used in professional recording studi-os. As with anything, people have their opin-ions, both good and bad, for this product.Whether you like it or not, knowing a little bitabout Pro Tools isn't going to hurt, especially ifyou want to be employed in music production.That's not to say you shouldn't explore the oth-er software options, in fact, I urge you to findwhat works best for your project and soundsbest to you. Many engineers swear by Nuendo,

475/710

Logic, and other digital audio software. I havefound that once you understand signal flowand other basic audio technology, it is fairlyeasy to jump from one digital audio softwareprogram to another.

The Best of Both Worlds

As you will see in Chapter 14, FAQs answeredby Pros, many professionals use a combinationof analog and digital equipment.Many professionals know that it isn't a matterof analog versus digital, but picking and choos-ing the best gear from both worlds. Many stu-dios have Pro Tools, Nuendo, Logic, or othersoftware technology along with an analog op-tion like a 2-track or 24-track tape machine tocolor or warm up a signal. Studios with digitalset-ups often use an analog front end. Thisfront end can include tube preamps, com-pressors, and analog EQs.

476/710

There will always be people that insist that onerecording medium is better than the other.However, many engineers stand somewhere inthe middle, combining the best of both worldsand using what works and sounds the best tothem, or is appropriate for their particularproject.Don't forget to check out Chapter 14's FAQsanswered by Pros. Here you can find out whata group of select recording engineers thinkabout the future, including their take on ProTools, analog, and digital audio.

477/710

Chapter 12. Now That I AmDangerous, Should I Get AnInternship?

In this chapter:

The Value of a Good Internship 178

Q & A 179

What Should I Expect to Do as an AudioIntern? 179

What Does the Studio Get Out of Me In-terning There? 180

When Should I Ask Questions About Th-ings I Don't Understand? 180

How Many Hours Should I Expect to In-tern a Week? 180

Why Should I Work for Free? 180

How Do I Get an Internship? 180

Can I Give My Opinion? 181

Do I Need a Resume? 181

Internship's Dos & Don'ts 181

Do 181

Don't 182

Examples of Internship Ads 183

First Ad 183

Second Ad 184

Third Ad 185

Get It? 185

Video 8 How to Roll a Mic Cable 186

As a Professor, probably the most common question students ask is about in-ternships. It is understandable to want to get into a recording studio as soonas possible. However, there are real steps to take before you get there. Learn-ing the craft is your first step. An internship is a way to get your foot in thedoor. It is not to teach you audio basics. This is an important distinction.

Keywords: Audio Intern, How to Roll a Mic Cable, Internship Ads, Pay,Resume

479/710

As a Professor, probably the most commonquestion students ask is about internships. It isunderstandable to want to get into a recordingstudio as soon as possible. However, there arereal steps to take before you get there. Learn-ing the craft is your first step. An internship isa way to get your foot in the door. It is not toteach you audio basics. This is an importantdistinction.When I did my internship I had already takenseveral audio and media-related courses. Notto mention the live and recording sound exper-ience I already had. I was a junior at theUniversity of Texas majoring in Radio–Televi-sion–Film, and I had been a professional mu-sician for about seven years. By the time I ap-plied for an internship, I knew my way arounda mixing board and I certainly wasn't a begin-ner. The more fundamental knowledge and ex-perience you have the more likely your intern-ship will be successful.

480/710

To illustrate my point about understanding thebasics in the field before pursuing an intern-ship, this is one of my experiences. After in-terning for a few months, the owner, who alsohappened to be the head engineer, said heneeded to run to the bank and asked if I woulddo a few overdubs for the session he was work-ing on. I successfully did the overdubs, didn'terase anything, and when the owner returned,he was pleased. I gained his trust. He knew hecould leave his studio in my hands. Next thingI knew he was handing me sessions so he couldrun errands, play a round of golf, and eventu-ally, take a much needed vacation. What if Ihad failed at recording the overdubs anderased tracks or wasn't capable of taking overthe session? Maybe I wouldn't have been trus-ted enough to be asked to even help on futuresessions. The lesson is you need some basicskills before starting an internship.

481/710

The Value of A Good Internship

What an Internship Did for Me…Everything!There are many ways to gain knowledge aboutrecording. To me, there is nothing more valu-able than a good internship. This is especiallytrue in the audio industry where experience isone of the most important requirements… Aninternship will give you much needed insightand experience and expose you to the realworld of making records. Like I said, I had afew basic audio skills before I started my in-ternship. However, I had no idea about somany other areas of engineering! In fact, I hadno idea that I had no idea!Things I learned in the four months of myinternship:

? How a session flows from start to finish.

? The big picture and overview of the entirestudio experience.

482/710

? The business side of a studio.

? Fee structure.

? How to communicate with musicians, mu-sicians' friends, musicians' wives/husbands/significant others, producers, other engin-eers, the pizza delivery driver…

? How to listen more closely to the personactually paying for the recording, instead oflistening to others that aren't as closely in-volved and not paying to record.

? Why classic gear is so classic?

? The look and sound of an U47, and why Ican't wait to own one!

? The different sounds of classic com-pressors: LA2A vs. 1176 or a Tube Tech vs. adbx165a.

? How to roll a mic cable properly? A veryimportant skill! Make sure you check out themic rolling video that accompanies thischapter.

483/710

? Technical skills: subtractive equalization,stereo miking, mic placement, and mic uses.

? Different genres of music.

? Making contacts with people from the loc-al, regional, and national music scenes. Itisn't who you know but who knows you!

? How to listen.

? When to talk.

? Perhaps more importantly, when not totalk.

? Basic signal flow.

? And finally, how much I didn't know!

I needed a backup plan to my drumming ca-reer, and I enjoyed running recording sessionsand working with sound. My internship gaveme connections to one of the best studios inAustin. It launched my professional career inmusic production eventually leading to me toteaching audio and writing this book.

484/710

My internship also had a direct effect on myprofessional drumming career. My band hadonly been together for three weeks when wemade a demo that the right people heard. Be-ing a handy intern gave me the perk of freestudio time, which I used to record my band.Access to a professional studio allowed us torecord the demo for free, which led to us beingsigned to a major label. Long story short: wecut a demo, got signed, and I spent the next 8years touring around in a van with a bunch ofdudes. It is hard to overestimate the value of agood internship.

Q & A

What Should I Expect to Do as an

Audio Intern?

Keep in mind that this is a very competitivebusiness. The owner or person who runs the

485/710

studio wants you to prove that you deserve tobe there more than all the other people thatwould love to be hanging around their studio.With that in mind, expect to do anything thestudio owner would do: clean the toilet, washthe dishes, vacuum, clean up after a session,get burgers, gardening, go to the music store,you get the point – it's not always glamorous.Doing these things just proves how much youwant to be there and shows your appreciationand dedication. If you think you are abovethese things then an internship is not for you.Don't be a whiner! Or a Complainer! Or adowner! (Now if all you are doing is cleaningtoilets and you're not getting much else out ofit then maybe this isn't such a great place foryou to intern.)A good studio owner will reward you withsome free studio time or at least get you in-volved in sessions by having you do things likemove mics, roll cables, perform patches, burnCDs, and other assisting duties. The chances

486/710

are the more you contribute around the studio,the more likely they are to want and need you.Keep in mind that the studio business thrivesby word of mouth. Studios often expect you tohelp promote the studio and find potential cli-ents. This can involve going to local musicshows, handing out business cards, and gettingout the word about the awesome studio whereyou are interning. It helps to be slightly extra-verted. But you certainly don't want to soundlike a used car sales person (no offense usedcar sales persons). Don't be too pushy or overlyaggressive when promoting the studio.Many studios use interns to help build out newrooms and provide labor on other constructionprojects around the studio. This can be a greatway to learn about studio construction, acous-tics, and sound isolation. My students alwayslearn a lot from these experiences.

487/710

What Does the Studio Get Out of Me

Interning There?

Free labor, plus a new person who can helppromote their studio. See above for moredetails.

When Should I Ask Questions About

Things I Don't Understand?

Never interrupt a session in progress. The mu-sicians couldn't care less about your audio edu-cation. They are paying good money to record,not to have the engineer teach you audio ontheir dime. At the best, you are a minor nuis-ance to the band that can run and get thembeer and at worst they ask you to leave becauseyou are ruining their awesome vibe! The besttime to ask questions are generally at the end

488/710

of a session when it is just you and the engin-eer. Select one or two things to pick his or herbrain. Make it brief!

How Many Hours Should I Expect

to Intern a Week?

Most internships are for colleges or universitycredit, and they usually have their own specificrequirements. Where I teach, our internshipsrequire 10–15 hours per week for a 16-weeksemester, somewhere between 144 and 288contact hours per semester. Many studios mayrequire you to work many more hours thanyour requirement. During my internship, Iwould spend up to 60 hours per week at thestudio, even though I was only required towork 14! I loved it, couldn't get enough of it – Iknew this is what I wanted to do, so I enjoyedthe extra time. I remember this cushiony oldbrown chair in the corner of the control room.

489/710

After I would finish daily studio duties, I wouldsit in that old chair for hours, absorbingeverything. I made sure not to disrupt or talkwhen I was hanging out so I wouldn't annoythe band. Putting in those extra hours quietlyobserving prepared me to take over that firstsession. This is where I learned how thingswere communicated with musicians, the gen-eral workflow of a recording session, why aspecific piece of outboard gear was picked overanother, and much more. This was invaluable.You can only get this experience through aninternship.

Why Should I Work for Free?

An internship is a life experience you cannotget from a book, a class, or any other resource.Audio engineering is one of the few careersthat most people still apprentice. You willlearn how a professional session runs fromsetup through mixdown. The way a session

490/710

flows from start to finish is very important.The more efficient you are as an engineer, themore money you will save your client. Remem-ber, time equals money! And most musiciansaren't rich!

How Do I Get an Internship?

I got an internship because I happened to bethe drummer on a session at the studio thatwould eventually sponsor my internship. Iasked the engineer/owner if he needed an in-tern. He said he would like an intern. I startedshortly thereafter and signed up for the class atmy university to get actual college credit for it.So, being a musician got me in the door andgoing to college for audio gave me a reason toask for an internship. At the college where Iteach, we offer an internship class for graduat-ing students. We provide a list of some localstudios that take interns. Often students findtheir own studio the same way I did. They

491/710

record at the studio, like their experience andasked the studio if they needed an intern. Re-search the studio that best suits you and dowhatever it takes to get in there.

Can I Give My Opinion?

No! No! and No!A few of my studio owner friends have told menightmare stories about interns who would saythings completely out of line to their clients.These studios no longer take interns. Don't bethe fool that ruins internships for others! As anintern, you are there to observe and helpwhenever you are needed. You can talk to cli-ents but don't blab their ears off and give themyour opinions! You are not there to tell theband that was a good take or to tell the engin-eer how you would do it differently. Just be-cause you have a certificate from an audioschool and you own an MBox doesn't meanyou are an expert. Remember, it is a privilege

492/710

to be there. The only exception is if the musi-cian directly asks for your opinion.

Do I Need a Resume?

Having a resume certainly doesn't hurt.However, you may not have much to put on aresume at this point. Having samples of thingsyou have recorded on a CD or thumb drivemay be as valuable as a written resume. If awritten resume is required, be professionaland emphasize what you have worked on. Keepin mind that actual recording experienceweighs much heavier than education, bookknowledge, and a recording school certificate.

Internship's Dos & Don'ts

Do

? Be on time or early. Your job competitionis/are often musicians. They are inherentlyflakey and irresponsible. Showing up on

493/710

time can make you stand out. I credit thisdetail for much of my success.

? Become invaluable to the studio, so theycan't live without you. This will make thestudio want to keep you around well afteryour internship.

? Makes friends at the local music store, pro-fessional tape supply company, and other re-lated studio businesses. Since you will likelybe a “runner,” you will meet people associ-ated with the business while picking up ne-cessary supplies. I have many life-long busi-ness contacts and friendships from theseearly experiences.

? Help unload gear when the band arrives.This is a quick way to make a few friends.

? Ask if anyone needs anything. Offer tomake a food run.

494/710

Figure 12.1.

? Answer the phone when needed.

? Be friendly and introduce yourself.

? Complete any tasks that are expected ofyou.

495/710

? Enjoy what you are doing. If this gig is foryou, menial tasks or other non-engineeringtask will keep you humble and hungry towork when you get the chance.

? Take initiative.

? Thank the owner or engineer for lettingyou help, learn, and observe.

? Pay attention to the interaction betweenthe engineer, musicians, producer, and otherfolks involved in the making of music.

? Be open minded and prepared to absorbeverything going on like a sponge.

? Be professional.

? Practice personal hygiene. No one wants tosit in a control room with a stinky intern!

Don't

? Stand around. Instead, make yourself use-ful. Again, you want to be invaluable.

496/710

? Act cocky, rude, or give your opinion onhow you would do things.

? Gossip about clients.

? Text during a recording session. In fact,don't text at all unless it has something dir-ectly to do with the session, like placing apizza order.

? Take pictures or ask for autographs.

? Ask what you should do next. Be proactive.

? Be overly friendly and talk people's earsoff.

? Be late ever!

? Take it personally when a client, musician,or engineer says something rude or snaps atyou.

? Ask for free studio time at the beginning.This privilege usually comes in a matter oftime when you have gained the studio oper-ators trust.

497/710

? Ever flake on any obligation, especially ifthe studio is counting on you to complete aparticular task.

Tip

Finally, don't be a know it all! Be humble.

Examples of Internship Ads

An internship can be found through a college,university, or audio school program while youare in attendance. Your local paper, onlinesites, or trade magazines also have ads for in-ternships. These three advertisement/applica-tions are examples of what a studio might askand expect of an intern.

First Ad

Studios Recording Studio Intern

498/710

Recording Studio InternApplication

This is a 3-month long, non-paying in-ternship position, consisting of various“runner” jobs. Completing an intern-ship at _____________ Recordingand Mastering can help you understandthe bigger picture of the productionand studio business. It will also helpnarrow your focus on which aspects ofpro audio production fit you best.Name:Address:Phone:E-mail:Which recording school have you atten-ded/are you attending?Have you interned before?

499/710

Are you a musician/in a band?Do you own and/or use Pro Tools?Is your focus on creating music orworking in post production?Home many days per week can youcommit to?How did you hear about__________________ recordingand mastering?When can you start?Salary: Lunch and 10 dollar gas

Second Ad

Very low-key studio in the______________ area is looking forinterns that meet requirements below.This is a professional studio whereplatinum records are recorded daily;

500/710

half of the hit songs playing on the ra-dio right now have been worked on inthis studio. So no clowns looking forautographs please.PLEASE READ ENTIRE POSTBEFORE REPLYING!

1. Must know how to work in a pro-fessional studio. Not an MBox setup,a full HD rig with ssl consoles, patchbay, drum mics, and $15,000 mic.

2. This is a non-paid internship. Donot come in here with expectations toget paid directly from the studioever! You're here for experience andto get connected in the industry, andif you get in good with the engineeryou might even get an assisting cred-it or two.

501/710

3. You are here to work, not to be onyour cell phone, laptop, or talk aboutyour beats or songs all day. If youhave a problem with being a hardworker do not bother sending areply.

4. You will never approach any onewith demo or beat CD, unless spe-cifically asked by the client. Unlesssomeone asks what you do, they donot need to know.

5. Must have a full availability for atleast 5 days a week. We are onlylooking for a few people to fill thespots. Expect long hours whenneeded. Sessions sometimes runnon-stop 2 days straight.

6. Must live near by. Half an houraway the most. We need someone to

502/710

rely on who's not gonna take 2 hoursto commute.

7. Must have multiple internships atother studios. (If all you ever did wasruns and label CDs don't botherapplying.)

8. Expect to do everything fromcleaning bathrooms, answeringphones, to tracking platinum artistand producers and if clients ask youto do a back flip – do it.

9. The word “no” must not be in yourvocabulary. You should want to doeverything that is asked of you.

10. No haters, thieves, or crybabys.We need people who can worktogether.

503/710

11. No getting star struck or askingfor pictures or autographs. These aremeans for immediate termination.

12. You will not take anything fromthe studio. This includes cables,headphones, samples left on an mpc,demos lying around, and especiallyany sessions on the house drives.

So to sum it up: we need one or two in-terns that are prepared to walk in hereand assist on sessions for high-profileartist. If you think you meet the re-quirements, reply with a full resumeand a paragraph telling us why weshould consider you. If considered, wewill schedule a phone interview fol-lowed by a trial session at the studio.

Third Ad

504/710

Industry: EntertainmentLocation: South _____________Position: Audio/Studio EngineeringInternshipSalary: This is an internship, learningexperience with potential to makemoneyAbout Us: A brand new recording facil-ity in South ________. We are in theposition to be selective about the pro-jects we take and will only put our at-tention and resources on sessions webelieve in. We work in a low-key envir-onment and treat everyone like the“boss,” including the intern.Duties Include: Knowing the studio in-side and out, understanding signalflow, working a patch bay, setting upmicrophones for drums, amps, etc., toenable you to eventually engineer or

505/710

assistant engineer sessions, keep studioequipment maintained, cater to reason-able client needs, and have fun in everysession.Opportunities Include: Working withseasoned professional artists with hitsongs, as well as up and coming talent.Helping to find great music to record.What We Are Looking For: Talented,hard-working, dedicated, loyal, fo-cused, creative, highly motivated, andreliable individual full of potential thatwill truly make the most of this experi-ence. Come in with a professional atti-tude and a strong desire to learn. Thisis a very demanding yet highly reward-ing, full or part time, unpaid intern-ship, so please only those serious aboutstarting or furthering a career in themusic engineering field should apply.

506/710

Requirements: Graduate or studentfrom an audio engineering degree pro-gram (8 month minimum, associate orbachelor degree preferred), solidfoundation of engineering, knowledgeof signal flow, Logic Pro experience,musical knowledge a plus, technicalaptitude, good people skills, problem-solver, career focused, and a reliablecar is a must.Schedule: FlexibleLength: FlexibleTo Apply: E-mail your resume to thefollowing address; include a cover letterexplaining why you want this position.

Get It?

As you can see from these ads, much of what Imentioned in this chapter is directly in the ads.The more knowledge and experience you

507/710

gather before you attempt an internship, themore likely your internship will be successful. Ican't stress how much an internship did forme. It helped me develop the craft, providedme with a mentor, and gave me insight into thecrazy, yet entertaining, music business. Unlikeother methods to learn audio engineering, aninternship provides you with “real” experience.You can't get this unique experience from abook or the Internet. If you are lucky and dogood work, you may even get a job out of theinternship.

How to Roll a Mic Cable

Tip

Rolling a mic cable properly will give you in-stant credibility in the studio or in a live soundsituation. This is a must-have skill before start-ing an internship. Rolling the cable properlyalso protects the cable and will make it last

508/710

longer. Not rolling it properly will tip off otherengineers that you have little or no experience.This video demonstrates the basics of rolling acable properly.

509/710

Chapter 13. Jobs. What Can IDo With These Skills?

In this Chapter:

Live Sound Engineer 188

What Should I Expect to Do if I Run LiveSound? 189

How Do I Get a Live Sound Gig? 189

What Should I Expect to Get Paid? 189

Recording Studio Engineer 191

Assistant Engineer 193

Mastering Engineer 193

Post-production Engineer 193

Radio Production Engineer 194

Producer 194

The Home Studio 195

Equipment Maintenance and Repair197

Take a Business or Accounting Class197

Show Me the Money 198

As mentioned in Chapter 4, if you decide to become a recording engineer youare likely to be self-employed. Very few places now offer staff positions in mu-sic production. What this means for you is there is not a guaranteed paycheckevery month. Your fee will typically be separate from the studio or your em-ployer. The exceptions are with some churches, music venues, and live soundproduction companies. Working from job-to-job is one of the many reasonsyou will often take on more than you can handle because you won't knowwhen your next gig will happen. Most freelance arrangements do not includeany type of contract. Typically, these arrangements are verbal agreementsbetween the engineer and the management or owner of the venue or studio.With most studio arrangements, the engineer is paid by the band, whereasvenues usually pay the engineer. Many engineers have other skills they can usewhen the projects aren't rolling in. These skills may include building websites,booking or promoting bands, repairing equipment, carpentry, electrical work,and even teaching audio-related classes, like me.

Keywords: Accounting Class, Assistant Engineer, Equipment Maintenanceand Repair, Home Studio, Live Sound Engineer, Mastering Engineer, Post-production Engineer, Producer, Radio Production Engineer, Recording StudioEngineer 191

As mentioned in Chapter 4, if you decide to be-come a recording engineer you are likely to beself-employed. Very few places now offer staffpositions in music production. What this

511/710

means for you is there is not a guaranteedpaycheck every month. Your fee will typicallybe separate from the studio or your employer.The exceptions are with some churches, musicvenues, and live sound production companies.Working from job-to-job is one of the manyreasons you will often take on more than youcan handle because you won't know when yournext gig will happen. Most freelance arrange-ments do not include any type of contract.Typically, these arrangements are verbalagreements between the engineer and themanagement or owner of the venue or studio.With most studio arrangements, the engineeris paid by the band, whereas venues usuallypay the engineer. Many engineers have otherskills they can use when the projects aren'trolling in. These skills may include buildingwebsites, booking or promoting bands, repair-ing equipment, carpentry, electrical work, andeven teaching audio-related classes, like me.

512/710

In the late 80s, when I began my career, therewere very few home studios. The only afford-able options were to record on a cassette4-track, which was only good enough for demoquality, or go to a commercial recording stu-dio. In the early 90s, the digital revolutionbrought an affordable and less cumbersomerecording setup for the hobbyist and home stu-dio. This setup involved the 16-bit ADAT thatwas often paired with a Mackie console. AlanisMorrisette's hit record, Jagged Little Pill, wasrecorded in a home studio with this setup.Since then, the home studio has continued togrow and you can now produce professionalquality recordings without going to a largecommercial studio more than ever.Fast forward 20 years and home studios havecontinued to replace the traditional, largercommercial studios with the digital audioworkstation (DAW) taking over where theADAT left off. Another reason home studioshave steadily increased is because recording

513/710

gear has continued to become more affordableand specifically designed for home use. It iscommon to track drums at a larger studio andfinish the rest of the tracks back at a home stu-dio. In fact, many times, all the recording andmixing are done in the home studio. Many en-gineers choose to have home studios ratherthan work out of commercial studios. Manyengineers are flexible, owning, and running ahome studio, in addition to engineering andrecording projects at outside commercial stu-dios. This flexibility provides a freelance en-gineer with more opportunities to work moreplaces and meet more clients.

Live Sound Engineer

Having toured around the country, I can safelysay a lot of local live sound people aren'tknown for their punctuality or great commu-nication skills. I have also run across soundpeople with bad attitudes. They acted as if theywere doing me a favor by miking my drums,

514/710

instead of treating it like part of their job. Thisis not to say there aren't great local sound en-gineers who behave professionally, because Ihave met plenty. If you can excel in theseareas, where many do not, and also have a de-cent ear, you will likely have plenty of livesound work, at least in my town. Many of myfriends and students entered music productionby first running live sound. Unlike a recordingengineer, there are generally more opportunit-ies in live sound. This is because more peopleperform music on a regular basis than need itrecorded. I ran sound off and on for manyyears, often with the offer of more gigs that Icould handle at one time. This may have beenbecause I was always on time, easy to workwith, and I even knew something about sound.You too will be highly sought after if you arewell liked, dependable, and knowledgeableabout live sound. If your ultimate goal is to re-cord music, live sound is a great way to meetpotential clients to record. As an independent

515/710

engineer, it will be up to you to find people torecord, and running live sound will provideyou with an endless list of potential clients.Venues that have live sound include:

? Churches

? Special events

? Live music venues

? Festivals – In Austin alone there is the in-famous SXSW, Austin City Limits, Fun FunFun Fest, Pecan Street Festival, and manymore. There are festivals all across the coun-try, not to mention all the internationalfestivals.

? Touring bands

? Theaters

? Comedy clubs

Benefits of running live sound:

? More available job openings

516/710

? Easier to get started

? Allows you to work on your engineeringskills

? Great way to meet more musicians and in-dustry people

? Provides immediate performance feedback

What Should I Expect to Do if I Run

Live Sound?

Depending on the size of the venue and wheth-er you work for the venue changes what yourduties may involve. If you are hired by the ven-ue, you will be considered the house soundperson or in-house engineer. You will be re-sponsible for setting up and tearing down thesound equipment. At a smaller venue, you mayeven pull double duty as the sound engineerand the door person or bartender. Whetheryou are the in-house person or not, your main

517/710

duty is to set up and run the sound for theband. This usually includes miking the musi-cians, setting proper mic levels, preparingmonitor mixes, and making sure the showstarts and ends on time. If you are the in-house engineer, you are typically part of theclub staff and additional duties, not related torunning sound, may be expected. A freelanceengineer is typically hired by the band to betheir personal sound engineer. A freelance en-gineer typically shows up for their band'ssound check to preset levels and become famil-iar with the venue. Unlike the in-house engin-eer, they will only be responsible for mixingthe band that hired them.

How Do I Get a Live Sound Gig?

It is common in music production to shadowor assist an experienced engineer. Assisting anexperienced audio engineer is a good way tolearn more and get your foot in the door. If you

518/710

don't know a sound person that you can hit upto assist or cover for, find a venue you like.Scout it out. Make friends with the sound per-son. Find out if he or she ever needs someoneto cover their shift or if they know of any othersound gigs that are looking for help. Offer tohelp them set up and tear down for free. Thiswill give you an opportunity to become famili-ar with the venue and you are building a rela-tionship with the staff. Many live sound engin-eers are also musicians and may need theirshift covered when they are playing or touring.

What Should I Expect to Get Paid?

Pay varies, depending on the type of venuewhere the gig is taking place.There is a wide rage in the pay scale for audioengineering. As we've covered, you may workfor free at first, to gain experience. Most livesound gigs start around $10–$15 an hour, witha shift ranging from 1 to 16 hours long. A

519/710

typical weekend night gig in a small Austinclub would pay about $50. If the venue is arestaurant, food may be included with yourpay. Weekends generally offer better pay be-cause the shows are likely better attended andthere is more money to go around. Most gigsstart around 9 P.M. and end around 2:30 A.M.or within an hour or so after the club or venuecloses. As you become more experienced, youwill probably move onto working for biggerand better venues, which are likely to paymore, have better gear, and be more profes-sional. If you do get a job at a larger venue, youare likely to start off on monitors and not be incharge of front of house (FOH) sound. If youlove music you will hear and see plenty of it,which is a perk.Churches generally pay a little better, and youhopefully won't leave work smelling like beerand cigarettes. A church gig may start as earlyas 6 A.M. and go to about 1 P.M. It can be anhourly paid job or per shift with the pay

520/710

varying from $10 an hour up to $75 an hour.The pay depends on the size of the church, thechurch's budget, and the importance of soundwith the church service. The downside forsome is the gig usually starts early, so if youaren't a morning person a church gig may notbe for you.Local music festivals and other musical eventsnot taking place in an established venue arestaffed through a local sound company. Localsound companies tend to provide a portion, ifnot all, of the sound for festivals and othercommunity events. You won't have to worryabout hustling work if a sound company em-ploys you. They pay either an hourly wage orper project. A huge benefit for working for asound company is that you won't have to worryabout finding clients or where your nextpaycheck will come from.Going on tour with a band or an artist usuallypays the best money, as far as live sound gigsare concerned. There is a trade off: it will be a

521/710

24-hour-a-day job and you may not get muchtime off. The smaller the band, the more likelyyou will do more than just run sound. You mayalso help with selling merchandize, driving,some tour managing, running monitors, col-lecting money at the door, or whatever elsethey may need. With larger touring acts, theFOH engineer will only engineer and will nothave to do the other miscellaneous jobs thatcome with touring with a smaller act. As it is inother venues, you will start on the monitorsand work your way up to mixing the front ofhouse.If an artist adores you, you may be put on a re-tainer. The retainer fee guarantees you will beavailable to this particular artist(s) first. Theretainer fee also guarantees you some cashwhen the band or artist isn't touring. The fee isusually a portion of your typical touring pay.

Tip

To succeed at live sound:

522/710

? Show up on time.

? Be prepared.

? Don't leave the mixing board unattendedto drink beer and play pool. You never knowwhen mic feedback may occur. Stick aroundand be a pro.

? Help the band setup and tear down, espe-cially if the event is running behind.

? Take pride in your work and don't be lazy.If a monitor needs moving so that someonecan hear better, move the monitor. Beproactive!

? Don't ever panic if things aren't going yourway or you feel rushed to set up the sound.

? Have a good attitude.

? Did I say show up on time?

Recording Studio Engineer

Unless you have mixed more than a few bands,a job at a recording studio usually starts as an

523/710

internship. As discussed in the previouschapter, don't attempt an internship until youhave knowledge of audio basics and feel youcould, with a little more time, run a profession-al recording session.Almost all studio engineers are self-employed,as very few studios actually have staff engin-eers on their payrolls anymore. Engineers aretypically paid separately from the recordingstudio. For bands recording in a studio, thestudio will generally provide rates with andwithout an engineer. Let's say a studio's rate is$500 a day with an engineer or $250 a daywithout an engineer. The band hires you as anindependent engineer. You and the band agreeto book the studio for 3 days ($750 studiotime). You would charge the band whatever feeyou feel comfortable charging on top of that$750. If you were to charge $150 a day youwould end up pocketing $450. In this case, theband would pay $750 to the studio and thenpay you $450 for engineering for a total

524/710

recording cost of $1200. The band saved $300by hiring you as an outside engineer versus us-ing the engineer provided by the studio. Typic-ally, bands will settle up with the engineerafter they settle up with the studio. This all de-pends on your agreement with the studio, butyou always want to make sure the band coversthe studio. Eventually, the more time you bookwith the studio, the more likely they are tomake you better deals in the future. You will beable to increase your fee as you gain more ex-perience and develop a working relationshipwith the studio.

Tip

Studios generally have a little wiggle roomwith their quoted rates especially when moneyis put on the table!

525/710

Figure 13.1.

I have found that the more I like a band andwant to record them, the more likely I am towork below my typical rate. If a band is goodand isn't signed or represented by a huge man-agement company, they are possibly short onfunds and can't afford to spend much on stu-dio time. You might want to consider workingwith a band like this for experience and to addto your resume and to get your foot in the doorwith a potentially successful band. I have madegood deals with bands with a verbal under-standing that when they do get a real budget tocontact me to work with them. Working on ademo or an EP for less money will pay off,

526/710

when you get the call for the bigger budget gigin the future.You will likely be self-employed, so I suggestyou ask the band or artist the following ques-tions I previously mentioned in Chapter 9 be-fore you take on a project.Four things to know before you record a band:

1. What is the budget?

2. What type of instrumentation will theband be using?

3. What is the purpose and length ofrecording?

4. What are the band's expectations?

Even though you will probably take almost anysession, you can get when you are starting out,asking these four questions can give you a bet-ter idea of the project and alert you to any po-tential red flags.The budget will give you an idea of where theband can afford to record and how much time

527/710

to spend on each stage of the recording. It willalso help you determine if the band has realist-ic expectations (number four on the list).Instrumentation helps you also determine ifthe budget matches the band's aspirations. Asession recording a singer/songwriter with anacoustic guitar and a vocalist is much differentthan a session recording a full band. Also,knowing the instrumentation will allow you tomentally prepare for the recording session.What is the purpose of the recording? A demoto get shows? A self-released CD? A commer-cial recording on an indie label? What is thelength of the recording? Two songs? Tensongs? Answers to these questions can helpyou determine if the band's budget aligns withtheir expectations. Make sure to get the ap-proximate time of each song. I took a sessiononce with a band that wanted to record fivesongs. I had no idea their songs were 12–18minutes each! Obviously this band's jazz jamswere very different from the 21 songs I

528/710

recorded for a punk band whose complete al-bum was less than 30 minutes in length!Are the band's expectations realistic? Can youaccomplish the recording that the artist wantsfor the money and talent of the artist? If not,you will want to either resolve this or turndown the project. Be honest with the artist orband if you don't believe their expectations areachievable and intelligently lay out an argu-ment why. Don't get defensive and stick to thefacts.One of the coolest things about being an inde-pendent audio engineer is that you can work atalmost any studio you desire. You only need aband or artist with a budget.

Assistant Engineer

An assistant engineer assists the engineer orproducer with the session. An assistant engin-eer is more commonly found in larger budgetsessions. Often, the assistant engineer is themain engineer or an advanced intern at the

529/710

studio that picks up the gig for some extramoney. Generally, the assistant engineer isvery familiar with the studio, its gear, and therecording spaces. This is helpful to the outsideproducer or engineer who typically requests anassistant because they are unlikely familiarwith the studio. The assistant engineer, alsoknown as the second engineer, will help withpatching, moving mics, computer operation, orany other duties to help the session runsmoothly. Assistant engineers usually get paida flat fee for their services. Personally, I havebeen paid anywhere from $50 to $200 a day toassist on a session.

Mastering Engineer

As described in Chapter 9, mastering is the fi-nal stage of most recordings for an engineer.Mastering engineers either get paid per projector per hour by the band or the record label.The pay scale varies depending on your experi-ence and reputation. If you are very detail

530/710

oriented and would be considered an “audio-phile” by your friends, being a mastering en-gineer may suit your personality type. My mas-tering engineer friends like the fact that theygenerally spend a day or two, not a month ortwo, per project. This is because masteringdoesn't require all the production details of theperformance, recording, and mixing of thealbum.Most mastering engineers have a neutralsounding room and many sets of high-endspeakers to accurately monitor sound. Master-ing engineers also have a favorite analog com-pressor and/or EQ to help them perform theirduties at the highest level. As a mastering en-gineer, you could work on and complete hun-dreds of recordings a year. This isn't really aposition where most engineers start but a posi-tion experienced engineers move in to. Here isone suggested reading on mastering: Master-ing Audio, the art and the science, 2nd Edi-tion, Bob Katz, Focal Press 2002.

531/710

Post-Production Engineer

Although this book mainly deals with musicproduction, post production often includesmusic and engineering skills. Post-productionwork deals with audio as related to film andvideo. Post work could include recording voi-ceovers, dialogue, and mixing audio for pic-ture. Post work could also include foley work,like recording footsteps, moves, and other spe-cific sounds such as bones being crushed or thesound of gunshots. More recently, post-pro-duction work includes audio for phone appsand video game sound. These are two emer-ging areas of audio production. If you wantmore information, there are plenty of booksand other resources that specifically deal withpost work.

532/710

Radio Production Engineer

Radio production jobs can be in public, com-mercial, Internet, or cable radio. You may beexpected to do some of the following:

? Record, edit, mix, and master program au-dio and provide quality control, ensuringthat the highest quality content is deliveredto audience.

? Operate DAWs, digital audio recordingdevices, complete CDR and DVD-R author-ing, and digital distribution systems.

? Work collaboratively to develop the overallproduction and sound quality for new dailyprograms.

? Manage program and session archives.

? Coordinate, plan, and engineer field andremote productions.

? Oversee daily studio operation for local,state, and national programs.

533/710

? Creatively choose and apply the use of mu-sic, sound elements, and interviews to theprogramming.

? Record, mix, and edit programming for na-tional distribution as assigned.

The pay scale in radio production varies. Thegood news is radio production jobs are one ofthe few production areas that you aren't likelyto be self-employed, but instead have a salar-ied position. The hours will be more traditionaland you may even get some type of benefits.

Producer

Not all recording sessions involve a producer,although one may be needed. As an engineer,this means you may get stuck producing by de-fault. Most producers, if they weren't audio en-gineers first, have some technical backgroundor knowledge. Producers are usually paid persong or per project by the band or record label.The pay scale can vary from a “spec deal” to

534/710

tens of thousands of dollars per song or pro-ject. Some producers may offer an artist(s) aspec deal. In this case, the producer is footingthe bill for the project with a verbal or writtenunderstanding that if the song or album doeswell the producer will get a certain percentagein return. There is no standard deal or rate.Here are the main duties of a producer:

? Song selection.

? Revising songs.

? Deciding on the type and the purpose ofrecording.

? Arranging the instrumentation and decid-ing on what instruments will be used.

? Assisting in or overseeing the preparationof lyric sheets or music charts.

? Selecting a recording studio.

? Selecting an engineer.

? Hiring and rehearsing musicians.

535/710

? Critiquing performances.

? Communicating between the artist andengineer.

? Guiding the budget process.

? Overseeing all phases of recording: pre-production, recording, overdubbing, mixing,mastering.

? Helping to shop the final product to labels,managers, etc…

? Overseeing the final projects artwork,design, liner notes, and credits.

? Finding a quality duplicator/replicator.

? Defining a market for the project.

? Assisting the band with publishing andmechanical licensing.

If a recording session doesn't have a producer,someone will end up performing these duties.Whether it is the audio engineer, the artist(s),

536/710

or both, who ends up picking up the producingduties will depend on the project.

The Home Studio

With digital audio technology becoming moreaffordable, home studios have become a com-mon place for music production. You can havea complete recording studio in your laptop.This was unimaginable not too long ago! Tech-nology has made it possible to make recordingat home better than ever. A home studio canmake recording more affordable for the artistby eliminating the middleman – the recordingstudio.For an audio engineer, there are many benefitsof the home recording studio. You no longerhave to pay a fee for studio time. This makes iteasier to charge a little more for your servicesand still save the band a few bucks overall. Ihave a home recording studio that can handlemost of the projects I am interested in workingon. This allows me the ability to record or mix

537/710

at an outside studio only when necessary, orwhen a change of pace is needed. I may mix atmy friend's commercial studio to benefit fromthe automated Trident console and racks ofclassic gear or track drums at another studiofor a larger, different room sound.Another benefit of the home studio is not hav-ing to pay rent for space and decreasing youroverhead. It is hard enough to make moneywhen you are first starting out, and paying torent a space on top of your normal living ex-penses only makes it tougher. This is a greatway to kill two birds with one stone, or in thiscase, two rents or mortgages with one place.Since recording gear has become affordableand easier to operate, many people believe thatpurchasing the latest software will allow themto produce quality recordings. Without a basicunderstanding of sound and recording, it isunlikely someone will record a quality, profes-sional product. Professional recording engin-eers are often underappreciated for their

538/710

ability to understand sound. That is, until aperson with little or no experience attempts tomake their first hit record on their own. Cli-ents like this end up at a studio, seeking pro-fessional help, frustrated because they spenttheir recording budget on recording gearwithout considering you also have to knowhow to operate it and make it sound good. I'mnot saying people can't get lucky, but good mu-sic production takes years of experience andknowledge to create.If you start a home recording studio, makesure you have more skills than your averagehobbyist. Just because you can work a softwareprogram or you have great computer skillsdoesn't mean you know how to record and mixa record. If having a home studio interests you,learn the basics, get some experience, and fig-ure out how to make records before you con-sider yourself a professional. Purchasing thetools of the trade doesn't make someone auto-matically qualified to make quality recordings.

539/710

PROs and CONs of a home studio:

PROs CONs

You never have toleave your house.

Strangers will be in your home.

You won't have topay a studio for timeso you can usuallymake more money.

You do have to equip and maintain ahome studio, which can be expensive.

You can cut youroverhead expensesby combining a rentor mortgage withyour business costs.

Customizing your workplace can be ex-pensive. Most larger commercial studi-os have better recording equipment andlarger recording spaces than can be cre-ated for a home studio.

You can customizeyour workplace.

Neighbors may complain about noise ortraffic or suspicious looking long-haireddudes walking around theneighborhood.

Tip

Tips on starting a home studio:

Feel out your neighbors and make sure therearen't city or neighborhood restrictions. Youwould hate to do a bunch of work only to getshut down or constantly harassed. Check

540/710

with your city ordinances to find out if yourarea has specific restrictions.

Register your studio name or productioncompany. This can be done at the city court-house or online by registering your businessas a do business as (DBA), sole proprietor-ship, or a limited liability corporation (LLC).

Open a bank account under your studioname.

Keep receipts of all your purchases. This willgive you proof for potential tax write offs.

Start accumulating gear: mics, compressors,FX units, and whatever gear you will need,so you can spend less later and put themoney you make toward your current livingexpenses.

Start collecting toys now: tambourines,shakers, specialty amps, a theremin or two,toy pianos, a real piano, and other unique,creative instruments. This can differentiate

541/710

your studio from an artist who is debatingwhether to record elsewhere.

Equipment Maintenance andRepair

One person who is in constant demand is theperson who can repair amps, consoles, tapemachines, and any other studio gear or music-al equipment. If you are good at or interestedin basic electronics, this may be the careerpath for you. Fewer and fewer people aretrained in basic electronics and circuitry, leav-ing more demand for people who can fix studiogear and musical equipment. Equipmentmaintenance is a job you can do out of yourhouse or garage on your own terms. Of course,you would have to travel to recording studiosand other businesses to do the troubleshootingand repairs. You could also look for work atmusic stores or specialty shops. In most towns,if you can fix a vintage amp, musical equip-ment, and studio gear, you are sure to have

542/710

more work than you can handle. If you are de-pendable and highly skilled, you will be able toset your own rate and hours. To acquire theseskills, you can take basic electronic classes orstart tinkering around on your own. Some col-leges offer degrees in Electronics. Learn aboutcircuits, resistors, and capacitors. Purchase asoldering iron and practice repairing cablesand other audio-related equipment.You can purchase a kit to build a handmadesynthesizer and learn a bit about circuits, cir-cuit bending, and electronics atwww.bleeplabs.com.

Take A Business or AccountingClass

Part of the Commercial Music Managementdegree plan at Austin Community College re-quires students to take a Small Business andAccounting class. This makes sense, consider-ing you will likely be self-employed and youwill need these valuable skills to succeed.

543/710

Every semester my Audio 4 class visits localstudios. One particular owner/engineer alwaysadvises my students to take classes in market-ing and accounting. He is the first to admitthat the business side of running his studioisn't his best asset, because he did not educatehimself on how to do these things successfully.If you decide to run your own studio, you willwant to be as prepared as possible for all as-pects of running a business – not just the mu-sical aspect. If handling and budgeting moneyisn't one of your strengths, you will want to ad-dress this issue. Consider what it takes to suc-ceed as a small business: advertising, market-ing, people management, money management– the list goes on. It is one thing to be a goodaudio engineer; it is quite another to be a suc-cessful small business owner. Colleges anduniversities offer classes in both these areas,business and accounting. Take advantage ofthem.

544/710

Show Me the Money

It will be up to you to negotiate a fee for yourservices up front, as a freelance engineer.Don't wait until the project gets started to dis-cuss your fee. You shouldn't talk money issueswhile recording and mixing.If you are unsure how to set your own rate, askother audio professionals in your area whatthey charge for their services. Adjust your feeappropriately: charge less than a person withmore experience and charge more than a per-son with less experience. Every project is dif-ferent, so expect a budget to also vary. You willhave to be flexible with your fee if you want towork a lot. Don't sell yourself short, but youhave to be realistic about what others in yourarea and with your amount of experience aregetting paid.Whether you get paid per hour, per song, perproject, or per day, make sure you and the cli-ent are clear on your fee. Money and art don't

545/710

mix, so never talk about money during the pro-ject. It is customary that most engineers andproducers require 50% up front and the other50% when the project is completed.

Tip

If you are charging per project, be consciousthat a client could drag a session on and on.Make sure the client is aware that your projectfee doesn't mean they will have an unlimitedamount of time. Clarify the project length anddon't leave the time frame open.No matter what area of audio engineering youpursue, the amount of experience you have willbe one of the determining factors of what youget paid. Although a formal education is help-ful, it isn't necessary. Most employers wouldrather hire someone with years of experienceover someone with only an audio-related de-gree and no experience. If you decide to be anaudio professional, don't do it simply for themoney. Do it because you love music. If you

546/710

stick with it, you will get paid what you de-serve. Over time, if you show up on time, aremotivated, positive, creative, and willing to dowhatever is needed for the session or gig to gosmoothly, you will be successful. As previouslymentioned, this is a word of mouth business. Ifword is you are easy to work with, talented,and dependable, you will be on your way to asuccessful career in music production.

547/710

Chapter 14. FAQ's. Hear Itfrom the Pros

In this chapter:

Gear 200

What Is the First Microphone I ShouldBuy? 200

What Is Your Favorite Compressor? 201

What Is a Good Vocal Microphone? 203

What Is Your Favorite Microphone? Or ifYou Could Only Take One MicrophoneWith You to Record Your Favorite ArtistWhat Would It Be? 205

Which Recording Software Do You Use?Nuendo, Pro Tools, Logic, or AnotherSoftware Program? 206

Do I Have to Use a Mac for Recording?207

Skills 208

How Do I Become a Skilled Mixer? 208

How Valuable Is an Education or Degreeto Becoming a Successful Engineer? 210

Do You Record/Cut With Compression orEQ? 211

Do I Need to Know About MIDI? 213

How Do I Know When a Mix Is Done? 214

Industry Insights 215

How Did You Get Started? 215

How Do I Get My Foot in the Door? 218

Are There Jobs Available in the RecordingIndustry? 219

How Much Money Should I Expect toMake? 221

549/710

What Do You Think the Future of Record-ing Will Be? 222

It Takes Time But It's Worth It! 224

A few years ago, I began compiling a list of the popular questions asked in myclassroom and in the studio. I thought it would be valuable to ask a diversegroup of respected audio engineers from around the country these questions,to gather their answers and opinions.

Keywords: Compressor, Logic, MIDI, Mixer, Nuendo, Pro Tools, RecordingSoftware, Software Program, Vocal Microphone

A few years ago, I began compiling a list of thepopular questions asked in my classroom andin the studio. I thought it would be valuable toask a diverse group of respected audio engin-eers from around the country these questions,to gather their answers and opinions.The questions in this chapter range from“What is the first microphone I should buy?”to “Which recording software do you use?” to“How did you get started? The answers vary,giving us insight into what the Pros think andhopefully will give you confidence that thereare many ways to achieve the same end result.

550/710

Below is the list of those engineers who parti-cipated. In addition to being audio engineers,many of the participants are producers, musi-cians, artists, professors, mastering engineers,technicians, and studio owners.

(AM) Andre Moran, Congress House,Austin, TX

(CJ) Chico Jones, Ohm Recording Facility,Austin, TX

(CS) Craig Schumacher, Wavelab, Tucson,AZ

(FR) Fred Remmert, Cedar Creek and Cher-okee Recording Studio, Austin, TX

(GS) Greg Smelley, Marfa Recording Co.,Marfa, TX

(HJ) Hillary Johnson, Senior Tape Op Con-tributor, Independent Engineer, New York,NY

(JH) John Harvey, Top Hat Recording,Austin, TX

551/710

(JW) Jim Wilson, Jim Wilson MasteringBoulder, CO.

(KM) Kurtis Machler, Million Dollar Sound,Austin, TX

(ME) Mitch Easter, Fidelitorium, Kerners-ville, NC

(MP) Mary Podio, Top Hat Recording,Austin, TX

(MR) Mark Rubel, Pogo Studio, Champaign,IL

(TD) Tim Dittmar, las olas recording, Geor-getown, TX

Gear

1. What Is the First Microphone I

Should Buy?

Mitch Easter (ME): Get a dynamic mic thatcosts around $100, or a nice used one that

552/710

originally cost that much new. You can recordanything with it, and get pretty good results!Dynamics are tough and can be jammedagainst guitar amps, stuck in bass drums, etc.,and they won't care. At the same time, theysound perfectly good on voices. SupposedlyBono and Tom Petty have done vocals on theirhit records with Shure SM58s, which seemsentirely plausible to me.Chico Jones (CJ): Buy the mic that soundsbest on your own voice or instrument. Youmay need a friend or bandmate to help youwith this test. It's a great way to begin learningthe subtle differences between mics – usingthe human voice. Do some research. Borrow acouple of mics first. Buy what you can afford. Ithink the Sennheiser MD 421 is a good micthat you won't outgrow too quickly. If that istoo expensive then a Shure SM57 or Beyer Dy-namic M88 will be handy as your collectiongrows.

553/710

Fred Remmert (FR): Well, that sort of de-pends on how much money you have and whatyou are trying to accomplish. If you're a mil-lionaire and want to start a collection, then gofind the rarest Telefunken U47 you can find. Ifyou're a broke engineer starting out and wantsomething you can use to record just aboutanything, get a Shure SM57.Mary Podio (MP): The first mic you shouldbuy is a mic that you think sounds good andthat you can afford. Don't worry if it's not aU47, plenty of people have made great sound-ing records with inexpensive mics. Yourgreatest asset is your creativity. Trust your earsand make whatever you have work for you.Andre Moran (AM): Shure SM57.Greg Smelley (GS): The one you can affordright now. It really depends on what you willbe recording. The decision between dynamic,condenser, or ribbon may be dictated by styleof music. I do, however, think a Shure SM57 or58 is worth having early on. Everyone is

554/710

familiar with the sound of those mics, so get-ting a usable sound can be easier because youcan get a familiar sound. If you can afford it, Igot a lot of mileage out my Sennheiser MD421when I only had a handful of mics. It soundsgood on almost anything. Vocals, drums,bass… My favorite workhorse mic now is theSennheiser e604. It's small, lightweight, and isintended for snare and toms, but to me itsounds very similar to a 421 and at a third ofthe price. It's fantastic on guitar amps.Mark Rubel (MR): Probably a (Shure)SM57!Tim Dittmar (TD): A (Shure) SM57. It's af-fordable, it is durable, and it works for manythings. But, if you are looking to record just vo-cals and acoustic guitar I would purchase alarge-diaphragm condenser.John Harvey (JH): A Shure SM57 is a greatchoice because it is sturdy, reliable, inexpens-ive, and extremely versatile.

555/710

Hillary Johnson (HJ): This depends onwhat the application is and what you'll be us-ing it for. Most people will tell you that youcan't go wrong with a Shure SM57 and they'reonly around $100 and useful for dozens ofthings, however if you're recording vocals orsomething more delicate, you might prefer acondenser mic and which one would dependon your budget.Craig Schumacher (CS): A SM57 becauseit's the workhorse of the biz.Kurtis Machler (KM): Evaluate your imme-diate needs and your budget. A decent large-diaphragm condenser would come in handy ina variety of recording situations, but they canbe a bit pricey. Condensers excel at capturingdrum overheads and vocals but can be prob-lematic in higher spl (sound pressure level) en-vironments like close miking drums and re-cording guitar amplifiers. A handheld dynamicmic like the good old Shure SM57 is great forguitar amps and decent for vocals. If funds are

556/710

limited, get the SM57 and start saving for acondenser. Avoid mic shopping at the mall.Jim Wilson (JW): Well, back in the day, Iwould have said something like the AKG414TLII. Reason being it is a very flexible micwith multiple polar patterns, HPF and pad.But nowadays, there are so many inexpensivecondenser mics out there – so many morechoices. I would suggest that you find a micthat works well for vocals, acoustic instru-ments, as well as capturing ambience, yet fitswithin your budget. A good, all-around toollike this will open your eyes to the possibilities.Just keep in mind that the “Jack-of-all-Trades”microphone is usually, like the maxim states,“Master of none.”

557/710

2. What Is Your Favorite

Compressor?

(MP): I don't have a favorite compressor. I likedifferent compressors on different things. Ilike the DBX 160 on bass, I like the distressoron vocals. It just depends on what kind ofsound I'm going for.(FR): Another hard one to answer becausethey all sound different and they all do theirown “thing.” That's why studios have so manydifferent kinds in their racks. If I had to choosejust one, it would probably be a dbx 165a.(CS): An Empirical Labs Distressor with theBritish mod as it can behave like any com-pressor ever built and then do some other cooltricks as well.(ME): The Empirical Labs Distressor is asgood an all-around compressor as I can thinkof. It can go from subtle to extreme, is well-

558/710

made, and you will keep it forever. I bought apair when they first came out and use themevery day. There are loads of great com-pressors, but these do everything well.(JW): I'm a bass player, so I tend to gravitatetoward compressors which handle this instru-ment well, and have never heard anythingquite as euphonic as the vintage UA 175b. Theyare of a very straightforward design, an earlyvari-mu style compressor with big, juicy trans-formers and tone-for-days. They are great onbass, vocals, strings as well as many otherthings.(KM): Considering cost, function, and ease ofuse, I would say that the FMR Audio RNC ismy favorite. I bought one when I couldn't af-ford anything else and still use it alongsidesome pretty high-end stuff.(GS): All around, and probably a lot of engin-eers would agree, the Distressor is prettyamazing. I heard another engineer, I can't re-member who, say this at a conference and it

559/710

always pops into my head when I patch it in,“it's hard to make it sound bad”. I think I usethat as a mental crutch to justify using it somuch. My new favorite, though it is only newto me, it is the original Pro VLA. I picked oneup cheap when they came out with the MKII afew years ago. It sat in the box for a couple ofyears before I ended up using it. I had usedone at a studio in the past but didn't reallyhave a chance to experiment. When I finallyput mine in my rack, I was surprised by thecolor/character it is able to impart. You can geta really cool sound on a drum mix. I like it onbass and guitars too. At the end of the day,most compressors, when used judiciously, canbe made to sound okay. Even some of the veryinexpensive ones. It's nice to have options,though.(AM): The Empirical Labs Distressor. I lovehow incredibly versatile it is – it can be verytransparent or very colored depending on howyou set it. My second choice would be a 1176.

560/710

(CJ): What day? Analog compressors all haveunique characteristics. Right now, I'm in lovewith my Purple Audio MC77s and my ManleyVari-Mu with the T-bar mod.(TD): Just like mics it depends on the situ-ation and what sound you are picturing. I lovealmost any compressor. Some of my favoritesinclude, the UREI 1176, LA-2A, dbx165a, Dis-tressor, Tube Tech CL-1B, API 527 500 Series,Purple Audio Action 500 Series, and for an af-fordable option the ART PRO VLA II.(MR): The UA175, a fantastic-soundingvariable-mu tube compressor.(JH): There are many different compressors Ilike for specific tasks. Empirical Labs EL-8Distressor is the most versatile, and will workwell on virtually everything.(HJ): This depends on what I'm looking tocompress or limit, so I don't have one favorite.I will use whatever is available to me. dbxmakes a great line of older and newer models.The Distressor is also a handy tool. If you're

561/710

looking for plug-ins, Massey's L2007 is fant-astic and oh-so-simple.

3. What Is a Good Vocal

Microphone?

(JW): A good vocal mic is the one which worksbest for the particular singer you want to cap-ture. Some great singers don't really soundtheir best using the biggest and worst large-diaphragm condensers. Often, a large-dia-phragm dynamic mic will work better. Much ofthis depends on the balance of chest voice tohead voice when considering your microphonechoices.(MP): There is no one good vocal mic. I like totry several mics on the lead vocal, so I can pickone that is best suited for the quality of thevoice. Often, I wind up choosing a differentmic each time I have a new vocalist. Don't beafraid to try mics that are considered “guitar”

562/710

mics or “bass” mics on vocals. You might besurprised to find a great vocal mic in there.(MR): There are many, and the answer tonearly every recording and especially record-ing equipment question is the same: “it de-pends.” The best vocal mic is the one thathelps you achieve the sound you are strivingfor. You have to define what “good” means foryou with a particular singer in a particular son-ic and musical context. Try everything that'savailable to you, and figure out where you areon various spectra: from “representative” to“flavored”; from full range to bandlimited;across the spectra of different sounds andfunctionality. It's like everything else, you'llknow when you hear it. Don't forget that undermost circumstances the microphone choice isless important than the song, the performance,the singer and their comfort level, and a hostof other factors. So it's best not to keep thesinger waiting while you swap out mics. Put afew up, listen to them and choose, or record

563/710

them all, and figure it out at a time when itdoesn't impede the creative process.(TD): I use a large-diaphragm condenser micabout 90% of the time. That being said, everysinger has a unique voice and you ultimatelywant to have a few mics to choose from so youcan A/B them and find out what suits thatsinger the best. You would be surprised whatmay end up working. It is possible your kickmic might be the mic that suits the vocal soundbest or that mic you never liked before makesthe voice come alive. Get to know your micsand don't be afraid to experiment.My favorites under $300: Shure KSM27, Cas-cade Elroy, Cascade 731r, and Oktava 219, andfor over $300: AT 4050, U47, and AKG 414.(GS): Generally I use large-diaphragm con-densers for vocals. Often one with tubes in it.Lately my go to mic that works on a wide vari-ety of singers has been the Peluso 2247 LE. So-metimes I'll use an Audio Technica 4047/SVwith great results. I'm really fond of the 4047

564/710

on a variety of sources, especially guitar amps.Sometimes, though it is perfect for the rightvocalist. Dynamic mics can be great on vocalstoo. I tracked an album for a band where wedid 21 songs in 2 days. The band was very wellrehearsed and all the players were good, butwe still had to be extremely efficient. For thevocals, I set up three dynamics. An RE20, anSM7, and an MD421. It was a triangle forma-tion with all the null points in the center. Thethree vocalists tracked all their vocals live, to-gether.I may have moved them around to dif-ferent mics to figure which mic suited eachsinger best, but those were the three best dy-namics in the house. Dynamics have good re-jection and pick up drops off pretty rapidlyonce you move away from it. It worked outgreat in this situation. Going back to LDCs…there are new ones coming out all the time.They are getting better and cheaper. There willalways be the classics, but there will always be“new classics.”

565/710

(CS): AT 4050, for its ability to record all typesof sources from the sublime to the powerful.(CJ): One that suits the singer within the re-corded track. That could be a blown out lapelmic or a $5000 Neumann. I tend to like myLawson L47 tube, a Shure SM7, an AKG 414 B-ULS, or a Neumann TLM-103.(FR): Any mic that sounds good on the vocal-ist you are trying to record.(HJ): This is like asking “what is a goodcuisine”? Voices are the single-most uniquesound out there and every one requires tryingdifferent signal chains (starting with the mi-crophone) to see what works best. A lot of thetime it won't be the most expensive mic thestudio has to offer. I've used Neumann U67's/U87's, AKG 414's, Shure SM58's, ribbon mics,everything. What's your budget?(KM): It doesn't work for every voice but Ilove a large-diaphragm dynamic. I'm partial tothe Shure SM7 right now.

566/710

(AM): Any microphone that sounds good onthe singer you are recording. I say that slightly“tongue in cheek,” but it's really true. Whenmost people say “vocal mic,” they're reallythinking “large-diaphragm condenser,” butthat may not always be the best choice. Dy-namics can sound great on vocals (ShureSM58, Shure SM7, ElectroVoice RE20, andSennheiser 421). Then again a really goodNeumann U47 (or a recreation thereof), or anAKG C12, or an ELAM 251 can truly be a thingof beauty.(JH): We usually try six or eight different micsto find the best match for a particular vocalist.We often choose the AKG C-12, NeumannU-67, or Neumann U-47. These mics are allvery expensive, and for someone starting outas an audio engineer I would recommend theEV RE-20 or the Shure SM7 because theysound great and they are reasonably priced.(ME): Typically, people like condenser micson vocals and you can't go wrong with general

567/710

purpose mics like the AKG 414 or Blue Kiwi.You can spend a lot less and still get goodsounds from the Chameleon TS-2, a greatvalue tube mic, or some of the sE models. Con-sider that any microphone a person is singinginto is a “vocal” mic! I love the Sennheiser 421on vocals, and the Shure SM7. These are dy-namic mics which you can use on anything. It'sworth trying a few things on people becausesometimes a certain voice just sounds goodwith a certain microphone. Use your ears, notwhat some ad says about what you should use.Sometimes a cheap mic from the thrift store isjust the thing!

4. What Is Your Favorite

Microphone? Or if You Could Only

Take One Microphone With You to

568/710

Record Your Favorite Artist What

Would It Be?

(MP): If I had to pick one mic to take to theend of the earth with me to record, it would bethe Gefell UM900.(JW): Oooh, this is a tough one. I'm a softiefor all vintage Neumann tube microphones,but if I had to pick one, it would be the unusualM269. These were a variation of the U67, butthey used the brilliant AC701K tube instead ofan EF86. AC701K's were also used in some ofmy other Neumann favorites, the KM54 andKM56 small-diaphragm condensers. TheM269 excels on female voice, and is the mic Iused to record my wife when we first met at arecording session years ago. It's also veryquiet.

569/710

(AM): The Coles 4038. I am continually blownaway by how good it can sound on a wide vari-ety of instruments.(MR): My Neumann U67s.(CS): The AT 4050 because it is what my fa-vorite artist – Neko Case – prefers for hervocals.(KM): When I first started putting togethermy personal mic arsenal, CAD had just intro-duced their Equitek line. I got a hold of a pairof the E-100 condenser mics and out of neces-sity used them on everything. I would usethem on the drum overheads, guitar cabs,acoustic guitars, horns, and vocals. Seriously,there are records I did during this period thatthe E-100 was used on every instrument. As Iaccumulated more mics, the CAD remained atthe top of the batting order. I liked the way itsounded but I also knew how to use it on any-thing. For that and for simple nostalgia, I'll callthe CAD E-100 my favorite.(FR): My Neumann U67.

570/710

(TD): Whatever works for the situation at thattime. Each mic has a personality so it dependswhat I am going for, but a U47 doesn't suck!(ME): You could easily do an entire recordwith a Sennheiser 421. Scott Litt said that tome, and I think he's right!(HJ): Probably, an AKG 414. Not only do I likethe sound, but I like that it doesn't need a sep-arate power supply. If I could only take onemic with me, I could put it in my pocket.(JH): I would bring the Neumann CMV-563, avintage tube condenser with interchangeablecapsules that sounds great on everything.(GS): Until I find something I like better, Iguess it would be my Peluso 224LE. I've alsohad a Peluso 22 251 for a while, that I haveonly recently started to love. I want to exploremore microphones when my budget allows.But for now, I am happy with these.(CJ): Beyerdynamic M160 ribbon if they arequiet. Royer R-121 if they are loud. I like rib-bons. If it had to be a condenser… AKG 414 B-

571/710

ULS because it is more neutral than most con-densers. Neutral can be useful if you have onlyone mic to use. Then you shape your tone atthe source – instead of with the mic.

5. Which Recording Software Do

You Use? Nuendo, Pro Tools, Logic,

or Another Software Program?

(MP): I use Pro Tools and Nuendo as my re-cording software. I use RMG 911 for analogrecording.(CS): Pro Tools unfortunately and it is a love/hate relationship for sure.(ME): Pro Tools HD. All these things workwell, I just got Pro Tools because it's the mostcommon and I wanted other people to be ableto tell me how it worked! This was most help-ful in the early days.

572/710

(MR): I'm using Digital Performer now, butprobably switching to Pro Tools 9 soon.(TD): Doesn't matter to me, but I typically usePro Tools or Nuendo, because that is whatmost studios use in my town. I have Pro ToolsLE on my laptop that I use on simple, mobileprojects. However, I record to analog tape 90%of the time. I use new/old Quantegy 456 2″tape.(CJ): Cubase versions 4 and above use exactlythe same engine as Nuendo but cost half theprice. All software is buggy. I prefer analog forfidelity and reliability. Don't let all the market-ing and advertising folks influence your be-liefs. I also use Ableton LIVE. But I haven'theard a DAW that can sum multiple tracks bet-ter than a good analog console. I still haven'tinstalled ProTools. In other parts of the world,Avid does not have such a strong marketingshare. Do you drive a Honda, Toyota, VW, orChevy? Oh really? You aren't professional and

573/710

you are never going to get there in that vehicle.SUV = DAW.(AM): ProTools.(FR): Nuendo.(HJ): I have used Pro Tools since the mid 90s.I've dabbled with other software but keep re-turning to Pro Tools due to familiarity andflexibility.(JH): I have used Nuendo and Pro Tools. Iprefer Nuendo because it sounds better. ProTools has become the most commonly used re-cording program, and it is helpful to be com-patible with other studios and engineers.(KM): Pro Tools is my preferred platform. Itwas the first software I learned when I madethe jump from modular digital recorders tosoftware-based systems. I put in the time tolearn its flow and it works for me. Digidesign(Avid) has always been aggressive in theirquest for marketplace dominance and eachnew version has been better than the last. I

574/710

have used all of the programs mentioned andthere are things about all of them that I like.(GS): For the last few years I have been usingCubase. I came out of a studio partnership be-fore starting up my new place and that's whatwe used. I also know a few other engineerswho use it so it seemed like a good idea to havea network of friends all using the same stuff sowe could help each other out and share pro-jects. I deliberately stayed away from ProTools. I always felt like the proprietary natureof their platform did not have the user's bestinterest at heart. I heard horror stories of stu-dios spending a fortune to upgrade, only tofind out a month later that a next version hadbeen released. It always seemed very expensiveand limiting. Now they have opened up theirplatform for other hardware and I am consid-ering switching over. There are some features Iwould like to see added or improved before Ido it. If I do switch over, I may end up runningboth Cubase and Pro Tools. All the DAWs out

575/710

there are amazing, complex pieces of software.They all have their flaws too. At the end of theday, it's just a tool I use to record music. Itdoesn't really matter which one I use.

6. Do I Have to Use a Mac for

Recording?

(MP): You do not have to have a Mac torecord.(CJ): No, you don't. And I intentionally savedmoney by building Windows machines withIntel processors so that I could buy analog gear– gear that outlasts, outperforms any platform,and any computer. DAWs are mixing tools. Mi-crophones & mic Pres are recording tools.Somehow the digital companies have fooled usinto believing otherwise. A plugin is apostrecording tool. And it sounds equally badon PCs and Macs.

576/710

(TD): Like I mentioned earlier, I record to tape90% of the time. But when I do use a computerI generally use a Mac.(FR): You may have to, but I don't.(KM): No. You don't even have to use a com-puter. Personally, I'm a Mac guy but I don't be-lieve that there is a difference in sound. A well-tweaked PC can be a beautiful thing. It's justnot for me. There are way too many differentmanufacturers in the PC world for me to keepup with. Apple makes great products that workwell with the software that I use and their cus-tomer service and tech support have alwaysbeen great.(MR): Not at all. You don't even have to use acomputer for recording!(CS): No, but it helps if you are a Mac user ob-viously but you can get more processing powerfor less money with a PC. It's all a trade-offand what works for one is not always good foranother, so go with what you know andunderstand.

577/710

(AM): Not really.(ME): No.(JH): You do not need a Mac for recording.(GS): Ha ha ha ha… absolutely not! Are theybetter? Maybe. I have a love/hate relationshipwith Macs. I ended up using PCs kind of thesame way I ended up using Cubase. Early on,Macs were designed for multimedia and PCswere designed for business, so back then it ac-tually made a difference. When I got out of col-lege I really wanted a Mac because that's whatI had been using in the computer lab and allmy production labs, etc. I either couldn't af-ford one, or couldn't justify one, so I ended upwith a PC. I was recording on ADATs at thetime and mixing down to DAT. Multitrack to acomputer was not really in anyone's reach atthe time. Later, when I my DAT gave out and Idecided to start mixing down and editing witha computer, I already had a PC, so it was nat-ural to just get the hardware I needed for thatand keep my costs low. I have always flirted

578/710

the idea of switching to Mac, but also alwaysfelt a little alienated as a consumer by them.(HJ): You can use a Mac or a Windows-basedcomputer for recording. You can also use amultitrack tape recorder that you could findcheap on Ebay or Craigslist. Don't be afraid toexperiment with your recording medium. Justdon't do it on someone else's dime.

Skills

7. How Do I Become a Skilled

Mixer?

(ME): Mainly, don't get frazzled! If you loseperspective, step away from it. Eventually youknow when you're going down a blind alley,but I think when you're starting out it's easy toget frustrated quickly, then nothing soundsgood! Never listen to things alone for long.Listening to one drum by itself is mostly a

579/710

waste of time. To start, push up several soundsand listen to how they work together. It may beoverwhelming to listen to everything at the be-ginning, but avoid trying to perfect one track,then another, because what matters is how thesounds work together. Think in big, boldterms! On most sounds, ±1 dB is inaudible,don't get hung up on tiny tweaks. Think aboutwhat listeners will actually notice! Always gofor vivid, rather than careful. Keep doing it!You always figure out new techniques, evenwith the same equipment.(MP): The only way to get good at mixing, is tomix. Experiment with different types of musicand outboard gear. Trust your ears, you willget better and better.(TD): Mix a lot! Practice and experience areessential to get good at mixing. Listen to a lotof music and analyze the sounds you hear.(GS): Mix as much as you can. Read aboutmixing as much as you can. Talk to other en-gineers about mixing as much as you can.

580/710

Experiment as much as you can. Learn to re-cord so it mixes itself. I guess that's the realtrick, but you're not always mixing your owntracks, so knowing how to deal with problemsis important. Sometimes I get tracks from oth-er engineers and my first impression is usually,“wow, that sounds good…” I always end uphaving work just as hard building those mixesas with my own tracks. I guess it just soundsdifferent than my recordings, and that's re-freshing to my brain and ears.(JH): Compare your results to other record-ings in the same musical genre. If your mixesdon't compare favorably, try to understandwhat is different and make changes accord-ingly. It takes time and concentrated effort totrain your ears, so mix as often as you can.(AM): Mix. A lot. Every day. In as many differ-ent styles of music as you can. Also, listen togood mixes in lots of differing musical styles.(CJ): Get good at recording the source materi-al first. Modern mixing is often overrated and

581/710

self-indulgent. Leveling and panning greattracks and great performances can be verypowerful.Many engineers believe it is their duty to touchor change every sound they record. That's notmixing. Of course, if your career is based onreinterpreting what the artist intended so thathe/she can sell millions of records then yourfocus is beyond mixing – you become a hands-on postproduction producer at that point. Andyoung engineers can sometimes feel entitled toscrew up a band's sound because they own theDAW with the cracked plug-ins. Wrong.So, good mixing comes from good recording.And when you screw up the track while placingthe mic, or choosing the mic incorrectly, ormissing the tone settings on the amp, or tuningthe drums poorly, or picking the trumpet in-stead of the viola for that overdub, then youhave to “mix around” your shortcomings. Thisteaches you to pay attention while tracking…and your mixes get better as a result.

582/710

(MR): Mixing is a technical art, and one getsgood at it as does any artist: work, practice,study, reading, concentrated deep thinking,comparison with others' work, study of anddedication to arts of all kinds, and a commit-ment to learning what listening really means.(HJ): You can get better at mixing by criticallylistening to records, including records youdon't particularly care for, records of varyingsound quality. Then, mix about five records onyour own. Then master one of them. Masteringyour own recordings truly helps you find yourweaknesses as a mixer.(FR): Mix a lot.(KM): Like any other musical skill, you have tospend several thousand hours mixing music tobecome proficient but here are a few thingsthat will save you some time. First, know yourmixing environment and your monitors. Listento your favorite CDs through them. Second,reference your mixes in other listening envir-onments like your car, your home, at work,

583/710

and with friends. Get a good set of head-phones. This is particularly useful for checkingyour panning and overall stereo separation.Third, get other engineers opinions. You don'thave to agree with them but it's important tohear what they have to say. Last and most im-portant, no matter what YOU think, the mixisn't good until the client likes it. Listen tothem. Learn how to get the sounds that theywant out of your equipment and plug-ins.(CS): Spend many years listening to mixes youlike, learn proper unity gain structure fromstart to finish, understand how we perceivestereo, check your work in the real world on asmany different speakers as possible, and thenfind a great mastering engineer and leave themsome headroom to make your work sparkleand shine.

584/710

8. How Valuable Is an Education or

Degree to Becoming a Successful

Engineer?

(CS): An education can get you started prop-erly and you can learn from others experiencesand mistakes.(MP): Education is always a good thing.Knowledge and experience are what help youdeal with any situation you get into, and edu-cation is a big part of the knowledge side ofthat equation. Experience, you've just got to goout and get. However, it's easier to gain experi-ence with something if you've got a basic un-derstanding of how things work.(GS): I believe it is paramount. Education thatis… You don't necessarily have to go to schoolto learn it, but you have to be educated… andyou have to keep educating yourself. Without

585/710

the fundamentals and basic understanding ofsound and its reproduction, you are like a shipadrift at sea. I am not very good at, or perhapsdon't have the patience, to teach the funda-mentals. I think you have to have a passion forthis type of knowledge and that passion cannever be taught.(AM): The most valuable part of going toschool to learn recording is to gain access tothe equipment and to get as much hands-ontime with that equipment as possible. Secondis having a good foundational understandingof audio (especially signal flow) so that whenyou do get to work in a studio, you can contrib-ute more to the session and not ask overlysimplistic questions.(FR): An education is crucial, since it helps toknow what you're doing. Not sure how much adegree helps. Education comes in many forms.(KM): It sure can't hurt. If nothing else, a de-gree shows potential employers that you areserious and can finish what you start. There

586/710

WILL be dry periods where there isn't any re-cording work and a degree is pretty helpful inthose times. There is no shame in a day job ora backup plan. Do what you have to do to getwhere you want to be. A formal education isn'tfor everyone and there are plenty of great en-gineers out there who have done fine withoutone. If you do go the academic route, chose theright program for you. Do as much research aspossible before committing to a course ofstudy. Tour the campus, read reviews, and talkto current and past students. Ask what they aredoing now and if the program helped them ful-fill their career goals. Be very cautious of anyprogram that promises job placement. Knowthis – expensive does not always mean good.(JH): A degree or certificate is useful if youwant to apply for a job at a large business. Aperson wanting to work as a freelance engineeror small studio owner is better off spendingmoney on equipment rather than tuition.

587/710

(CJ): It is important to challenge yourself.There are so many do-it-yourself engineers outthere making a living and growing withoutformal education. But a good learning environ-ment can immerse you in situations that pushyou forward and force you into critical think-ing. Some people need that. And how many en-gineers under 30-year-old know everythingthere is to know about recording? You can bean assumptive a-hole or you can be better anyway possible.(TD): As a studio owner I would hire someonewith experience over someone with a degreethat doesn't have experience. Someone withexperience may not have a college degree onthe subject but may be way more educated onrecording through their experience. However,college can provide a great backup plan, edu-cate you on the subject matter, and give you aplace to meet other people like yourself to net-work with. Whether you go to college to edu-cate yourself on recording or through another

588/710

means, you will never know it all. That is whatmakes it challenging and always new to me.(MR): It depends… These days some technicaltraining can be helpful, mostly as a way ofmore quickly learning the technology and tech-niques. It is such a multifaceted area, andthere is so much to know about, including re-cording and audio technology, acoustics, com-puters, communications, electronics, musictheory and history, recording history, and end-lessly onwards. The degree may or may not beimportant to establishing oneself, but the edu-cation never ends.What's equally important probably is whatgoes along with it, mentorship and a philo-sophical framework. It's also very important inregards to establishing and maintaining a ca-reer, to establish a network, starting with yourteachers and their contacts. Also, the peer net-work that is established by friendship withother students is one of the most valuable as-sets you will ever have.

589/710

(HJ): You don't need a degree to become asound engineer. However, spending timestudying any of your passions will help you im-mensely as an individual in the field of record-ing in many ways that are difficult to accountfor. My college minor was in Psychology and Ican't express how helpful that has been to myrecording career.(ME): Music recording is totally word ofmouth. Nobody cares where you went toschool, they only care if you recordedsomething they like. Of course, school canmake you skilled and ready to work, it mayspeed up things for you. Connection to the mu-sic world is mostly something you have to doby making your own way in some music sceneand showing people that you have the goods.To work for a broadcast operation, it mightlook good to have a nice educational back-ground. Music recording is really down-home,and totally based on grassroots reputation, andbeing friends with people.

590/710

9. Do You Record/Cut With

Compression or EQ?

(MP): I record with compression or EQ if itsounds good. My main goal is to capture goodsounds, then I don't have to do much to themlater in the mix.(MR): I tend to record with EQ if I think itneeds it, and not to track through com-pressors. I monitor through them if I think I'llbe using them, and write down the settings if Ifind something nice.(CS): Depends on the instrument being recor-ded and the relative abilities of the artist. Iprefer to “EQ” via mic placement, choice, andpreamp characteristic and “limit” as needed toprevent distortion or clipping.(KM): Depending on the situation, I will usecompression and/or EQ on the front end of arecording. If it is something that will probably

591/710

need a lot of compression, like kick, snare,bass guitar, and some vocals, I like to do it instages (a little while cutting and whatever isneeded in the mix). I use front end EQ muchmore conservatively. On well maintained andtuned equipment, proper mic placement willusually get me in the ballpark. The artist usu-ally knows what they want their instrument tosound like.(ME): I don't use much compression whentracking, maybe one or two sort of special ef-fects type things, like, say, a smashy room, butthat's about it. But I don't shy away from EQ. Iknow I'm going to cut a lot between 300 and600 Hz on a bass drum, so why not go aheadand do it? I know some people really do cuteverything flat but I'd rather always be work-ing toward the final tone.(FR): Usually not with EQ, sometimes lightcompression. I like to keep my options open inmixing.

592/710

(CJ): Yes, Tape compression, GP9, 456, andespecially ATR Magnetics formulations to 16track 2″. Maybe a little overhead compression,maybe something on the bass for control. I tryto adjust the EQ at the amp or by choosingmics that shape the sound at the source. Mul-tiple mics (in phase) can offer a way to EQlater simply by balancing levels of two differ-ent tones on the same source.(JH): I record with EQ, compression, and ef-fects to get the tone as close as possible to thefinal sound. I like to make firm decisions aboutsounds as I record, and then as I overdub I cantell how well the new track fits with what isalready on tape. This makes mixing very easy.(AM): Yes, sometimes, but I love it when I cancut without. Whenever possible I try to get thebest microphone/preamp combination for theinstrument at hand. I also try to change/modi-fy whatever I can at the source, that is, chan-ging guitars, pickup selection, amp settings,swapping drums (especially with snare drum),

593/710

tuning drums; then moving the mic before Iresort to EQ. That said, certain instruments dooften need EQ when cutting, especially to getcertain sounds (e.g., modern rock drumsounds – they need a lot of EQ).In a similar vein, certain instruments are verychallenging to record without compression:vocals, for example. I also (like many engin-eers) like to use a little compression whiletracking just to add certain coloration to somesounds – for example, on bass. I might onlyhave the compressor kicking in on a couple ofdB, but running the bass through a tube com-pressor adds a great color.(TD): It depends on the session. If I am cut-ting 10 songs and mixing them in a weekend Iwill cut with whatever is necessary to finish thesession. Also, I tend to do more processingwith novice musicians versus skilled profes-sionals. Skilled professionals are likely to playmore consistent and have better tones, mean-ing I don't have to apply as much compression

594/710

or EQ. Exceptions would be if a unique or dif-ferent sound is needed, then anything goes.(GS): Sometimes. Depends whether it is ana-log or digital. Who will mix it, etc? I used tonever do it because I wanted to keep my op-tions open. Now, with DAWs, there are somany options that it can be a good thing tostart making decisions early.(HJ): Usually I track with compression or EQ,it depends on the instruments and how theyare being played combined with natural roomacoustics. I won't go crazy though unless we(myself and the artist/s) are 100% sure wewant a specific sound. It helps to tailor yoursounds but not premix them when you'rerecording.

10. Do I Need to Know About MIDI?

(MP): You don't need to know MIDI to record,but all knowledge is helpful in just about anyendeavor.

595/710

(KM): Yes. It is part of the deal now. Don'tlimit yourself.(GS): It doesn't hurt. I don't deal with it a lot. Itook a class on it in college so I can muddle myway through when necessary. It depends onyour workflow and what type of music you willbe dealing with. Before I took a class in MIDI,or maybe it was a manual I read, I found MIDIto be completely mind boggling. The classreally helped clear things up. I suppose youcould automate some stuff with it, but withDAWs, automation in the box is so easy that Ihaven't needed it. If I'm dealing with musi-cians using MIDI, they are so up on it that Idon't really have to get involved. I suppose Ishould do more with it.(CS): Depends on the type of music you planon making. It's the “algebra” of recording soyou should at least learn what it is capable ofand understand when you would need to useit.

596/710

(CJ): Yes a little. You need to know everythingthat your clients know. Don't waste theirmoney. Study beforehand. Talk about the pro-ject in advance. Be respectful.(ME): Depends on what you're doing. Dancemusic, hip-hop, etc. are all about it, rock musicnot so much. It's pretty cool, though, I wish Iknew it!(MR): Why not?(FR): The more you know about anything todo with audio, the better your chance of get-ting work.(TD): Again, everything helps, but I rarely useit with the music I record.(JH): I usually record real instruments to 2″analog tape, and mix to ½″ tape without usinga computer. For my type of work MIDI is notnecessary. However, it would be advantageousfor someone wanting to start an audio engin-eering career to know MIDI. You never knowwhen that knowledge could be a great asset.

597/710

(AM): No, but anything you can add to your“skill set” is valuable. MIDI is a tool that en-ables you to do certain things that can't bedone otherwise. Although it's not something Iuse in the studio every day, when it is neededI'm very glad that I understand how to use it.Also, many people don't really understand howto use MIDI, especially when it comes totroubleshooting, so knowing how to deal withMIDI problems (connections, configurations,etc.) can definitely give you an edge over otherpeople.(HJ): This depends what you want to do as acareer. If you are going to be doing field re-cording for film, no, MIDI has nothing to dowith this. If you're going to be recording music,yes, MIDI may or may not be incorporated intoa project you will work on. It's also importantto know the basics of programs such as Reasonor Ableton Live, which use some of the sameprinciples.

598/710

11. How Do I Know When a Mix Is

Done?

(CS): When it's balanced in stereo, and makesyou smile on playback because it moves youemotionally and makes you want to hear itagain.(ME): When you truly enjoy listening to it!This can be difficult when you've been workingfor hours and are basically tired and worried!Consider that most iconic tracks were done inthe days before a million revisions and recallmixes. I am still a big believer in concentratingon a mix, doing my best and leaving it aloneforever. Here it is: The Mix. These days, some-body will pop-up a month after a mix is doneand want to make a tiny change that nobodywill ever hear. It's fairly easy to do in an in-the-box (all-computer) situation, but I think it's abad trend. It leads to nobody ever being

599/710

satisfied with anything! I think it was a trulybetter situation when mixing was seen more aperformance, something you captured andthen congratulated yourself on your genius!No, sometimes you can redo a mix and im-prove it, but what I see these days is a lot ofworry and the inability to get finished withanything. It's better to finish, and then makeyour next record!(FR): When you and the client are both happywith it and excited about it.(MP): I know when a mix is done when itsounds good and the client is happy.(TD)

1. The song feels good and moves me theway I had envisioned.

2. A feeling that comes over me and I justknow, or at least think I know.

3. When the budget runs out!

(MR): You feel it.

600/710

(GS): That's a good question. I'm not sure Iknow when a mix is done. A lot of what I'm do-ing when mixing is dealing with the things Idon't like first. Once I get through that, then Ican start to concentrate on getting everythingelse where I want it. I'm presented with newchallenges all the time when mixing. Espe-cially, if I am mixing another engineers tracks,or even something someone recorded at home.With DAWs I find myself going down rabbitholes of drum sound replacement, sidechain-ing with gates or compressors… all to try to“fix” things. When I have to do that, the mixnever really sounds done.(KM): The mix is never really done. There willalways be someone who thinks that the bassneeds to be louder (the bass player) or that thekeyboards need to come down a bit (the bassplayer) or that the doubled tambourine partshould be panned to the center (the bassplayer's girlfriend). The trick is to learn how torecognize diminishing returns. At some point,

601/710

what seems like a good idea really isn't. Thiscomes from practice. Also, the less peoplepresent at a mix session, the better. The bestcase scenario is you and one or two sobermembers of the band.(JH): A mix is done when it either soundsgood to you and your clients, or you run out oftime and money.(HJ): A mix is done when you can step awayfrom it and hear everything the way it was in-tended to be heard… or when you run out ofmoney ?(CJ): It makes you physically move. You mightbe dancing around or singing along or pound-ing your fist. That is important. Plus, you burna test CD to play in your 13-year-old Honda.And you effectively measure the mix againstthe thousands of hours of music your brainand body have enjoyed in that familiar space.Then you stop being a stubborn jackass and leta good mastering engineer handle the final

602/710

phase of the process. It's the bands' album–not yours, control freak!

Industry Insights

12. How Did You Get Started?

(MP): I got started when a friend built his stu-dio. I was good at electronics and carpentry, sohe asked me to help. It sounded like fun, so Isaid yes. Fifteen years later, I'm still here,helping out in any way I can and having a greattime.(JH): I had some experience doing live sound,and then went to a recording school. I got aninternship at a large major-label studio in NewYork City that eventually turned into a job. Imopped the floor, made coffee, and ran to getlunch for more than a year before I got to as-sist in a recording session. I moved to Austin,Texas and opened my own studio when Icouldn't find a job at an established studio. Mystudio has been in business for 15 years.

603/710

(AM): I interned at a studio in Boston while Iwas still in school. I don't even think I gotcredit for it, but I didn't care – I just wanted tobe in a studio. After school I moved to SanFrancisco and went to every studio in townand basically kept knocking on doors and call-ing to work for free (interning, again). I even-tually interned at four or five of the big studiosout there until I got a foothold at Hyde St. Stu-dios. I interned there for a while and proved tothem that I wasn't a flake, that I didn't have anego/attitude, that I knew my stuff and that Iwas willing to do whatever it would take to dothe work. My first paid work there was doingthe “Midnight-to-8 A.M.” sessions – pretty bru-tal, but I did it to “pay my dues”. That pro-gressed into more second engineering work,assisting outside engineers that would come towork at the studio. That was a great experi-ence, working with amazing, talented folksthat had been making records for 20–30 years.

604/710

(MR): I have always been rabidly interested inmusic and recording, and started a small stu-dio in 1980 with a group of friends.(ME): I played in bands, did a lot of thinkingabout what was actually going on in thosesounds on record, and then when the Teac4-track machines came out in the early 70s,Chris Stamey and I did nonstop recordings ona Teac 2340. That really taught me how tomake things add up! We had the Teac, threedynamic mics, a little box that made the fourtracks play back left, right or center, and later,an Echoplex tape echo device. Over the courseof a school year we got drastically better at do-ing this, and we never had any EQ, com-pressors, or processors of any kind aside fromthe Echoplex. So, although this sounds like atypical old-fart story, it does prove to me thatit's all about getting your hands on whateveryou have and working with it. Once you haveenough stuff to make a sound, you just have togo for it.

605/710

In college, I realized I really wanted to try to dorecordings for real, so I sold some things myparents had given me and bought some usedprofessional gear. This was a good move; thisgear was from the days of truly “pro” gear,really high-quality, and I still use most of thisstuff which I bought over 30 years ago! And Iused what I learned with the Teac and justkept going with the pro gear. It sounded betterand I had enough confidence from playing inbands and doing all these basement tapes thatI figured the “pro” version was essentially thesame task, which it is! But I think the most im-portant thing was that I understood what thebands wanted, and tried to give it to them. Iwas never dogmatic about the “right” way todo things, that's boring and sort of uncool… ofcourse, there is a bit of “right and wrong” inthis work, but music recording is about funand excitement, so bands often came to meafter working in some uptight place where theengineer just yelled at them for being too loud

606/710

or something. If you are working with artists,they are the #1 consideration. You can arguewith them a bit if you think there's somethingthey really need to consider, but you must al-ways convey respect and interest in what theyare saying!(CS): By accident, being the guy who boughtthe gear and was curious about how to recordmy own band and friends music. From a gar-age at my house that ended up being a neigh-borhood nuisance to a leased space that wasbig enough to track bands and built up onepatch cable, mic stand, guitar pick, headphone,microphone, preamp, and so on and on till youhave what you think you need to do the record-ing you want to do. It never ends actually soI'm still getting started to this day.(HJ): I was lucky and jumped at a chance tomanage a small studio in hopes that I wouldtrain as an engineer at the same time. It was100% about who I knew, people I becamefriends with in college.

607/710

(TD): Started off playing drums and guitar inmy single digits. Figured out multitrack re-cording soon after by recording and bouncingbetween cassette decks. I was always the per-son in the band that knew how to hook up thePA. Thanks to my older musician brother.When my mom asked what I was going to doin high school I said, “surf and play drums.”She suggested I have a backup plan. I foundout that I could get a degree in Audio and I wassold. Eventually moved to Austin to finish myRTF degree and I was playing drums on a re-cording session and asked the owner of thestudio if he needed an intern and he said “Yes,”…25 years later still rocking and recording.(GS): I started out as a hobbyist. I made a con-scious decision not to pursue recording. I wasafraid that if I recorded for a living, I would ru-in something I love. It was later on down theroad where I found myself in a position to pur-sue it professionally without that fear. I recor-ded a lot of bands for free or cheap. I had a

608/710

studio in my house. My wife had to put up withit. Once I decided to make it my living, I inves-ted some more money and quit doing thingsfor free. It was pretty simple. I had an intern-ship at a very nice studio right after college. Itturned out to be a worthless experience. I don'tthink I was a very good intern. I didn't like themusic they were doing. I kind of wasted theopportunity. But, at that age, I wasted a lot ofopportunities. I had no idea where my life wasgoing. I'm pretty happy about the way it'sturned now, so far.(KM): It was probably out of desperation butmy parents actually suggested that I look into arecording school. That was good and it gaveme the basic knowledge that I needed to getstarted. I did the usual internship, assistantthing in some studios and recorded a ton ofbands on equipment that I bought or borrowedover the years. I wore out several cassette4-tracks. That was all very important in my de-velopment as an engineer but the thing that

609/710

brought me the most opportunities in studioswas my ability and willingness to fix stuff. Atone point, I was engineering sessions in asmall record label's in-house studio at nightand building patchbays and custom cables fora local pro-audio store during the day. I didthat for about 2 years. The relationships that Iforged doing the tech work have been some ofthe most important and permanent of mycareer.(CJ): I actually began recording at a youngage. I used portable cassette recorders to cre-ate “shows” as if I was in charge of Foley, orspecial FX, or general ADR (I think that is theterm), by enlisting the help of all the neighbor-hood kids. We'd add sound to all the pages ofour favorite comic books using differentvoices, sound effects, and musical scores. Isang in the church choir until I thought itwasn't cool. Then later in high school I guess Ifelt that being able to sing was cool again. Iconvinced some friends to let me play in their

610/710

cover band. I programmed with sequencers forsome of the set. My band mate and I began torecord our original song ideas with a 4-trackaround that time and on into college.Having to look at something two-dimensionaland imagine what it should sound like, or hav-ing to reverse engineer musical structures wasincredibly fun for me. I also built model air-planes as a kid too… so joining things togetherfrom small parts just seemed to be part of mynature. Plus I loved music as a kid – not be-cause I wanted to be in a rock band – just be-cause it seemed so amazingly interesting. So itall fits together when I look back.Somewhere in my 20s, I decided to learn howto record and mix my own band because Iwasn't very interested in what the industry wasdoing. I have to give credit to Fugazi and SteveAlbini for helping me tie my musicianship inwith my engineering skills as a way to main-tain creativity. Knowing what I know and own-ing the gear I own simply feels empowering.

611/710

And helping other musicians record is obvi-ously fun for me if you read the first couplesentences.So I guess I started recording folks for moneyby first taking all of my equipment to a remotelocation, recording them, then mixing at myhouse. Eventually I began recording out of myhouse much like Tim [Dittmar]. Then I beganlooking at local rooms/studios. Eventually Ifound the space I am in right now. And overthe past few years I've expanded andenhanced.So I've been recording over 20 years and I'vebeen recording for money about 3/4ths of thattime. But I think I really “got started” about 10years ago when I began multitrack recordingusing: Tascam DA38s, then DAWs with 12 ormore ins and outs, then finally a real analog 2″multitrack machine. That's when bands beganto seek me out. So maybe that's what I con-sider my start. Multitrack was key… Having

612/710

16–24 live simultaneously recorded tracks allsounding good is challenging.(FR): I started playing music as a kid andplayed around with any type of tape recordinggear I could get my hands on. I learned asmuch as I could and read a lot of books. Then,I got lucky. I found an investor and started myown studio.

13. How Do I Get My Foot in the

Door?

(MP): You start by recording anyone you can.You record your band, a friend's band, yourneighbor's band, someone you saw play a gig,anyone. You keep recording and recordingwhenever you can. This will give you valuableexperience, and your friends will recommendyou to their friends, which will give you evenmore recording opportunities.(TD): Skill, drive, persistence, and luck.

613/710

(GS): Well, you either build your own door, orjust keep trying to get into any studio you can.Offer to work for free. Don't be above any job.Always be enthusiastic, and positive. Watchand learn. Ask questions. Figure out whatneeds to be done and do it before you areasked… even if that means taking out the trashor cleaning the toilet. If you want to build yourown door, then get together as much recordinggear as you can. Record a few bands for free. Ifthose come out good, then you can start tocharge a little. Put all the money into moregear. Whichever way you do it, you'll have tosupport yourself while you are getting thingsgoing. There are very few jobs in recording,that I know of, that pay at the entry level.(CS): Be nice, humble, quiet, and eager to domenial tasks while learning the studios pre-ferred way of tracking, overdubbing, and mix-ing. Pay attention and listen and show respectto all the musicians you work for and neverplace yourself above the artist.

614/710

(MR): Dedicate yourself to learning as muchas possible, and make yourself indispensableto someone. Be the first one there and the lastto leave, learn everyone's job, be a good com-municator who is pleasant to be around, learnthe etiquette, be humble, have a good attitude,and work hard.(HJ): Patience is extremely essential as well asnot expecting to be handed over a dream jobon a plate just because you want it. This is anextremely competitive field and it takes a con-fident, intelligent, technically minded personwho can also be willing to take a step back andnot be pushy. Listening to what your prospect-ive employer needs is essential.(JH): Try to get an internship at a busy studio.Learn as much about recording on your own aspossible. Get a small recording setup and prac-tice. Build your resume by recording for peoplefor free if necessary.(KM): Your sister's boyfriend Kevin has acousin who knows this guy at work who is

615/710

friends with the drummer in a Green Day trib-ute band. Buy a digital 8-track recorder onCraig's list, borrow some mics and go recordthe band for free. It is not hard to find bandsthat will put up with a little inexperience for afree recording. Of course, it's all wasted timeand energy if you don't learn the equipmentfirst.Internships are good, if you can get one. Per-sistence pays off. You will probably get a lot ofrejections before someone actually lets youcome fetch them coffee. When you do get aninternship, do a good job. Stay out of the way,do what is asked of you and wait. Trust me,nobody likes a hotshot intern. Show up early,stay late, start putting mics, cables, head-phones, and gear away while the band is get-ting rough mixes. Help the band load in andout. Learn how to solder! I'll say it again,LEARN HOW TO SOLDER. Every studio has apile of bad cables somewhere. Fix them and

616/710

you will instantly become an invaluable part ofthe team.(FR): Just keep knockin'.(ME): Get friendly with some bands and go toa session with them and tune their guitars orsomething. It doesn't matter what it is, but ifyou show that you are useful, pleasant to bearound, and smart, eventually somebody willask you to do something more substantial. Ifyou have a recording setup, record people forfree, and try to only record interesting people!Mainly, get noticed. Realize that whatever youdo, it has to be truly good. You can't just coast,you have to be exceptional.

14. Are There Jobs Available in the

Recording Industry?

(MP): There are very few jobs in recordingthat you can get in the traditional sense of go-ing on an interview and landing a job.

617/710

(KM): It's not really a nine to five kind of gig.There are not a ton of “jobs” but there is plentyof work. Like any other freelance situation,networking and self-promotion are key factorsto your success. Right now, there is a band de-ciding to record a CD. Your “job” at this pointis to get the gig. Do good work for them andthey will work with you again. And so will oth-ers. Every session that you do is an advertise-ment for you as an engineer.(FR): Lots of them.(CS): There is work but, I can't speak to jobs.Recording is about sessions and “gigs” andwork comes to you based on your reputationand vibe more than your space and equipment.More and more we have to go to the work andprovide our talent in nontraditional spaces soit is not so much a “job” as an occupationallifestyle.(ME): Not really, in music, anyway. I supposebroadcast may still be somewhat like the olddays of actual commercial activity. This is all

618/710

becoming a fancy, popular hobby. You defin-itely can't knock on the door of a recordingstudio and get hired. They are mostly closingdown. This is most unfortunate! Individual“star” recording people are doing OK and theymay hire assistants occasionally, usuallypeople who have already become very good atall this through their own experiences. Thereare jobs for hotshot editors, who can fix drumtracks, etc., on a per-song basis. Same for low-cost mastering.(CJ): Yes, if you are passionate and you servemusicians fearlessly – you will stay employed.(TD): Definitely, but you have to be extremelydriven and motivated. You will also need to becreative and have other skills (booking, webdesign, guitar instructor, sandwich artist, etc.)that you can utilize if you don't have a lot ofsteady recording session work.(GS): The best job in recording is the job youcreate for yourself. Sure, there are internshipsand the hope of landing some sort of recording

619/710

gig, and I suppose some people take that route,but for me, it's all about controlling my owndestiny. Even if it's not true, I believe that I amin charge of my own destiny and I can say “no”if I don't want to work on a project.(JH): It is difficult to get a job at a recordingstudio. The number of recording schools hasincreased in the last 20 years, so there aremany graduates looking for jobs. Simultan-eously, the number of large commercial studi-os has decreased due to sluggish CD sales andincreased competition from smaller studiosthat are staffed only by the studio owner. It ispossible to create your own job by working as afreelance engineer or starting a small studiobusiness yourself. This is more difficult thancollecting a steady paycheck from larger com-pany, and it requires a great deal of motivationand perseverance to succeed.(AM): Yes, but not in the traditional sense ofworking for someone or a business. Studiosdon't employ engineers – engineers are

620/710

freelance agents. So it's a position wherein youneed to find your own work.(MR): Yes, everywhere and in all kind of unex-pected ways.(HJ): There are always jobs in recording. Theamount of pay is the catch. No matter howmuch experience you have, you will always betempted to work for free. Unless they aresigned, decent bands usually have no money.It's still fairly easy to get an unpaid internshipin a bigger recording studio and work your wayup but it can take time. There are no quickpaths to making your dream happen. But enjoythe work you do and do your best at all times.This is what opens up future possibilities ofbetter pay.

621/710

15. How Much Money Should I

Expect to Make?

(MR): You can make hundreds of dollars ayear doing this crap! But seriously, it's highlyvariable, depending on the situation.(CS): Hopefully enough to support your gearhabit and the bill collectors satisfied. Beyondthat, just working making music and recordingis a reward in of itself.(CJ): More than me I hope. Figure out whatyou are good at – what you do differently thanother engineers/producers – then strive to bethe best in that area. There's room at the top.And the old farts are going to go deaf or retireeventually. Make good artists shine and badartists happy and you will make money.(MP): I'd love to be able to say you get rich re-cording, but you don't. If your goal is to get

622/710

rich, you need to move on to another line ofwork and record as a hobby.(KM): I think a reasonable expectation for anentry level position in the recording industrywould be zero dollars. If you work hard andhave a bit of luck, you could eventually makemillions. The good news is this, if you chooserecording as a career because it is somethingyou love doing and you go into it with sensiblegoals and work hard, the money will find you.The longer you continue to do good work andimprove your technical and interpersonal skillsthe less competition you will have.(ME): None, unless you get famous withsomething people really like. If you record aband who get noticed, other people will wantyou to record them, and you might be able toshake a little money out of the situation.Really, the money is a tiny fraction of what itwas 20 years ago. Very few bands are makingmoney, so they can't pay much, indie labels areusually tiny, etc. Money is only available when

623/710

a lot of people know who you are and think youwill really make great records. Good people doget noticed!(TD): You may work for free a lot. You willfind that most really good bands, unless theyalready have backing, don't have any money. Ifyou want to work with such a band you will of-ten weigh how much you really want to workon the record versus how much money you willtake at a minimum. This happens all the time!Don't go into audio engineering because youwant to be rich! Like any profession, the betteryou are the more likely you are to get paid foryour talents.(AM): Not a lot, especially at first.(FR): Expect to make millions, but don't bedisappointed with hundreds.(JH): Making records is generally a low-pay-ing job, so you have to want do this type ofwork for reasons other than making lots ofmoney. There are some engineers who are paidmore than the industry average because they

624/710

have already made many commercially suc-cessful records. These people are in the minor-ity of working recording engineers, and it tookthem years of hard work to get there.(HJ): This depends on where you live andwhat you want to do. You could land a paid in-ternship at a post house and be able to payyour rent, or you could get an unpaid intern-ship at a local recording studio and do that fora year or two.(GS): Depends what you want to record. Ithink there are people out there making a lot ofmoney and they believe they are making im-portant recordings. For me, it's about workingon projects that are satisfying to me person-ally. I feel like I've spent more on recordingthan I've made… that's not true, but if you ownyour own studio it can be very expensive.Freelancing can work out if you can build up aclient base and/or your reputation. Look onthe Internet at studio rates. This might giveyou a sense of what you can make. These rates

625/710

will change over time and they vary from stu-dio to studio.

16. What Do You Think the Future

of Recording Will Be?

(MP): I think the future of recording will bethe same as it is right now… Trying to capturethe essence of someone's art with an ever-changing array of tools and media.(AM): I have no idea…(ME): Hard to say! I miss the world of highquality, expensive rock records by obscure butgood artists! There will probably always be asmall “pro” scene for mega stars and every-body else will be recording on home setupsand getting variable results. It's sort of likeprofessional photo portraits giving way tosnapshots. Of course, smart people will dogood things no matter what the situation is.But I lament the decline of a world of music

626/710

recording experts who make a decent livingand have tremendous experience andexpertise.(CS): Hopefully we will see higher bit depthdigital recording, perhaps a better algorithmthan PCM encode/decode and recognizing thatbeing able to reproduce frequencies above 20kactually matters.(MR): It will be as varied, creative and mar-velous as the musicians and music that weserve.(TD): It will probably be an extension of whatit is today, constantly recombining old andnew technologies. People will continue to becreative using Apple iPads, 4-track cassettes,laptops, and whatever inspires, is affordable,and is available to that particular person.(FR): One day, you will be able to think up asong in your head and instantly it will be liveon the internet, ready for anyone to downloadit straight from your brain.

627/710

(JH): Computer recording systems will be-come more powerful and hopefully improve insound quality. I think the number of very largecommercial studios will continue to decreaseas computers improve. There will always bepeople who want to get together in the sameroom and record the music that they create.(HJ): The future of recording is unknown.With the push toward lesser-quality, com-pressed files, it's our responsibility as audiopeople to insist on better standards, that's asfar into the future as I can see.(KM): The future is now. Who knows what thenext recording trend will be? I don't. I'm prettysure that as long as people are listening to andmaking music there will always be a need fortalented engineers. Learn signal flow, micplacement, EQ, compression, and practicemixing. These skills will always be at the heartof the recording process. Keep an open mindand be ready for whatever comes next.

628/710

(GS): Recording technology continually be-comes more attainable for the average musi-cian. Lots of bands are recording themselves.Many artists use the computer as part of theircreative process…recording what they needand composing in the box. I see more of this inthe future, but the recording studio will nevergo away. There will always be people who wantsomeone else to engineer and produce forthem. There will always be people who aremore inclined to record and produce thanwrite and perform music. It's a naturalpartnership.(CJ): Awesome. I believe digital's role is tocatch up to analog. And since analog is stillamazing, the future will be more of the samefor those of us who can hear the difference.Sadly, when digital finally comes around…onlythe analog recordings of days past will be ableto make the conversion. You can't upconvertan MP3. You can't upconvert a CD, or even aDVD. I don't get the trend right now. When

629/710

you go to a movie and you hear the music andsound FX are so rich and full with so much in-formation for your brain to enjoy… how canyou go home and put on an MP3? And if youare a musician… how could you put up withthe quality of your music being destroyed…why have ears?Yes, current digital technology makes editingeasier. But PCM (pulse code modulation) tech-nology doesn't sound good. Do some research.Trust your ears. But computers are really ajoke. Two dimensional representation of thereal word experience is just silly. Let's design acomputer and DAW that can maintain the fi-delity of analog and place the engineer or mu-sician into a 3D space – instead of ones thatforce us to propagate antiquated technologyborn out of a savvy R&D division of a con-sumer electronics company.I am optimistic that eventually computers willbe so powerful that digital file compression isunnecessary. Then artists will be deciding how

630/710

their music will be delivered. They will alsochoose the extent of low end and top end intheir recordings. It won't be decided by SonyPhillips or Apple. Theatres have gone to 70mm, IMAX, IMAX 3D and now the hometheatre systems are following. But we still can'tfind files better than mp3s quality on portabledevices, or even in our cars. It's just digital in-formation. Stop controlling it. And stop lettingthem control it.I want to hear something that can't be repro-duced on vinyl, CD, DVD, or Blu ray. So-mething that literally breaks the sonic mold. Ican't wait till [sic] the day when the only wayyou can hear a certain album is when the artistallows you to do it. And the experience is sounique and mind blowing that people travelgreat distances to hear it. I hear music like thisin my dreams. And I am sure others do as well.Who cares if you can have 40,000 songs on aniPod if you can't make it to that once in a life-time musical event?

631/710

That is exciting. Maybe the new technologywill surpass analog pathways as well: Laser mi-crophones, magnetic resonance imaging, whoknows. But even in that future, you still need agood room and a good engineer AT THEBEGINNING to get those sounds into the newmedium. A good room makes the source soundcooler. A good engineer – like a good photo-grapher – can artistically frame the shot, setthe tone, and make the subject “larger thanlife.”The future of recording is forever loud andclear.

It Takes Time But It's Worth It!

It will take many years of hard work and dedic-ation to succeed in the extremely competitivefield of audio engineering. The rewards will bemany. I love it when I finally get a copy of a CDor record that I put my heart and soul into. Tome, I get way more satisfaction having com-pleted and been part of a music recording than

632/710

from getting paid. The money helps pay thebills but the tangible product of what I accom-plished is much greater.Although you can make a decent living as anaudio engineer you shouldn't enter the fieldexpecting to make large sums of cash rightaway. Experience means a lot with music pro-duction. So go get some. Learn as much as youcan anyway you can. Record with whatever youhave at your disposal. Take into account, youwill need to be very determined and patient atthe same time. Audio engineering can be a funhobby or one of the coolest jobs you could everimagine!

633/710

Appendix ABalanced versus Unbalanced 225

The Technical Part Is as Follows 225

The Technical Part Is as Follows 225

More on Decibels 226

Decibels 226

Balanced versus Unbalanced

If you become an audio engineer, sooner orlater you will recognize differences betweenbalanced and unbalanced audio equipment. Abalanced line offers excellent immunity fromhum, noise pickup, interference, and groundloops. Most professional recording studios useall balanced equipments. An XLR or a ¼″T/R/S (tip/ring/sleeve) connector usually in-dicates a balanced input or output (see Figuresin Appendix B). A balanced line is used withmicrophones and high-quality line signals.

The Technical Part Is as Follows

Balanced lines typically have THREE wiresused for a single signal. Pin 1 is usually ground,Pin 2 is HOT (+), and Pin 3 is COLD (−). A bal-anced line indicates that the signal-carryingwires are at equal potential, but opposite po-larity. Balanced lines and cables are typicallyused in professional settings and can be runvery long lengths without accumulating noise.A RCA connector or ¼″ T/S (tip/sleeve) usu-ally indicates an unbalanced input or output.¼″ unbalanced lines are common with instru-ments such as electric guitar and bass. RCA, orphono, is typically used with record players,speakers, and consumer stereo systems. Thistype of connector is also used to connect audioand composite video to TVs. They are oftencolor-coded red for the right speaker and whitefor the left speaker. Unbalanced lines need tobe kept short to avoid picking up interference

635/710

or other unwanted noise. They typically are noteffective at lengths over 15′.

The Technical Part Is as Follows

An unbalanced line has TWO wires, a HOTand a GROUND. The tip is HOT (+), whereasthe sleeve is ground.

Tip

Some rack-mounted signal processors will al-low you to switch between −10 and +4. Thisoption is typically found on the back of thepiece of equipment. If your studio is set up tobe balanced, make sure that +4 is selected onall equipments. Select −10 if all your recordinggear is unbalanced.

More on Decibels

Up to this point, we know that amplitude ismeasured in dBs. However, as you gain moreexperience in the coming years, you will come

636/710

to know that there are many types of decibelratings. dBs can describe power or voltage andsound pressure differences. Consumer andprofessional equipment not only differ in costand perceived quality but also differ in the ac-tual audio signal levels. Professional audioequipment generally has a normal operatinglevel of +4 dBu, whereas consumer audio has anormal operating level of −10 dBV. Notice thechange from dBu to dBV? Professional audio isabout 12 dB hotter than consumer equipment.This difference in level can degrade audioquality in two ways:

1. If the output of the pro gear is plugged in-to the input of the consumer gear, the higherlevels may overdrive the input, causingdistortion.

2. If the output of the consumer gear isplugged into the input of the pro gear, thesignal will be lower, which results in an

637/710

overall lower signal to noise ratio and the in-put signal may be barely audible.

Decibels

dBFS − decibels at full scale. A dB rating as-sociated with digital audio where zero is themaximum level. **−20 dBFS = 0 VU = +4dBu** This is not a fixed standard.

dBu − professional rating +4 dBu = 0 VU =1.23 Volts RMS and is used to expressvoltage levels.

dBV − consumer rating −10 dBV = 0 VU =0.316 Volts RMS and is also used to expressvoltage levels.

dBSPL − decibels sound pressure level.Measures sound pressure levels relevant inour daily lives. This is the dB reference usedmainly throughout the guide. 85 dBSPL = 0VU = +4 dBu.

638/710

Appendix BAudio Connectors 227

Analog Connectors 227

Digital Audio Connectors 230

Audio Connectors

A variety of connectors are used in music pro-duction. It will be helpful if you can recognizethe differences and uses of each connector. Ajack is used to describe the female side of anaudio connector, whereas a plug is used to de-scribe the male side of a connector. A plug isinserted into a jack. As mentioned in AppendixA, some connectors are associated with bal-anced lines/signals, whereas others are associ-ated with unbalanced lines/signals. In addi-tion, some connectors can be used for bothanalog and digital purposes. Let's start withanalog connectors.

Analog Connectors

Four common connectors associated with ana-log equipment are as follows:

1. PHONE (aka 1/4″, T/S, or T/R/S): Origin-ally adopted by Ma Bell for use with phoneoperator switchboards. Commonly used withinstruments (guitar, keyboards, and bass)and patchbays. Comes in both T/S (tip/sleeve) and T/R/S (tip/ring/sleeve). A T/Swill have a single band around the tip of theconnector, whereas a T/R/S will have twobands around the tip.

640/710

Figure B.1.

2. XLR (aka Cannon, Mic, or Neutrik): Typ-ically a three-pin connection but is availablein other pin configurations. Provides a verysecure connection. These connectors areusually associated with mic cables and

641/710

balanced audio. The male end of the con-nector is most often used for input, whereasthe female end of the connector is used foroutput.

Figure B.2.

3. MINI (aka 1/8″, 3.5mm): Smaller versionof the 1/4″. Comes in both T/S and T/R/S.Associated with personal stereo headphones,iPods, and computer sound cards.

642/710

Figure B.3.

4. RCA (aka phono): Usually comes in monopairs and is used in conjunction with con-sumer audio/stereo setups. Record playersgenerally have RCA outputs. The tip cariesthe signal and the ring is the ground. This isan unbalanced connector.

Figure B.4.

643/710

Tips

It is extremely crucial to maintain the integrityof digital audio. Digital signals use many of thesame type connectors as analog; however, theyare usually higher quality and gold tipped. AS/PDIF can use unbalanced RCA phono typeconnectors, whereas AES/EBU can use three-pin XLR balanced connectors.A few other connectors associated with analogequipment are as follows:

Tuchel: Come in various pin configurations.They have an outer locking ring and are wellknown throughout Europe. Smaller tuchelconnectors are common with some vintagemics, whereas larger tuchel connectors maybe found on some older model recordingconsoles and high-fidelity audio equipment.

644/710

Figure B.5.

ELCO/Edac: Multipin connector used inconjunction with tape machines, consoles,and sound reinforcement.

Figure B.6.

645/710

Banana plug: Used to connect higher endaudio amplifiers and speakers.

Figure B.7.

Speakon: Designed as a tight fitting speakerconnector. Excellent choice with live soundreinforcement.

Figure B.8.

646/710

Digital Audio Connectors

AES/EBU: Created by the Audio Engineer-ing Society and European Broadcast Unionto develop a standard when digitizing analogaudio. The connector looks like a typicalXLR and is often used with a digital workclock and/or I/Os. Other connectors may beused for AES/EBU protocol such as a DB25.

Figure B.9.

647/710

S/PDIF (Sony/Phillips Digital InterconnectFormat): An audio protocol associated withdigital consumer audio gear. Used to inter-connect components over shorter distances.The connector looks like a common RCAconnector but can also be found as aTOSLINK connector.

Figure B.10.

TDIF (TASCAM Digital InterconnectFormat): It is a proprietary connector usedby TASCAM. TDIF uses a bidirectional con-nection. Unlike the ADAT light pipe

648/710

connection, it can both send and receive upto eight channels of information with asingle cable.

Figure B.11.

ADAT Lightpipe: Developed by Alesis tocarry up to eight channels of uncompressedaudio at 24 bit and 48 kHz using fiber opticcables.

649/710

Figure B.12.

Optical/TOSLINK: Usually associated withan optical connection. Newer equipment of-ten uses a TOSLINK, replacing the coaxialS/PDIF connector.

Figure B.13.

MADI (Multi Audio Digital Interface):Another audio protocol besides S/PDIF andAES/EBU used to transmit digital audio.MADI supports a greater number of

650/710

channels. AMS Neve, Soundcraft, Lynx, AvidTechnology, and many other audio compan-ies use MADI protocol. Typically uses an op-tical connector.

USB (Universal Serial Bus): Designed forcommunication and as a power supply forcomputers and other electronic devices. Canbe identified by its trident logo. New ver-sions have been made available that signific-antly increase the speed at which data istransferred. The connector comes in severalversions. Pictured here are the commonType A and Type B. USB Flash drives are of-ten used to backup and store important files.

651/710

Figure B.14.

Fire wire (Apple's high-speed serial busdesign): Often used to transfer data to ex-ternal hard drives, webcams, and Apple'sown iPod. Firewire is capable of transferringaudio and video at about the same speed asUSB 2.0.

652/710

Figure B.15.

DIN MIDI connector: A five-pin round con-nector used for MIDI protocol. PrecededUSB and Firewire. Used to interface syn-thesizers, lights, and other variouscontrollers.

Figure B.16.

DB25: A 25-multipin connector. Used withanalog or digital audio signals. Often used

653/710

with analog for an eight-channel snake orother multichannel audio configuration.With digital audio, DB25 is commonly usedfor AES/EBU multichannel signal. DB25connectors are great for a tidy and secureconnection. However, the pins are easilybent and they are very difficult to repair andbuild.

Figure B.17.

A few links to purchase audio connectors,cables, and parts are the following:www.partsexpress.comwww.markertek.comwww.redco.com

654/710

Glossary

Analog

A sound recorded and reproduced asvoltage levels that change continuouslyover time, such as with a cassette tape,vinyl record, or analog recorder.

A/D

Analog to digital. An audio interface orother A/D converter can provide an analogto digital conversion when needed. TheA/D converter changes an analog signal toa digital signal.

ClickOften used to establish a consistent tempowhen recording basic or rhythm tracks; re-ferred to as a metronome.

CochleaThe snail-like structure of the inner earthat detects sound pressure changes.

Combfilter

An effect or acoustics issue which resultsin a series of very deep notches, or dips, ina sound or rooms frequency response.

Com-pressed

The reduction of an audio signal's dynamicrange or file size. In the digital world, anaudio file can be compressed to save stor-age space, as with an MP3.

Controlsurface

Allows the user to turn knobs and fadersinstead of clicking a mouse. Looks like asmall mixing board; used in conjunctionwith a DAW.

DAWDigital audio workstation; used to describea digital audio set-up as opposed to ananalog set-up.

dBFS

Decibels relative to Full Scale; measure-ment of audio levels in a digital system. 0dBFS is the maximum level in the digitalworld. Go over zero and the waveform willbe clipped resulting in an unpleasantsounding and typically unusable signal.

De-essing(-er)

A plugin or rack mounted signal processorthat helps remove unwanted sibilance (“s”and “sh” sounds); usually applied to a vo-cal track.

Digital

A means of encoding data through the useof the binary number system. Digital audioisn't continuous in that samples of thesound are taken and reconstructed to ap-pear like a sine wave. Digital audio ex-amples include CDs and MP3s.

656/710

Distortion

Occurs when a signal is too strong or toohot for a particular audio device. It is partof the sound and is not considered noise.Many guitar players regularly use distor-tion as a part of their sound.

Duplica-tion

The process of burning or duplicating au-dio or data to a blank disc; what manypeople identify as CD-Rs; great for demos,rough mixes, and short-run CD projects.

FeedbackA loop that occurs between the input andoutput of a signal; can occur if you point amic at a speaker or a guitar at an amplifier.

Fletcher-Munsoncurve

A group of subjective plots and curves thatmeasure the ear's average sensitivity tovarious frequencies at different amp-litudes. In the early 1930s, Fletcher andMunson came up with this hearing test.According to the Fletcher Munson curve,the average human ear hears best between1.5 kHz and 4 kHz, especially at lowervolumes. At about 85 dB, the average hu-man ear hears all frequencies as equally aswe are ever going to hear them without af-fecting the perceived pitch.

657/710

Flutterecho

A term used for an acoustic problemcaused by parallel walls and surfaces. Ifyou clap your hands and hear a quicklyrepeating metallic-like sound, you knowthat the room exhibits flutter echo. Diffu-sion and other acoustic methods can beused to eliminate or control this issue.

Haaseffect

A psychoacoustic phenomenon that occurswhen we can't distinguish the direction ofa single sound panned one way when com-bined with a second delayed signal pannedthe opposite direction. The Haas effect oc-curs when the delayed signal is underabout 20 ms.

High-cutor low-passfilter (LPF)

A button or switch often located on a con-sole, preamp, or mic that, when selected,cuts high frequencies and passes low fre-quencies at a predetermined frequencysetting. A high cut can be effective on bass,kick drum, and other instruments that donot need extreme highs.

Ips

Inches per second; professional analog re-corders generally record and playback au-dio at 15 ips and 30 ips. At 15 ips, a stand-ard reel of 2″ tape yields about 33 minutesof recording time. At 30 ips, a standard

658/710

reel of 2″ tape yields about 16 ½ minutesof recording time. Recording at 15 ips willprovide a better bass response but with in-creased tape hiss. 15 ips is better for loudermusic. Recording at 30 ips provides atighter low-end and a decrease in noise. 30ips is great for quiet and acoustic styles ofmusic.

In-lineconsole(s)

A mixing console that allows a single chan-nel to control both input and monitor sig-nal paths. Many newer analog and digitalmixers are in-line consoles.

In the boxPhrase that indicates all music productionis completed in a DAW, or computer.

I/OInput(s) and output(s). Located on audiointerfaces, recorders, and mixing boards.

ISRC

International Standard Recording Code(ISRC) is the internationally recognizedidentification tool for sound and musicvideo recordings. An ISRC exclusively andpermanently identifies the recording towhich it is assigned regardless of theformat. The ISRC code contains the songtitle, country it was recorded in, record la-bel information, and track number.

659/710

Jitter

A time-based error that can occur duringthe analog to digital conversion or whenmore than one digital device is hooked upto another.

Low-cutor high-passfilter (HPF)

A button or switch often located on a con-sole, preamp, or mic that, when selected,cuts low frequencies and passes high fre-quencies at a predetermined frequencysetting. A low cut can be effective on somevocals, cymbals, electric guitar, or otherinstruments that do not need extremelylow frequencies.

Low-fre-quency os-cillator(LFO)

A control that sweeps through a signal'slow-frequency range to create vibrato,tremolo, or other pulsing/rhythmic FX. Acommon control on synthesizers and ef-fects pedals.

Masking

A subjective phenomenon where onesound appears to hide another sound. Thisis common with two like instruments thatoccupy the same frequency range as withtwo electric guitars.

Midfieldmonitors

Monitors typically used in larger controlrooms that provide a louder, fuller sound;larger than common nearfield monitors.

660/710

MixThe result of blending instruments,sounds, and voices typically to 2-tracks/stereo.

MboxA digital audio interface common with ProTools.

Mono ormonaural

A sound system with only one channel, re-gardless of the number of speakers used.

Oscillo-scope

A test instrument that allows you to seethe size and shape of a sound wave.

Pan(ning)A knob, pot, or other control that allows asound to be placed anywhere in a mix.

Pot

Short for potentiometer; pots are knobs ona console or other audio component usedfor a variety of controls such as panning orgain adjustments.

PreampAn electronic amplifier typically used toincrease the volume of an audio signal.

Producer

Person in charge of the creative side of asession, but can also be a technical person.Unlike an engineer, a producer may get in-volved in the song writing, song selection,and other internal aspects of the music.

661/710

Often by default, an engineer may take onsome roles of a producer.

ProtocolA special set of rules defined for a specificuse.

Punch (-inand -out)

A punch-in or punch-out is the process ofadding or deleting a part to a pre-determ-ined section of a recording. This processinvolves going into and out of record modeand is typically used to correct a part oradd/overdub additional sounds.

Quantiza-tion

Represents the amplitude component ofdigital audio; the higher the bit resolution,the smoother the digital representation ofan analog signal.

Red Book

The standard protocol for audio CDs. TheRed Book contains the technical specifica-tions for all CD and CD-ROM formats. It isnamed after a series of books bound in dif-ferent colors. The Red Book standard for aCD is 44.1 kHz and 16 bit.

Replica-tion

The process of manufacturing professionalCDs or DVDs. Think of this as the profes-sional version of a duplicated CD. Replic-ated CDs are purchased through a disc

662/710

manufacturer and usually require minim-um order of 300 discs.

RpmRotations per minute; determines thespeed a vinyl record is meant to be played.

Sibilance

an unwanted “s” or “sh” sound in the 4kHz–10 kHz range that often accompaniesa vocal; can be eliminated with a de-esseror other EQ methods.

Sine wave

The simplest waveform in audio; consistsof a single frequency and has a musicalpitch, but a neutral timbre because no har-monics exist.

Splitconsole

Unlike an in-line console, a split consolehas only one fader or monitor option perchannel. A console is often “split” duringrecording, with half the channels acting assignal outputs to the recorder (sends) andhalf the channels acting as monitors(returns).

Standingwave

Acoustic phenomenon that may be createdby parallel walls and surfaces. A standingwave is produced by the interference andreflection of sound waves and is determ-ined by dividing the speed of sound by

663/710

2(L). These waves are commonly referredto as room modes.

Stem

Grouping or sub-mixing instruments orsounds. Stems may include groupingdrums and bass together, grouping vocalstogether, or grouping any like sounds intoa mono or stereo submix.

Stereo orstereophonic

Refers to a sound or system that involvestwo separate channels. These channels arelabeled left and right (L/R). A standardaudio CD is stereo, containing 2-tracks,left and right.

SynthesisAssociated with electronic music; occurswhen a sound is created without an acous-tic source (ex. synthesizer).

TakeA recorded performance of a song; oftendescribed as a good or a bad take.

TweeterThe smallest speaker in a typical speakeror studio monitor that reproduces higherfrequencies.

WooferThe larger of the two speakers on a typicalstudio monitor. The woofer reproduces

664/710

lower frequencies below a certain fre-quency range.

665/710

IndexPage numbers followed by f indicates a figure and t indicates a table.

A

A/D converters see Analog-to-Digital con-verters (A/D converters)Absorption 150–151, 151f

coefficient 151of lower frequencies 151

Accent miking 58f, 59Acoustic guitar 64, 64fAcoustical treatment 154

in bedroom 154Acoustics 149

absorption 150–151diffraction 152diffusion 152materials impact 151treflection 150room design 149room modes 153, 153fstanding waves 153, 153f

surface impact 149, 152ADAT see Alesis Digital Audio Tape(ADAT)AES/EBU connector 230Airy 32AKG microphones

C12 75, 76fC414 75, 75fC451 B 76–77, 76fD112 67–68, 67f, 68fD12 66–67, 67f

Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) 163lightpipe connector 231

Ambient miking 58f, 59Amplitude 3, 4f

in 3D ball 20unit 3

Analog 164cons 166medium 162pros 165–166

Analog connectors 227–228

667/710

Banana plug 229ELCO/Edac 229MINI 228PHONE 227RCA 228Speakon 230Tuchel 229XLR 228 see also Audio connectors

Analog-to-Digital converters (A/D convert-ers) 123, 123fAngelic sound 33Artist insecure 40–41Assistant engineer 193Attack envelope 13Audio

engineer see Sound Engineerfiles 161interfaces 123

Audio connectors 227–228analog connectors 227–228digital audio connectors 230–233jack 227–228

668/710

plug 227–228Audio history 162–164

moments in 162recording 162–163

Audio Technica AT4050 microphone 77, 77fAudix D6 microphone 68–69, 68f, 69fAuxiliary section 96Avantone CV28 TUBE MIC 78, 78fAvenson STO-2 78–79, 78f

B

Balanced audio equipment 225technical part 225 see also Unbal-anced audio equipment

Banana plug 229Basic track see Rhythm tracksBass 63, 63fBass frequency 5, 6fBass trap 159

to build 160Beats per minute (BPM) 135Beefy sound 33

669/710

Beyer M 201microphone 69, 69fBeyerdynamic M 160 microphone 86, 86fBi-directional mic pickup 53, 54f, 55Big sound 33Bit

depth 169rate 169sound 33

Bleed-over sound see Leakage soundBlue Dragonfly 79, 79fBody sound 33Boomy sound 33Boxy or hollow sound 31BPM see Beats per minute (BPM)Breathy sound 33Brittle sound 33Bus 93, 98 see also Universal Serial Bus(USB)

C

Cannon connectors see XLR connectorsCardioid mic pickup pattern 53, 54f

670/710

Cascade Fat Head microphone 86–87, 86fCD see Compact Disc (CD)Channel strip 91–93Chimey sound 33Chorus FX 118Chunky sound 33Click track 135Close miking 58f, 59Coincident miking 61Coles 4038 microphone 87, 87fCompact Disc (CD) 163Compression 1, 110

attack 111bypass 112for dynamic range control 110GR 111link 112output gain 111ratio 111release 111side chain 112threshold 111

671/710

uses 110Compressors 201–203Computers and audio 171–175

best of 175music with computers 171–174software choices 174–175

Condenser microphones 52AKG C 12 mic 75, 76fAKG C 414 mic 75, 75fAKG C 451 B mic 76–77, 76fAudio Technica AT4050 mic 77, 77fAvantone CV28 tube mic 78, 78fAvenson STO-2 mic 78–79, 78fBlue Dragonfly mic 79, 79fEarthworks TC30 mic 80, 80ffragile 52Mojave Audio MA-200 mic 80–81, 80fMXL 990 mic 81, 81fNeumann TLM mic 103 81–82, 81fNeumann U 87 mic 82, 82fPeluso Microphone Lab 22 251 83, 83fRode NT5 mic 83–84, 83f

672/710

Shure KSM27 mic 84, 84fShure KSM44 mic 85, 85fWunder Audio CM7 FET mic 85–86,85f see also Dynamic microphones;Ribbon microphones

Connectors see also Analog connectors;Audio connectors; Digital audioconnectors

cps see Cycles per second (cps)Crispy sound 34Crunchy sound 34Cycles per second (cps) 4

D

DAWs see Digital audio workstations(DAWs)dB see Decibel (dB)dB pad 50, 52DB25 233dBFS see Decibels at full scale (dBFS)dBSPL see Decibels sound pressure level(dBSPL)DDP see Disc Description Protocol (DDP)

673/710

Decay envelope 13Decibel (dB) 3, 226

levels 3Decibels at full scale (dBFS) 226Decibels sound pressure level (dBSPL) 226Deep sound 34Delay 116

chorus 117depth 118EQ 117FX 116input 116mix 117output 116repeat/feedback 117speed 118sweep 118time/tap 116

Demoitis 142Diffraction 152Diffuser 157, 158f

to build 157 see also Random diffuser

674/710

Diffusion 152 see also Standing wavesDigital 166

audio terms 168–170cons 168lossy vs. lossless 170–171pros 166–167

Digital audio connectors 230–233ADAT Lightpipe 231AES/EBU 230DB25 233DIN MIDI connector 233Fire wire 233MADI 232S/PDIF 231TDIF 231TOSLINK 232USB 232 see also Audio connectors

Digital audio workstations (DAWs) 91DIN MIDI connector 233Direct

box 62, 62fpath 18, 19f, 57

675/710

Dirty sound 34Disc Description Protocol (DDP) 146Distant

miking 58f, 59sound 34

Distortion 14, 119DIY see Do-it-yourself (DIY)Do-it-yourself (DIY) 154Doubling 142Dowd Tom 164Drumset 62–63, 63fDry sound 34Dull sound 34Dynamic microphones 52

AKG D 112 mic 67–68, 67f, 68fAKG D 12 mic 66–67, 67fAUDIX D6 mic 68–69, 68f, 69fBeyer M 201 mic 69, 69fElectrovoice RE20 variable-D mic 70,70f

Sennheiser E 609 mic 70, 71fSennheiser MD 421 mic 71, 71f

676/710

Shure Beta 52A mic 72, 72fShure Beta 57A mic 72–73, 72fShure SM57 mic 73, 73fShure SM58 mic 73, 74fShure SM7B mic 74, 74f seealso Condenser microphones; Ribbonmicrophones

Dynamic range control 110using compression 110using noise gate 113 see also Sound ef-fects (FX) creation; Plug-ins

E

Ear 15analyzing music recordings 24earplugs 17frequency pyramid 23hearing loss 17human 15resonant frequency 18selective hearing 233D ball 20–22 see also Sound

677/710

Earplugs 17, 17flinks 17

Earthworks TC30 80, 80fEcho 117Edgy sound 34Editing 142Effects (FX) 92, 113

choice 114chorus 117

ELCO/Edac connector 229Electronic musical instruments 171Electrovoice RE20 variable-D 70, 70fEnvelope 12–13EQ see Equalization (EQ)Equalization (EQ) 5, 27

frequency comparison 28tfrequency recognition 30high-pass filter 29, 29flow cut filter 29, 29fslope 29in sound 27subtractive 30

678/710

Equalization points of interest 31airy 32big/fat 31boxy or hollow 31muddy 31presence and clarity 32subs 31“in your face,” 32

Equalization section 94parametric 94fshelving 95, 95f

F

Fader 96, 97f, 98Fat sound 34Fire wire 233Flanger 118FOH see Front of house (FOH)Frequency 4, 4f, 5f

boosting or cutting 28high or treble 6low high comparison 28t

679/710

low or bass 5mid or midrange 5pyramid 23ranges 15recognition 30resonant frequency 18

Frequency response 55linear 55–57non-linear 55–57

Front of house (FOH) 131, 190Fuzzy sound 34FX see Effects (FX)

G

Gain reduction (GR) 111Gear 200–208

compressors 201–203computer for recording 207–208microphone purchase recommenda-tion 200–201, 203–206recording software 206–207

Glassy sound 34

680/710

Go-between 155–156to build 155–156

Gobo see Go-betweenGR see Gain reduction (GR)Guitar amp 63, 64f

H

Haas effect 18Hard sound 34Harmonics 10, 10f

even 11notes 10odd 11

Harmonizer 119Headroom 14Hearing capability human 15–17HF see High shelf (HF)hi-fi see High fidelity (hi-fi)High fidelity (hi-fi) 32High frequency see Treble frequencyHigh shelf (HF) 95High-pass frequency 50

681/710

Hollow sound 34Home studio 188, 195–196

advantages and disadvantages 196tbenefits of 195factors to consider 195–196to start 196

Hot sound 34Huge sound 34Hypercardioid mic pickup 54, 54f

I

“In your face sound,” 5, 32Internship 177

ads 183–185audio 179dos & don'ts 181–183doubt clarification 180duration 180getting 180–181giving opinion 181resume 181rolling mic cable 186

682/710

studio intern application 183tstudio's role 180value of good 178–179

Isolation issues 137

J

Jack 227–228 see also Audio connectors

L

Large-diaphragm condensers (LDC) 52LDC see Large-diaphragm condensers(LDC)Leakage sound 49LF see Low shelf (LF)LFO see Low-frequency oscillator (LFO)Live recording session preproduction 134Live sound

benefits of 189venues 188

Live sound engineer 188–190to be successful 190–191duties of 189

683/710

earning potential 189–190getting opportunity 189

lo-fi see Low fidelity (lo-fi)Long-playing (LP) 162Loose sound 34Lossless

files 170formats 171

Lossycompression 170files 170

Low fidelity (lo-fi) 32Low frequency see Bass frequencyLow shelf (LF) 95Low-cut frequency 50Low-frequency oscillator(LFO) 118LP see Long-playing (LP)

M

MADI see Multi Audio Digital Interface(MADI)Makeup gain see Output gain

684/710

Mastering 145–147, 193CD text 146compression 146editing 146engineers 193fees 147index and time information 146ISRC codes 146levels 146master copies 147song order 146space between tracks 146tone equalization 146

Mellow sound 34Meters 99–100

peak 100, 100fVU 100, 100f

Mic connectors see XLR connectorsMicrophone placement 57, 58f

accent miking 59ambient miking 59close miking 59

685/710

distant miking 59 seealso Microphones

Microphones 47for acoustic guitar 64, 64ffor backing vocals 65–66, 65ffor bass 63, 63fcategories 47choice of 205–206condenser 52for drumset 62–63, 63fdynamic 48ffor guitar amp 63, 64fleakage 49linear frequency response 55–56non-linear frequency response 55–56pickup patterns 53–55pop filter 50preamp knob 49purchase recommendation 200–201ribbon 53switches 50–52transducer 48, 48f

686/710

transients 48–49vocal 64, 65f, 203–205 seealso Condenser microphones; Dynamicmicrophones; Ribbon microphones

Mics see MicrophonesMid frequency see Midrange frequencyMidfield monitors 101MIDI see Musical InstrumentDigital Inter-face(MIDI)Midrange frequency 5, 6f

areas 6MINI connectors 228Mixer 103Mixing 103–105, 143–147

additional editing 143automation 143balance of instruments 143compression 143equalization 143FX 143improving skills 105–107panning 143

687/710

processing steps 104requirements 104–105

Mixing console 91–93, 91f, 92fauxiliary section 96bus 98channel strip 91–93EQ section 94–95fader 96, 97f, 98master section 98–99meters 99–101monitor 97monitoring sound 101–102patchbay 102–103preamp 93–94 see also Mixer

Mixing skill 208–215indicator of quality 214–215

3.5mm connectors see MINI connectorsMojave Audio MA-200 mic 80–81, 80fMonitor 97Muddy sound 31Muffled sound 35Multi Audio Digital Interface (MADI) 232

688/710

Music recording 122with all-in-one recorder 128–129, 128fwith audio interfaces 127with laptop 126–127live performance 129–130, 130f, 131fwith software types 128stages 122

Musical Instrument Digital Interface(MIDI) 163, 171, 174, 213–214

controllers 175keyboard controls 171

MXL 990 mic 81, 81f

N

NADY RSM-2 mic 87–88, 87fNasally sound 35Nearfield monitors 101Neumann

TLM mic 103 81–82, 81fU 87 mic 82, 82f

Neutrik connectors see XLR connectorsNoise 14

689/710

Non-technical skills 37Normalization 169Nyquist theorem 168

O

Octopus 164Omnidirectional mic pickup 54f, 55On axis 53, 54f1/8″connectors see MINI connectorsOpen Sound Control (OSC) 174OSC see Open Sound Control (OSC)Output gain 111Overdrive see DistortionOverdubs 140, 142

doubling 142editing and clean up 142fixing errors 140instrumentation 142percussion 142solos 142vocal performances 142

690/710

P

Panning 20, 21fPatchbay 102–103Paul Les see Polsfuss Lester WilliamPeak

frequency 29meters 100, 100f

Peluso Microphone Lab 22 251 83, 83fPencil condensers 52People skills 37Phantom power 52Phase 7

flip 8meter 8mono button 8sound waves 7f, 8

Phaser 118PHONE connectors 227Phono connectors see RCA connectorPiano note 5Pickup pattern 53

691/710

avoiding proximity effect 55bi-directional 54f, 55cardioid 53, 54fhypercardioid 54, 54fomnidirectional 54f, 55subcardioid 54f, 55supercardioid 54, 54f

Plug 227–228 see also Audio connectorsPlug-ins 119

advantages 119uses 120 see also Sound effects (FX)creation; Dynamic range control

Polar pattern see Pickup patternPolsfuss, Lester William 164Pop filter 50Post-production 193

engineer 193–194 seealso Preproduction

Preamp 93–94, 122knob 49

Preproduction 133–134details to consider 135

692/710

for live session 134rehearsal 135 see also Post-production

Presence and clarity 32Pro Tools 163, 175Producer 194

duties of p 194Putnam, Bill 163

Q

Quantization 168¼″ T/S (tip/sleeve) see RCA connector¼″connectors see PHONE connectors

R

Radio production engineer 194Random diffuser 159f

to build 158–159RCA connector 88, 89f, 149, 225, 228Real LA-2A limiter 119Record 162Recording 162–163

693/710

compression and EQ 211–213computer for 207–208Dowd Tom 164earning potential in 221–222factors to consider 147–148, 192future of 222–224getting started 215–218home studios 188innovators 163–164jobs in 37–38, 187, 219–221MIDI and 213–214moments in 162music 45opportunity for 218–219Paul, Les 164Putnam, Bill 163rehearsals 135required education 210–211software 206–207 see also Audiohistory

Recording engineerbody language 43–44

694/710

communication skills 42insecure artist 40–41jobs opportunity 37–38, 187, 219–221meeting people 45–46opinion 40patience 41–42recognizing song structure 42–43scheduling song 44

Recording sessionmastering 145–147mixing 143–147overdubs 140–142preproduction 133–134rhythm tracks 139–140rough mixes 142setup 136–139stages of 133

Recording studioengineer 191internship in 191rates in 191

Reflection 150

695/710

early 18, 19f, 57Rehearsal 135Release envelope 13Reverb see ReverberationReverberation 19, 19f, 57, 113

bypass 116decay time 115FX choice 114input 114mix 115natural 114fpredelay 115

Rhythm tracks 139correction 140establishing time and tune 139and headphones 140scratch track 140

Ribbon microphones 53Beyerdynamic M 160 mic 86, 86fCascade Fat Head mic 86–87, 86fColes 4038 mic 87, 87fNady RSM-2 mic 87–88, 87f

696/710

RCA 44 mic 88, 89fRoyer R-122 mic 88, 88fSe Electronics Voodoo VR1 mic 89,89f see also Microphones

Ringy sound 35Rode NT5 83–84, 83fRoom miking see Distant mikingRoyer R-122 88, 88fRuben's tube 10

S

S/N see Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N)S/PDIF see Sony/Phillips Digital Intercon-nect Format (S/PDIF)Sampling rate 168Sawtooth wave 14Scratch track 140SDC see Small-diaphragm condenser(SDC)Se Electronics Voodoo VR1 mic 89, 89fSelective hearing 23Sel-Sync-Octopus see Octopus

697/710

SennheiserE 609 mic 70, 71fMD 421mic 71, 71f

Setup 136–139to get levels 138headphones 139isolation issues 137labeling 139Tuning drums 139

Shimmering sound 35Shiny sound 35Shock mounts 52Shure

Beta 52A 72, 72fBeta 57A 72–73, 72fKSM27 84, 84fKSM44 85, 85fSM57 73, 73fSM58 73, 74fSM7B 74, 74f

Signal flow 121A/D converters 123

698/710

analog model 124, 125faudio interfaces 123input level 122live performance recording 129–130,130f, 131f

music recording 122preamp 122recording with all-in-one record-er 128–129, 128frecording with audio interfaces 127recording with laptop 126, 127recording with softwares 128unity gain 122

Signal processors 109dynamic range control 110plug-ins vs. real deal 119–120sound FX creation 113–116

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) 14Sizzly sound 35Slap sound 35Slope 29Small sound 35

699/710

Small-diaphragm condenser(SDC) 52Smooth sound 35Soft sound 35Solos 142Song

bridges 43scheduling 44sections 42–43verses 42

Sony/Phillips Digital Interconnect Format(S/PDIF) 231Sound 1–2

amplitude 3–4characteristics 1, 2–8direct path 18early reflections 18envelope 12–13EQ in 27frequency 4harmonics 10–11leakage 49loose sound 34

700/710

mellow sound 34periodic waveform types 13–14phase 7–8quality concern 36reverberation 19shimmering sound 35shiny sound 35sizzly sound 35slap sound 35small sound 35smooth sound 35soft sound 35subs 31thick sound 35thin sound 35tight sound 35tinny sound 35tiny sound 36tubby sound 36velocity 8–9warm sound 36wavelength 9

701/710

wet sound 36 see also Live sound;Noise; Soundproofing

Sound effects (FX) creationdelay 116, 117reverberation 113–116time-based FX 117–118 see also Dy-namic range control

Sound engineeraccounting knowledge 197–198duties of 137, 189equipment maintenance and repair 197fee 198independent 191internship in 191jobs opportunity 37–38, 187, 219–221questions before recording 147–148,192

self-employed 192 see also Assistantengineer; Mastering engineers; Post-production engineer

Soundproofing 154Source 1

702/710

Spaced pair 61, 61fSpeakon 230Square wave 13Standing waves 153, 153fStereo miking 60

direct box 62, 62fspaced pair 61, 61fXY technique 60f, 61 seealso Diffusers; Trapping bass

Subcardioid mic pickup 54f, 55Subs sound 31Super chunk 159Supercardioid mic pickup 54, 54fSustain envelope 13Sweet spot 101

T

T/R/S connectors see PHONE connectorsT/S (tip/sleeve) connectors see PHONEconnectorsTalkback mic 99, 99f

703/710

TASCAM Digital Interconnect Format(TDIF) 231TDIF see TASCAM Digital InterconnectFormat (TDIF)Thick sound 35Thin sound 353D ball 20

adjusting EQ 21using amplitude 20panning 20, 21f

Tight sound 35Timbre see HarmonicsTinny sound 35Tiny sound 36TOSLINK connector 231f, 232Transducer 48, 48f

condenser microphones 52dynamic mics 48f, 52ribbon microphones 53

Transient response 49Transients 48Trapping bass 153

704/710

Treble frequency 6, 6fTriangle wave 13Tubby sound 36Tuchel connectors 229

U

Unbalanced audio equipment 225 seealso Balanced audio equipmentUnidirectional pickup pattern see Cardioidmic pickup patternUnity gain 122Universal Recording Electronics Industries(UREI) 163Universal Serial Bus (USB) 232UREI see Universal Recording ElectronicsIndustries (UREI)USB see Universal Serial Bus (USB)

V

Velocity 8Verse 42Vibe 39–40

705/710

Virtual computer instruments 171Virtual software instrument 173Vocal 64, 65f

backing 65–66, 65fperformances 142

Volume see AmplitudeVolume units (VU) 100, 100fVU see Volume units (VU)

W

Warm sound 36Waveform 13

sawtooth wave 14square wave 13triangle wave 13

Wavelength 9Wet sound 36WUNDER AUDIO CM7 FET 85–86, 85f

X

XLR connectors 228XY technique 60, 60f

706/710

CreditsVideo 1 Music by Murdocks, Die Together,2008Video 2 Music by Starry Eyed, Head High inHawaii, 2005Video 3 Music by Boonesboro, My Dog LovesYou, 2011Video 4 Music by Dead Waiter, 2008Video 5 Music by Ross Rossman, 2011Video 6 Music by annabella, Sun is King, 2008Video 7 Music by The Hearts and The Minds,Bending Trees, 2010Video 8 Music by the Buzzkillers, For the Kids,2005Videos – Produced by Andrew MillerTalent – Landry GideonSound and Mixing – Tim DittmarPhotography – Andrew Miller, Tim Dittmar,Anne C. KelleyAudio Clips1.0 Music by annabella, Peachtree, 2008

3.1 Music by Ross Rossman, “Great WhiteKilla,” 20113.2 Bass, Joshua Zarbo3.3 Guitar, Tim Dittmar3.4 Drums, Tim Dittmar3.5 Music by bo bud greene, “Heads andFriends,” 19953.6 Music by annabella, “La Ciudad,” 20053.7 Music by Kristi Rae, “Any Life At All,”20065.0–5.3 Flute, Terri Dittmar7.0/7.1/7.2 Drums, Tim Dittmar7.2/7.3 Vocals, Terri Dittmar7.3 Electric guitar, Andy Bracht7.4 Guitar Tim Dittmar7.5 Strings by The Apple Trio, 20117.6 Guitar, James Currey (the Buzzkillers2009)7.7 Guitar, James Currey (the Buzzkillers2009)7.8 Strings by The Apple Trio, 20117.9 Bass, TJ Smyrson (the Buzzkillers 2009)

708/710

Illustrations by Anderson Bracht

709/710

@Created by PDF to ePub