amphetamines and ecstasy2011 Global ats assessment

Global SmArT Programme

AcknowledgementsThis report was produced by the Laboratory and Scientific Section (headed by Justice Tettey) under the supervision of Sandeep Chawla, Director, Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs. Core team: Beate Hammond (coordination), Juan Carlos Araneda, Conor Crean, Jakub Gregor, Alice Hamilton, Raggie Johansen, Kristina Kuttnig, Sabrina Levissianos, Shawn Kelley, Tun Nay Soe. The report also benefited from the work and expertise of many other UNODC staff in Vienna and in field offices around the world. UNODC would like to specifically recognize funding partners Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea and Thailand for their investment in the Global Synthetics Monitoring: Analyses, Reporting and Trends (SMART) Programme. UNODC would also like to acknowledge the contribution of the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD), for their support in the implementation of the SMART Programme in Latin America. UNODC reiterates its appreciation and gratitude to Member States for the reports and information that provided the basis of this report as well as to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB). DISCLAIMER The publication has not been formally edited. The boundaries, names and designations used in all maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Comments on this report are welcome and can be sent to: Laboratory and Scientific Section United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime PO Box 500 1400 Vienna, Austria E-mail: globalsmart@unodc.org United Nations Publication Sales No. E.11.XI.13 e-ISBN: 978-92-1-055038-3

contentsPreface exPlanatory notes abbreviations executive summary 3 5 7 9

ats markets: regional trends Asia Oceania NearandMiddleEast/South-WestAsia Europe Africa NorthAmerica SouthAmerica,CentralAmericaandtheCaribbean 17 35 43 51 69 75 83

ats markets: Precursors and Production PrecursorTrends ManufacturingMethods 93 99 105 111 115

data constraints conclusionreferences

1

prefaceThree years after the last global assessment of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS), the manufacture and trafficking of these drugs remains a serious and constantly evolving challenge. The 2011 Global ATS Assessment shines a powerful light on ATS helping governments to better understand this important phenomenon. Once viewed as purely a cottage industry, ATS manufacture and trafficking has undergone its own industrial revolution. After cannabis, ATS are the second most widely used drugs across the globe outstripping the use of heroin or cocaine. ATS are now manufactured and marketed with organized crime groups involved throughout the production and supply chain. Until recently, the ATS trade was sometimes ignored in favour of the traditional focus on heroin and cocaine. But there is growing recognition that the expansion of the ATS trade and its high profits threaten security, health and the welfare of populations across the globe. While seizures of heroin, cocaine and cannabis remained largely stable between 2005 and 2009, ATS seizures, excluding ecstasy, showed a clear increase over the same period. In South-East Asia, for example, the number of methamphetamine pills seized grew significantly: from 32 million in 2008, to 93 million in 2009 and 133 million in 2010. Injecting ATS use is also growing and increasing the risk of blood borne diseases such as HIV/AIDS. In Thailand, injecting is the second most common delivery system for ATS, while in New Zealand it is the most commonly injected drug. Injecting use is also now commonplace in some countries in Europe. In addition to amphetamines and ecstasy, established ATS markets have seen the emergence of so-called analogue substances falling outside of international control. Substances such as mephedrone or methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) are sold as bath salts or plant food and act as substitutes for illicit stimulant drugs such as cocaine or ecstasy. ATS are attractive to millions of drug users in all regions of the world because they are affordable, convenient to the user and often associated with a modern and dynamic lifestyle. Their risks are often underestimated in public perception. In terms of the overall number of ATS users in the last twelve months, this appears to have stabilised, but there were increases in some parts of the world where there were few problems with ATS. Such developments make ATS tidal by nature; rising and falling as demand increases and decreases around the globe. This also explains why the Assessment shows regions suffering high-tides or low-tides in ATS terms with the transition often occurring in extremely short periods of time. Most importantly, the flow of ATS trafficking exploits vulnerable states, often weakened by instability and insecurity. ATS manufacture has also expanded into new regions and there has been a diversification of the drugs precursor chemicals and manufacturing methods. Additional countries in South-East Asia now report ATS manufacture, as well as the growth of interregional trafficking in countries with no previous history of the drug. Methamphetamine may also be expanding into Europe with several countries reporting an increase in its use and production. Illicit laboratories have been seized in many European countries. There are also signs that the drug may be replacing amphetamine in some parts of Europe. Once thought to be largely unaffected by the illicit manufacture and trafficking of ATS, West Africa has now been drawn into the trades orbit. Methamphetamine manufacture has been reported from Nigeria. Since 2008, seizures in several East Asian countries notably Japan and the Republic of Koreaappear to have their origin in West Africa. ATS manufacture is also increasingly reported from Central America and South America.

3

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTDataisfundamentaltounderstandingtheebbsandflowsofATS.UsingitsGlobalSyntheticsMonitoring:Analyses ReportingandTrends(SMART)programme,UNODChasasystemforwatchingthedrugstidalmovementsinsome regionsoftheworld.Thankstotheprogramme,thereismoreknowledgeandthereforeabetterunderstandingof theproblem;inturn,thiswillassistGovernmentsintheformulationofeffectiveresponses.However,gapsremain. Todealwiththischallenge,UNODCisensuringthatthetwin-relatedthreatsofdrugtraffickingandTransnational OrganisedCrimearemainstreamedthroughouttheUnitedNationssystem,mobilizingjointactionandcreatinga visionfortheeffectivedeliveryofsolutions.TheseactivitiesattheinternationallevelshouldalsohelpstemtheATS tide. Finally,IwouldliketothankthedonorswhosupportedthisinitiativeandwhomadethisAssessmentpossible.Furtherinvestmentisnecessary,ifwearetobuildonthisAssessmentandgainaclearerappreciationofthisglobal problem.

YuryFedotov ExecutiveDirector UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime

4

expLanatory notesThisreporthasnotbeenformallyedited. Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofthematerialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofany opinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.Countriesandareasare referredtobythenamesthatwereinofficialuseatthetimetherelevantdatawerecollected. The following notes describe certain terms, regional designations, data sources and timeframes used throughout this document. atsAmphetamine-typestimulants(ATS)areagroupofsubstancescomprisedofsyntheticstimulantsincludingamphetamine,methamphetamine,methcathinone,andecstasy-groupsubstances(e.g.,MDMAanditsanalogues). Invarioussectionsofthisreport,amphetamineandmethamphetaminearealsoreferredtoasamphetamines-groupsubstances.IncaseswherecountriesreporttoUNODCwithoutindicatingthespecificATStheyarereferringto,theterm non-specifiedamphetaminesisused.Tabletswhicharemarketedtocontainanecstasy-groupsubstance,butmayactually containavarietyofothersubstances,arereferredtoasecstasy. terms:Sincethereissomescientificandlegalambiguityaboutthedistinctionsbetweendrug'use','misuse'and'abuse', thisreportusestheneutralterms,drug'use'or'consumption'. maps: TheboundariesandnamesshownandthedesignationsusedonmapsdonotimplyofficialendorsementoracceptancebytheUnitedNations.AdottedlinerepresentsapproximatelythelineofcontrolinJammuandKashmiragreedupon byIndiaandPakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuandKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreeduponbytheparties.Disputed boundaries(China/India)arerepresentedbycrosshatchduetothedifficultyofshowingsufficientdetail. Population data: Populationdatausedinthisreportcomesfrom:UnitedNations,DepartmentofEconomicandSocial Affairs,PopulationDivision.WorldPopulationProspects:The2008Revision,2009. regions:Invarioussections,thisreportusesanumberofregionaldesignations.Thesearenotofficialdesignations.They aredefinedasfollows: AFRICA East Africa: Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia,Tanzania(UnitedRepublicof)andUganda NorthAfrica:Algeria,Egypt,LibyanArabJamahiriya,Morocco,SudanandTunisia SouthernAfrica:Angola,Botswana,Lesotho,Malawi,Mozambique,Namibia,SouthAfrica,Swaziland,Zambia andZimbabwe WestandCentralAfrica:Benin,BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,CapeVerde,CentralAfricanRepublic,Chad,Congo (DemocraticRepublicof),Congo(Republicof),CtedIvoire,EquatorialGuinea,Gabon,Gambia,Ghana,Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,Liberia,Mali,Mauritania,Niger,Nigeria,SaoTomeandPrincipe,Senegal,SierraLeone,Togo AMERICAS Caribbean:AntiguaandBarbuda,Bahamas,Barbados,Bermuda,Cuba,Dominica,DominicanRepublic,Grenada, Haiti,Jamaica,SaintKittsandNevis,SaintLucia,SaintVincentandtheGrenadines,TrinidadandTobago CentralAmerica:Belize,CostaRica,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Honduras,Nicaragua,Panama NorthAmerica:Canada,Mexico,UnitedStatesofAmerica(USA) SouthAmerica:Argentina,Bolivia(PlurinationalStateof),Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Guyana,Paraguay, Peru,Suriname,Uruguay,Venezuela(BolivarianRepublicof)

5

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTASIA CentralAsiaandTranscaucasia:Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan NearandMiddleEast/South-WestAsia:Afghanistan,Bahrain,IslamicRepublicofIran,Iraq,Israel,Jordan,Kuwait, Lebanon,Oman,Pakistan,Qatar,SaudiArabia,SyrianArabRepublic,UnitedArabEmirates(UAE),Yemen EastandSouth-EastAsia:BruneiDarussalam,Cambodia,China(includingHongKong,MacaoandTaiwanProvinceofChina),Indonesia,Japan,RepublicofKorea,LaoPDR,Malaysia,Mongolia,Myanmar,Philippines,Singapore,Thailand,andVietNam GreaterMekongSubregion(GMS):Cambodia,LaoPDR,Myanmar,Thailand,VietNam,andborderingprovincesofChina North-EastAsia:Japan,Philippines,RepublicofKorea SouthernArchipelago:BruneiDarussalam,Indonesia,MalaysiaandSingapore SouthAsia:Bangladesh,Bhutan,India,Maldives,NepalandSriLanka EUROPE EastEurope:Belarus,RepublicofMoldova,RussianFederationandUkraine South-EastEurope:Albania,BosniaandHerzegovina,Bulgaria,Croatia,Montenegro,Romania,Serbia,theformer YugoslavRepublicofMacedoniaandTurkey WestandCentralEurope:Andorra,Austria,Belgium,Cyprus,CzechRepublic,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France, Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Latvia,Liechtenstein,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Monaco, Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,SanMarino,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,SwitzerlandandUnited Kingdom OCEANIA Oceania:Australia,Fiji,Kiribati,MarshallIslands,Micronesia,Nauru,NewZealand,Palau,PapuaNewGuinea, Samoa,SolomonIslands,Tonga,Tuvalu,Vanuatu,andotherPacificislandstatesandterritories data sources and timeframesUnlessindicatedspecifically,datacontainedinthisreportdrawuponofficialsources asreportedintheUNODCAnnualReportsQuestionnaire(ARQ)byMemberStates,annualandtechnicalreportsofthe International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), official government and inter-governmental entities (e.g., Interpol/ICPO, Europol,WorldCustomsOrganization,Inter-AmericanDrugAbuseControlCommissionof(CICAD),UNODCFieldOffice andHONLEAreports,datasystems(e.g.,DAINAP,CEN)andthescientificliterature. DatarelatedtoseizuresofATS,theirprecursorsandclandestinelaboratoriesaresubjecttochangeforavarietyofreasons, suchasneworlatedatabeingaddedorrevisionsindataalreadyprovidedbyMemberStates.Thus,somefiguresmay differfrompreviouslypublishedfigures.Alldatareportedhereinreflectthemostup-to-dateandaccurateinformation availableatthetimeofwriting.

6

aBBreviationsthe following abbreviations have been used in this report: ACC ACCORD ADK ADLOMICO AFP AIDS AIHW AIPAC ARQ ASEAN ATS BMK BNN BZP CCDAC CEN CICAD CIS DAINAP DCHQ DEA DELTA EMCDDA ESPAD Europol Govt. HIV HKNB HKSB HONLEA ICMP IDU INCB INCSR Interpol/ICPO JCITAC JMHCW JNPA L-PAC AustralianCrimeCommission ASEANandChinaCooperativeOperationsinResponsetoDangerousDrugs NationalAnti-DrugsAgency,Malaysia Anti-DrugLiaisonOfficialsMeetingforInternationalCooperation AustralianFederalPolice AcquiredImmune-DeficiencySyndrome AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare AsiaPacificAmphetamine-TypeStimulantsInformationCentre UNODCAnnualReportsQuestionnaire AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations Amphetamine-typestimulants Benzylmethylketone(P-2-P) NationalNarcoticsBoard,Indonesia Benzylpiperazine CentralCommitteeforDrugAbuseControl,Myanmar WorldCustomsOrganizationsCustomsEnforcementNetwork Inter-AmericanDrugAbuseControlCommission CommonwealthofIndependentStates DrugAbuseInformationNetworkforAsiaandthePacific NationalDrugControlHeadquaters(IslamicRepublicofIran) DrugEnforcementAdministration(USA) UNODCDatabaseonEstimatesandLongTermTrendAnalysis EuropeanMonitoringCentreforDrugsandDrugAddiction EuropeanSchoolSurveyProjectonAlcoholandotherDrugs EuropeanPoliceOffice Government HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus HongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegionofthePeople'sRepublic ofChinaNarcoticsBureau HongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegionofthePeople'sRepublic ofChinaSecurityBureau HeadsofNationalDrugLawEnforcementAgencies UNODCGlobalIllicitCropMonitoringProgramme Injectingdruguse InternationalNarcoticsControlBoard InternationalNarcoticsControlStrategyReport(USA) InternationalCriminalPoliceOrganization JapanCustomsIntelligence&TargetingCenter MinistryofHealth,LabourandWelfare(Japan) NationalPoliceAgencyofJapan l-phenylacetylcarbinol

7

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTLCDC LSD MBDB MDA mCPP MDE MDMA MOHNZ NACD NDARC NDIC NDLEA NGO NIDA LaoNationalCommissionforDrugControlandSupervision Lysergicaciddiethlyamide N-Methyl-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine(tenamfetamine) m-chlorophenylpiperazine 3,4-Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine MinistryofHealth(NewZealand) NationalAuthorityforCombatingDrugs,Cambodia NationalDrugandAlcoholResearchCentre(Australia) NationalDrugIntelligenceCenter(USA) NationalDrugLawEnforcementAgency(Nigeria) Non-GovernmentalOrganization NationalInstituteofDrugAbuse(USA)

NNCC NationalNarcoticsControlCommission(China) OAS/CICAD/MEM OrganizationofAmericanStates/Inter-AmericanDrugAbuseControlCommission/ MultilateralEvaluationMechanism OECD ONCB P-2-P PEN PDEA PMK RCMP SACENDU SAMHSA SAPS SHORE SOCA SODC SPO TFMPP UAE UNAIDS UNDCP UNODC WCO WDR WHO OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment OfficeoftheNarcoticsControlBoard(Thailand) 1-Phenyl-2-propanone(BMK) InternationalNarcoticsControlBoardsPre-ExportNotificationonlinesystem PhilippinesDrugEnforcementAgency 3,4-Methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone(3,4-MDP-2-P) RoyalCanadianMountedPolice SouthAfricanCommunityEpidemiologyNetworkonDrugUse SubstanceAbuseandMentalHealthServicesAdministration(USA) SouthAfricanPoliceService CentreforSocialandHealthOutcomesReserachandEvaluation(NewZealand) SeriousOrganisedCrimeAgency(UnitedKingdom) StandingOfficeonDrugsandCrime(formerlyStandingOfficeonDrugsControl),VietNam SupremeProsecutorsOffice,RepublicofKorea 3-trifluoromethylphenyl-piperazine UnitedArabEmirates JointandCo-sponsoredUnitedNationsProgrammeonHumanImmunodeficiencyVirus/ AcquiredImmunodeficiencySyndrome UnitedNationsInternationalDrugControlProgramme UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime WorldCustomsOrganization UNODCWorldDrugReport WorldHealthOrganization

1988Convention UnitedNationsConventionAgainstIllicitTrafficinNarcoticDrugsand PsychotropicSubstances,1988 2C-B 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine(Nexus) 2C-T-2 4-Ethylthio-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 3,4-MDP-2-P 3,4-Methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone(PMK) 4-MTA 4-Methylthioamphetamine Weights and measurements u. lt. g/mg kg mt unit litre gram/milligram kilogram metricton

8

executive summaryAmphetamine-typestimulants(ATS)arefirmlyestablishedonglobalillicitdrugmarketsandtheirusecontinuestoexceed thatofopiatesorcocaine.WhilethenumberofpeoplewhohaveusedATSatleastonceinthelast12monthshasstabilizedatthegloballevel,increaseshaveoccurredinpartsoftheworldthatpreviouslyhadonlyverysmallATS-related problems. ThewidespreaduseofATSisaresultoftheirattractivenesstousers:theyseemtoappealtotheneedsoftodayssocieties and have become part of what is perceived to be a modern and dynamic lifestyle; in some segments of society, they continuetobeusedfrequentlyforoccupationalpurposes.Itisalsoaresultofamarketpotentialwithcontinuouslyhigh profitsandlowrisksthatmaintaintheirattractivenesstocriminalgroupsaroundtheworld. SincethelastglobalATSassessmentwaspublishedin2008,1therehavebeenseveralnewdevelopments. Thereportprovidesevidenceforthesedevelopmentssince2008,withaspecialfocusonsubregionalpatternsandtrends, andhighlightsthechallengesahead.

expansion of ats manufacture to neW reGionsATSareattractivetoclandestineoperatorsbecausetherearenogeographicallimitationstowheretheycanbemanufactured,thereisalargevarietyofstartingmaterialsandmanufacturingmethods,andtheyofferconsiderableprofits. Amphetamines-groupsubstances,(i.e.amphetamineandmethamphetamine)accountformostATSmanufacturedworldwide,whilethemanufactureofecstasy-groupsubstances(i.e.MDMA,MDA,MDE)issignificantlylesswidespread.Ona globalscale,afterstrongincreasespeakingin2004,thenumberofillicitlaboratories2declineduntil2007andincreased in2008and2009. Overthepastfiveyears,ATSmanufacturehasspreadtonewregionswhichpreviouslyreportedlittleornomanufacture. InSouth-EastAsia,forexample,Indonesia,Malaysiaand,toalesserextent,CambodiausedtobeprimarilytransitcountriesforATSbutnowreportsignificantillicitATSmanufacture,primarilyofmethamphetamineandecstasy.Indonesiahas reportedaconsiderablenumberofseizuresoflargesophisticatedillicitlaboratoriesmanufacturingcrystallinemethamphetamineandecstasy.In2009,druglawenforcementauthoritiesinIndonesiadismantledatotalof37ATSmanufacturing operations. The continuing high levels of ecstasy manufacture in Indonesia raise concern that the country could replaceEuropeasthesourceofMDMAintheregion.SimilardevelopmentshaveoccurredinMalaysia,whichusedtobe atransitcountryforsmallamountsofcrystallinemethamphetamine,ecstasyandketaminedestinedforAustralia,China, Indonesia,Japan,SingaporeandThailand.Inthemeantime,Malaysiahasbecomeasignificantmethamphetaminemanufacturinglocationandthisdemonstratesthespeedwithwhichshiftsinpatternsofclandestinemanufacture,trafficking andusecanoccur.Since2008,Malaysianauthoritieshavereportedthedismantlingofmorethan30largeandsmall-scale ATSmanufacturinglaboratories.InCambodia,officialreportsofillicitATSmanufacturefirstemergedin2007whenpolice dismantledalarge-scalelaboratorythatwasreportedtohavemanufacturedatleast1mtofchloropseudoephedrine,an intermediateinthemanufactureofmethamphetamine.IllicitATSmanufactureinthecountryhassinceincreasedconsiderably.ATSmanufactureorattemptstomanufacturehavealsobeenreportedfromChina(includingHongKongSAR), Japan,RepublicofKoreaandThailand. Reports of ATS manufacture have also emerged from countries in Central America and South America. Six illicit ATS laboratories were reported seized in 2009. However, as ATS data from the region is in short supply, partly due to the traditionalfocusofdrugcontrolauthoritiesontraditionaldrugssuchascocaineandcannabis,itislikelythatthetrue situationisunderreported.ATSmanufacturehasbeenreportedfromArgentina,Belize,Brazil,Guatemala,Nicaraguaand Suriname.

1 2

Accessibleat:http://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/ATS/Global-ATS-Assessment-2008-Web.pdf Includeslaboratoriesofanysizeandstateofoperation,aswellaswastedumpsitesandchemicalandglasswareseizures(warehouses).

9

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTintrinsic characteristics of ats contributing to their attractiveness vis--vis the traditional plant-based drugs heroin and cocaine:on the demand side

ATS are attractive because they are perceived as enhancing performance and communication and have come toembody a modern and fashionable lifestyle (the extent to which ATS are used for occupational or recreational purposes depends on the specific substance);

ATS can be taken orally. In addition to being convenient for the user, the use of pills also avoids injection orsmoking and the dangers of social stigma associated with these administration routes;

ATS are affordable (available on retail markets in single pill units); The recreational use of ATS is generally perceived as not being very harmful, and controllable; public health risksof ATS are frequently underestimated in public perception, as well as in the judicial and enforcement areas; on the supply side

ATS are attractive because of high profits: with little initial investment, hugely profitable quantities of drugs canbe manufactured;

ATS can be made readily from a variety of starting materials (precursors) using a variety of synthesis methods.When a traditional precursor becomes unavailable, the desired precursor may itself be synthesized from a preprecursor chemical;

ATS manufacture is not limited to certain geographic locations. It can take place anywhere, be easily camouflaged, and be relocated as enforcement pressure increases (e.g. makeshift laboratories set up to supply a single order and then dismantled to prevent detection);

Because there are no geographical limitations, ATS laboratories can be located close to the areas of consumption, thus minimizing the risk of detection when trafficking end-products across international borders;

Awareness of ATS end-products and/or their precursors is still limited in some parts of the world where otherdrugs prevail, thus minimizing the risk for illicit operators and trafficking groups;

For operators of small-scale kitchen laboratories (typically methamphetamine laboratories), ATS are attractivebecause manufacture does not usually require advanced knowledge of chemistry and can be accomplished by anyone from readily available chemicals.(Information drawn partly from previous UNODC publications: Understanding clandestine synthetic drugs (2001) and Ecstasy and amphetamines - Global survey 2003)

Foralongtime,WestAfricawasoneoftheworldssubregionswhichappearedtohavebeenlargelyunaffectedbythe illicitmanufacture,traffickinganduseofATS.However,since2008,anincreaseinmethamphetamineseizuresincountries inEastAsia(primarilyJapanandRepublicofKorea),haspointedtopossiblemanufacture.In2009,evidenceofpossible ATS manufacture was discovered in Guinea and in 2010, the United States Government indicted members of a large internationalcocainetraffickingorganization,for,inter alia,theintenttoestablishanillicitlaboratoryinLiberiaforlargescalemanufacturingofmethamphetamine.InJune2011,amethamphetaminelaboratorywasdiscoveredinNigeria,on theoutskirtsofLagos.Thelaboratoryhadanestimatedcapacityof160-200kgofcrystallinemethamphetamineperweek. IntheNearandMiddleEast/South-WestAsiasubregion,theIslamicRepublicofIranfirstreportedillicitmanufactureof methamphetaminein2008.ThesubstanceisusedlocallybutalsosubsequentlytraffickedmostlytomarketsinEastand South-East Asia. Strong increases in amphetamine seizures, mostly in the form of Captagon,3 in some countries, e.g. Jordan,theSyrianArabRepublicandtheUnitedArabEmiratesmightalsopointtopossiblemanufacturingactivityinthe region. Some law enforcement intelligence suggests that manufacture of amphetamine (Captagon) has shifted from South-EastEuropetocountriesintheNearandMiddleEast.ThedeclineinamphetamineseizuresinBulgariaandTurkey wouldsupportthisdevelopment.SeveralcountriesintheregionalsohaveunusuallyhighrequirementsforATSprecursors suchasephedrine,pseudoephedrineorP-2-P.However,asidefromtheIslamicRepublicofIran,noreportsofillicitmanufacturehavebeenreceivedfromtheregiontodate. DuetostrictercontrolsoverprecursorchemicalsnecessarytomanufactureATS(particularlyephedrineandpseudoephedrineinbulkform),traffickershavebeenseekingtoobtainprecursorchemicalsindifferentphysicalformstoavoiddetec3 Captagonwasoriginallythetradenameforfenetylline,asyntheticstimulant.AnalysisofseizedCaptagonpillsshowthatmostcontainamphetamineand otheringredientssuchascaffeineandtheophylline.

10

executive summarytion.Ephedrineorpseudoephedrineareobtainedintheformofpharmaceuticalpreparations(nasaldecongestants)by diversionfromlocalpharmaciesandsubsequentlytraffickedaroundtheworld.Traffickershavealsoresortedtoalternative manufacturingmethods,whichtypicallyinvolveeithersynthesizingnecessarychemicalsfromothersmoreeasilyavailable orbypassingtheiruseentirely. Ephedrineandpseudoephedrineusedtobethepreferredstartingmaterialsfortheillicitmanufactureofmethamphetamine.However,withaccesstothesesubstancescurtailedbymoreeffectivecontrols,traffickershaveresortedtousing P-2-Pasthestartingmaterial.InAustralia,forexample,anincreaseinthenumberoflaboratoriesusingP-2-Pasaprecursorinthesynthesisofamphetamineswasreportedin2009.Phenylaceticacid,animmediateprecursorofP-2-P,hasalso beenwidelyusedbutcontrolsoverthesubstancewerestrengthenedin2010.4Inresponse,traffickershavebeenusing theestersofphenylaceticacidwhichmaybereadilyconvertedtophenylaceticacid.Methylphenylacetateandethylphenylacetate have been seized in illicit ATS laboratories in Mexico. Another substitute substance, l-phenylacetylcarbinol (l-PAC),aprecursorofephedrine),wasreportedashavingbeenfoundinillicitATSmanufacturingoperationsinCanada.

neW ats trafficKinG routes in asiaOverthelastfewyears,theATSmarkethasmovedfrombeingacottage-typeindustry(withmanysmall-scalemanufacturingoperations)tomoreofacocaine-orheroin-typemarket,characterizedbyahigherlevelofintegrationandinvolvement of organized crime groups that control the entire chain from the provision of precursors, to manufacture and traffickingoftheend-product.RecentyearshaveseenagreaterdiversificationofATStraffickingroutes,particularlyin South-EastAsia,aswellasthegrowthofinter-regionaltraffickingthroughcountriespreviouslynotidentifiedasbeing involvedinATStrafficking. South-EastAsiahasexperiencedsignificantincreasesintheseizuresofmethamphetaminepillsoriginatingfromMyanmar. Thenumberofmethamphetaminepillsseizedincreasedexponentiallyin2009.Morethan94millionpillswereseizedin theregionin2009,comparedto32millionpillsin2008.Seizuresincreasedsharplyagainin2010,reachingatotalof over133millionpills.Methamphetaminepills,whicharemanufacturedintheShanstateofMyanmar,aretraffickedalong newroutestoThailand,ChinaandLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic.TheMekongRiverisnowakeyroute,likelydueto Thailandsstrictercontrolsaimedatsuppressingdrugtraffickingandpreventingdruguse.Thereareindicationsofnew routes to the western part of Myanmar and also for onward trafficking to South Asia. Reports from India, Nepal and Bangladeshin2010and2011indicatethatSouthAsiaisalsoincreasinglyaffectedbythetraffickingofmethamphetamine pills. AlthoughmostATSarestillmanufacturedwithintheregionsinwhichtheyareused,thereareindicationsofincreasing inter-regionaltrafficking.NorthAmerica(primarilyCanada)andEastandSouth-EastAsiahaveemergedassourcesofATS forinternationalmarkets.Since2008,therehasbeenanincreaseinmethamphetaminetraffickingcasestoEastAsiafrom WestAfrica.ThenumberofseizuresandquantitiesseizedinEastAsiafoundtohaveoriginatedinWestAfricancountries such as Benin, Cte dIvoire, Cameroon, Ghana, Guinea, Senegal and Nigeria more than tripled in 2009. ATS, mostly methamphetamine,istraffickedbyairfromWestAfricaviacouriers.MethamphetaminetraffickedfromtheIslamicRepublicofIrantocountriesinAsiaandOceania(e.g.Azerbaijan,Japan,Malaysia,NewZealand,Thailand,SriLanka,Uzbekistan) isanotherdevelopmentthathasemergedsincethepublicationofthe2008GlobalATSAssessment.Turkeyreportsthat methamphetamineissmuggledfromtheIslamicRepublicofIranintoTurkey,thentraffickedbyairtoEastandSouth-East Asia.

emerGence of metHampHetamine in europeThereareindicationsthatmethamphetaminemarketsmaybeexpandinginEurope,asseveralcountrieshavereported increasedavailabilityofthedrugaswellasanincreaseinuseandmorewidespreadreportsofmanufacture.IllicitmethamphetaminelaboratorieshavebeenseizedforthefirsttimeinseveralEuropeancountries,includingAustria,Belarus, Lithuania,Netherlands,PolandandPortugal.InGermany,moremethamphetaminelaboratorieshavebeenreportedthan amphetaminesince2008.Bulgariareportedtheseizureoftwomobilemethamphetaminelaboratoriesin2010;thefirst suchinstancesince2001.InEurope,methamphetamineisprimarilysoldinthepowderform. There are signs that methamphetamine might be replacing amphetamine on the illicit market of some countries, for example,Sweden,Norway,Lithuania,LatviaandEstonia.SeizuresofmethamphetamineinEuropeincreasedfrom133kg in2005to697kgin2009,thelatestyearforwhichdataareavailable.4 In8March2010,phenylaceticacidwastransferredfromTableIItoTableIoftheUnitedNationsConventionagainstIllicitTrafficinNarcoticDrugsandPsychotropicSubstancesof1988effectiveasof17January2011inanattempttopreventdiversionsofthesubstanceintoillicitATSmanufacturebyincreasinginternationalcontrolsandreporting.InApril2010,theGovernmentofMexicostrengthenedcontrolofphenylaceticacidbytransferringthesubstance anditssaltsandderivativesfromTableIItoTableIofthefederallawonprecursorcontrol.Mexicoalsobroughtmethylamine,hydriodicacidandredphosphorusunderitsnationalcontrol.ThosethreesubstancesarenotunderinternationalcontrolbutareusedintheillicitmanufactureofATS(INCB,2011b).

11

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTinJectinG ats use in some reGionsInabsolutenumbers,mostATSuserscontinuetoliveinEastandSouth-EastAsia,themostpopuloussubregioninthe world.Theinjectinguseofmethamphetamineanditsassociatednegativehealthconsequenceshasbeenreportedasa growingprobleminEastandSouth-EastAsia.LaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublicandMalaysia,forexample,reportedthe injectinguseofcrystallinemethamphetamineforthefirsttimein2008and2009,respectively.InThailand,injectingisthe secondmostcommonmodeofadministrationforcrystallinemethamphetamineandthethirdmostcommonmodeof administrationformethamphetaminepills.InNewZealand,methamphetamineisthemostcommonlyinjecteddrugand inJapan,injectingistheprimarymodeofadministrationforcrystallinemethamphetamine.Highratesofamphetamines injection are also reported in the Czech Republic as well as Sweden, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia and Ukraine.

DecLine anD possiBLe resurGence of ecstasy anD emerGence of anaLoGue suBstances in estaBLisHeD ats marKetsIn2008and2009,manyEuropeancountriesreportedadecliningavailabilityofecstasy,reflectedbysignificantdeclines inecstasyseizuresaswellasdecreasingMDMAcontentdetectedthroughforensicanalysis.Inmanycases,declinesin supplyandpuritywereaccompaniedbytheemergenceofanaloguesubstancesnotunderinternationalcontrol.These substances are marketed as so-called legal highs and mimic the effects of taking illicit stimulant substances such as ecstasy or amphetamines. Widely used substances include BZP, mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC)) and MDPV.ThenewunregulatedsyntheticcompoundsappearedfirstinestablishedATSmarkets,particularlyinEurope,the UnitedStates,Canada,AustraliaandNewZealandbuthavemeanwhilespreadtoothermarkets,e.g.Philippines. Most recent reports point to the increasing purity of ecstasy and a possible resurgence of the drug on the illicit drug market.TheNetherlandsreportedincreasingpurityofecstasyin2010,whichwasat82%,comparedto70%in2008 and2009. Theresurgenceofecstasycouldalsohaveimpactedontheavailabilityofanaloguesubstancessuchasmephedrone,which seemedtohavedisappearedfromtheillicitecstasymarketintheNetherlandsduringthefirsthalfof2010.Ecstasyseizures Greater mekong subregion: primary methamphetamine trafficking routes

China India Bangladesh Myanmar Lao PDR

Hanoi

ThailandBangkok

CambodiaPhnom Penh

Viet Nam

Expanded trafficking routes (after 2003) Emerging trafficking routes Traditional trafficking routes (before 2003)

1,000 km

Source: CCDAC, 2009 Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

12

executive summaryareatafive-yearhighintheUSA,withatotalof3,411kg reportedseizedin2009,a15%increaseover2008.Europol reportsthatitislikelythatecstasymanufactureandtraffickingwillbegintoincreaseagaininthecomingyears,which could affect the availability of unregulated substances on theATSmarket.

europe: seizures of methamphetamine 2005-2009800

Seizures of methamphetamine (kg equivalents)

700

696.5

Data constraintsAnalysing ATS markets and developing an evidence base upon which actions to counter the ATS problem can be built relies on accurate, comparable and timely data. UNODC analyses are based on data reported by Member States.However,thereisirregularand/orincompletereportingfromseveralkeyregions,includingSouthAsia,theNear and Middle East, parts of the Americas, Africa and most Pacific Island states and territories. As this report shows, theseareoftentheveryregionsforwhichtherearealready indicationsofafuturespreadoftheATSproblem.

600

500 390.7

400

300

323.1

200

189.8 133.1

100

Irregular or incomplete reporting from Member States is 0 compoundedbythevaryingqualityofdataprovided.Spe2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 cifically,andsimilartootherdrugs,informationaboutthe extent of ATS use is the weakest indicator, as household andothersurveysarelackingorareoutdatedinsomecountriesinseveralofthemostaffectedregions.Unfortunately, Source: UNODC ARQ/DELTA thishappenstobethecaseinseveralpopulouscountries (for example, China and India). The lack of systematic forensicinformationonthespecificATSsubstances,theactualprecursorsusedandthesizeandcapacityofclandestine laboratory operations is another limitation. Without these data, which provide critical evidence for both demand and supplysidetrends,specificregionalshiftsandemergingtrendsinATSmarketsfailtobedetectedinatimelymanner.Lack ofthesedata,togetherwithlackofpricedata,alsoaffectsestimatesofwholesaleandretailmarketvalues,mark-ups, andtheprofitabilityoftheATSmarket.

concLusionsAftercannabis,ATSarethesecondmostwidelyuseddrugs.ThenumberofATSusershasstabilizedathighlevels:UNODC estimatesthattheannualprevalenceforamphetamines-groupsubstancesrangedbetween0.3%and1.3%in2009,or some14to57millionpeopleaged15-64.Fortheecstasygroup,globalannualprevalenceisestimatedatbetween0.2% and0.6%ofthepopulationaged15-64,orsome11to28millionpast-yearusers.Thescaleoftheproblemisunderreported,assomelargecountriessuchasChinaorIndiahaveneverconductedanationallyrepresentativesurveytocollect dataonATSuse. ThereporthasshownthattheATSproblemkeepsspreadingtonewregionsandcountriesnotpreviouslyaffectedbythe phenomenon. It is a dynamic problem characterized by rapid changes in regional trends in the levels of manufacture, traffickinganduse.Anditisacomplexproblem,withagreatvarietyofsubstancessoldinanumberofdifferentforms- aspowders,pillsorhighpuritycrystals. DuetothecomplexityanddynamicnatureoftheATSphenomenon,thecapacitytomonitortheillicitmanufacture,traffickinganduseofATSisasizeableandoftenenormouschallengeformanyGovernments.AttentiontotheATSproblem remainsunevenacrosstheworldandthereisaneedtoestablishandfurtherdevelopwaystoassesstheATSsituationin keyregions.IntheNearandMiddleEast,theregionwiththehighestseizuresofamphetamines,thereisastrongneed tobroadentheinformationandknowledgebase.DataonATSusearealmostnon-existentandlittleisknownaboutthe originofthepillswhichareseizedinlargequantitiesinmostcountriesintheregion.Africa,increasinglyassociatedwith traffickingofprecursorsandexpandingATSmanufacturingcapacityisanotherregionwhichwouldbenefitfrominvestmentintodrug-relatedproblems.MostPacificIslandStatesandterritorieslackinfrastructuretocollectandprovideinformationonATSyetareincreasinglyassociatedwithtraffickingofprecursorsandthetransitofATS. Theinternationalcommunityhasrecognized,mostnotablyinthe1998UNGASSActionPlan on ATSaswellasinthe 2008PoliticalDeclarationandPlanofActiononInternationalCooperationtowardsanIntegratedandBalancedStrategy

13

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTtoCountertheWorldDrugProblem,thatATScontinuetoposeaseriousandconstantlyevolvingchallengetointernational drug control efforts; a challenge which threatens the security, health and welfare of the population, especially youth,andhascalledonMemberStatestoproducecomprehensivenational,regionalandglobalresponses. ToproperlyrespondtotheATSproblem,furtherinvestmentsinATSinformationsystemsthatprovideaccurate,timelyand actionableinformationwithdetailatthesubregionalornationallevel,remainamongthehighestprioritiesforaction. EmergingATSmarketsneedtobemonitoredandaddressedproactivelybeforetheyareestablishedandbecomeasignificantaddedburdentonationalhealthandjusticesystems.UNODCwillcontinuetoidentifyandcommunicateinformationonemergingtrendstoassistrelevantGovernmentauthoritiesintheirunderstandingoftheATSmarket. IllicitATSmanufactureneedstobetargetedattheoriginbyfurtherincreasingtheeffectivenessofprecursorcontrol.Such effortsshouldalsoincludepreventingthediversionofpreparationscontainingATSprecursorsandofderivativesspecially designedtocircumventexistingcontrols. Finally,itisevidentfromthisreportthataworseningATSproblemiscorrelatedwithalackofinfrastructureandresources, andprioritymustthereforebegiventothosevulnerablecountriesandsubregionswhereATSarespreadingmostrapidly andwheredataareknowntobelackingorinsufficient.5

5

Vulnerability,inthisregard,isaresultofbothlimitedawarenessandlackofpreparednesstoaddresstheATSphenomenonadequately,andreallimitations in human, financial and technological resources, i.e. the overburdening of national infrastructures and law enforcement, judicial, prison and health care resources.

14

ats marKets: reGionaL trenDs

asiaeast anD soutH-east asiaregional overviewEastandSouth-EastAsia,hometoaboutathirdoftheglobalpopulation,hasoneofthemostestablishedATSmarkets intheworld,primarilyformethamphetamine.Itisestimatedthatbetween3.5millionto20.9millionpersonsintheregion haveusedATSinthepastyear.All11countriescoveredinthischapterhavereportedATSuse,andinseveralofthose, ATS have emerged as the primary drug threat in recent years, displacing traditionally used plant-based drugs such as heroin,opiumandcannabis.Theinjectinguseofmethamphetamineanditsassociatednegativehealthconsequencesis reportedasagrowingproblemintheregion. Since2006,theillicitmanufactureofATShascontinuedathighlevelsintheregion.China,MyanmarandthePhilippines remainthemajormanufacturingcountriesinEastandSouth-EastAsia.Duringthepastfiveyearssignificantnumbersof illicitATSmanufacturinglaboratorieshavealsobeenreportedfromIndonesia,Malaysiaand,toalesserextent,Cambodia. Previously,theselatterthreecountrieshadbeenprimarilytransitcountriesforATSbuthavemorerecentlyalsobecome keymanufacturingcentres.Inaddition,asmallnumberofATS-relatedlaboratoriesandprecursorchemicalmanufacturing siteshavebeenreportedfromChina,HongKong,China,Japan,RepublicofKoreaandThailand.Overall,thenumberof illicitATSlaboratoriesdismantledbetween2004and2009increasedsignificantly,from13to458.Thelargestnumberof methamphetaminelaboratorieswasreportedinChina,followedbyIndonesia,Malaysia,MyanmarandthePhilippines. Limitedecstasymanufacturetakesplaceintheregion,includinginChina,IndonesiaandMalaysia. TraffickingpatternsinEastandSouth-EastAsiahavealsoshiftedduringthepastfewyears,particularlyintheGreater Mekongsubregion,whichincludesCambodia,theLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic,Myanmar,Thailand,VietNamand theborderingsouthernprovincesofChina.The93.3millionmethamphetaminepillsseizedin2009inChina,LaoPeoples DemocraticRepublic,MyanmarandThailandrepresentathree-foldincreaseincomparisonwith2008figures.In2010, totalseizuressurpassed133millionpills. ThisincreasedtraffickingofmethamphetaminepillsfromMyanmartomarketsintheregionwasreflectedbythesingle seizure of nearly 22 million methamphetamine pills in February 2010 in Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, one of the largestseizureseverintheregion.Inaddition,increasingamountsofchemicalsandpharmaceuticalpreparationsusedfor east and south-east asia: ats laboratories, seizures, and annual prevalence rates (2004-2009)measure Laboratory (#) DruG Group Methamphetamine Other synthetic/combined stimulants Ecstasy-group substances total Seizures (kg) Methamphetamine Amphetamine Non-specified amphetamines Ecstasy-group substances total Annual Prevalence (15-64) Amphetamines-group substances Ecstasy-group substances 2005 49 49 12,171.9 5,262.2 1,388.9 1,137.8 19,960.8 0.9% 0.1% 2006 66 1 7 77 12,118.4 76.5 2,339.1 449.1 14,983.2 0.9% 0.1% 2007* 98 27 125 10,867.3 128.6 687.4 1,725.0 13,408.3 0.8% 0.3% 2008 11 244 33 288 11,578.6 72.2 1.7 814.3 12,466.8 0.8% 0.3% 2009 16 391 51 458 15,810.4 175.0 496.5 16,481.9 0.8% 0.3%

* From 2007 onwards, reported prevalence percentage is based on midpoint of range. - Not reported. Source: UNODC ARQ/DELTA

17

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTcrystalline methamphetamine seizures in east and south-east asia, 2004-2010 Ketamine seizures in east and south-east asia, 2006-2010

9,000 8,000 7,000 Seizures (kg) 6,000Seizures (kg) 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0

5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Source: DAINAP

Source: DAINAP

Greater mekong subregion: primary methamphetamine trafficking routes

China India Bangladesh Myanmar Lao PDR

Hanoi

ThailandBangkok

CambodiaPhnom Penh

Viet Nam

Expanded trafficking routes (after 2003) Emerging trafficking routes Traditional trafficking routes (before 2003)

1,000 km

Source: CCDAC, 2009 Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

18

Greater meKonG suBreGion / MyANMARthemanufactureofmethamphetaminearebeingdivertedandtraffickedthroughtheGreaterMekongSubregion.Large volumesofpharmaceuticalpreparationscontainingephedrineandpseudoephedrinehavebeenreportedinanumberof countriesintheregion,mostnotablyinCambodiaandMyanmar. Since2008,transnationalorganizedcriminalgroupsfromtheIslamicRepublicofIranandWestAfricahavebeenplaying agreaterroleinATStraffickinginEastandSouth-EastAsia.In2009,28Iranianswerearrestedforattemptingtosmuggle methamphetamineincrystallineandliquidformsintoIndonesia.Malaysia,thePhilippinesandThailandhavealsoreported increasinginflowsofmethamphetamineandotherATSintothecountrybyIraniandrugtraffickingorganizations.Japan reportedthearrestofmorethan130Iraniansformethamphetamine-relatedoffencesoverthepastfewyears,including onecaseofsuspectedmethamphetaminemanufactureinJune2010.TherearenewindicationsthatWestAfricangroups, whichhavehithertotraffickedprimarilyincocaineandheroin,maybediversifyingintotheregionslucrativemethamphetaminetrade. ATSuseinEastandSouth-EastAsiacontinuestoriseandby2009ATSrankedinthetopthreedrugsofuseinallcountries intheregion.MethamphetamineinpillformranksasthetopdrugofuseintheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublicand Thailand, while methamphetamine in crystalline form ranks as the most commonly used drug in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia,Japan,theRepublicofKoreaandthePhilippines.Theexpansionofcrystallinemethamphetaminetrafficking intotheregionhasbeenaccompaniedbyanupsurgeintheuseofthedrug.Ecstasyuseisreportedinmostcountries, albeitatrelativelylowanddeclininglevels. ThischapterfocusesontheevolvingATSsituationinEastandSouth-EastAsiasince2008.Thecoverageisdividedinto subregions,beginningwiththeGreaterMekongSubregion,followedbyNorth-EastAsiaincludingJapan,theRepublicof KoreaandthePhilippines,andtheSouthernArchipelagonationsofIndonesiaandMalaysia.

Greater meKonG suBreGionTheGreaterMekongSubregion,whichincludesCambodia,theLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic,Myanmar,Thailand, VietNamandborderingprovincesofsouthernChina,continuestobeheavilyaffectedbythemanufacture,trafficking anduseofATS,primarilymethamphetamine,onalargescale.WhereaspreviouslyMyanmar,theborderingprovincesof southernChinaandThailandhavebeenmostimpactedbyATS,theproblemhasalsoshiftedoverthepastfewyearsto Cambodia,theLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublicandVietNam.EmergingATStrendsincludeshiftingpatternsofdrug traffickingroutesthroughouttheregionaswellasincreasinguseofcrystallinemethamphetamine.Whilenotyetwidespread, the increasing injecting use of methamphetamine has been officially reported by Cambodia, the Lao Peoples DemocraticRepublicandThailand.Meanwhile,legalanddrugtreatmentsystemscontinuetobedominatedbymethamphetaminecases.

myanmarMyanmarremainsthemajorsourceofmethamphetaminepillsintheGreaterMekongSubregion.MostillicitmethamphetaminemanufacturetakesplaceintheeasternpartofShanState.ForensicprofilingofATSinThailandsuggeststhere areatleast12methamphetaminemanufacturingsitesinMyanmar.Inaddition,thereareindicationsthatatleast50differentorganizedcriminalgroupsareinvolvedinactivitiesrelatedtothetraffickingofdrugsfromMyanmar.1Thepresence ofdifferenttypesofWYmethamphetaminepillsinKayahStateandKayinState,whichare30-50%cheaperinprice comparedtopillsproducedinShanState,suggestspossiblelocalmethamphetaminemanufactureinthosestates.2 MethamphetaminepillsmanufacturedinShanStatearetraffickedalongnewtraffickingroutesthathaveemergedsince 2003,directlytoThailand,ChinaandtheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic,3withtheMekongRivernowakeyroute.4 ThereisalsoevidenceofnewtraffickingroutestothewesternpartofMyanmarandonwardtraffickingtoSouthAsia.5 Between1998and2010,only39manufacturingfacilitieswereseizedinMyanmar,mostlyconsistingofsmallertableting operations, with only two large-scale operations. This information is inconsistent with the vast number of pills seized1 2 3 4 5 ONCB,2009. UNODC,2010c. ONCB,2009. Thismaybeduetoincreasedcounter-narcoticseffortsbytheGovernmentofThailand,aimedatthesuppressionofdrugtraffickingandthepreventionof druguse,whichforceddrugproducersandtraffickerstofindnewtraffickingroutes. In2009,anewtraffickingrouteemerged,toRakhineStatefromYangon.PillsseizedinRakhineStatein2009werelikelyforexportratherthanforlocal consumption(UNODC,2010c).

19

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTcombined methamphetamine pill seizures in china, Lao peoples Democratic republic, myanmar and thailand

160,000,000 140,000,000 120,000,000 Number of pills 100,000,000 80,000,000 60,000,000 40,000,000 20,000,000 2006 c hina 2007 l ao P dr 2008 myanmar 2009 thailand 2010

Source: DAINAP

myanmar: seizures of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, 1997-20107,000 6,000 5,000 s eizures (kg) 4,000 6 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 4 12

myanmar: domestic trafficking routes of methamphetamine pills

BHUTAN

10 s eizures (million tablets )

KACHIN INDIA

Phor Kant Myitkyina

8

BANGLADESH SAGAING

Bhamo Muse Lashio

CHINA

Kunlong Hopan Panseng Kyaling TonaLAO PDR

Nong ChoCHIN

MandalayMANDALAY

Tan YenSHAN

Taunggy Pin LaungKAYAH

Sittwe

MAGWAY

Tachileik

2

RAKHINE BAGO

Bago Pa-anKAYIN

0YANGON AYEYARWARDY

THAILAND

Yangon

Myawaddy

e phedrine c old tablets *0 75 150 300 km

*Cold tablets containing pseudoephedrine. Source: CCDAC, 2009

TENASSERIM Source: CCDAC, 2009 Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

20

Greater meKonG suBreGion / ThAILANDthroughouttheregion.6Noreportedcrystallinemethamphetaminemanufacturingfacilitieshavebeenseizedinthe country,butmostcrystallinemethamphetamineseizedin northern Thailand during the past three to four years originated from the Myanmar part of the Golden Triangle.7

myanmar: bottles of ephedrine-containing nasal drops seized in special region 1 (Kokang)

Only two million methamphetamine pills were seized in 2010, compared to seizures of nearly 24 million pills in 2009.Seizuresin2008and2007amountedto1.1million pills and 1.6 million pills, respectively.8 The significant increasein2009waslikelyduetoGovernmentpressure onceasefiregroups,manyofwhichmanufactureATS,to come under Government control. Although seizures of methamphetaminepillsdroppedsharplyin2010,seizures ofcrystallinemethamphetamineduringtheyearamounted Source: CCDAC, 2009 to226kg,showinganupwardtrendfortwosuccessive years.Theamountofcrystallinemethamphetamineseized in2009amountedto124kgcomparedwithatotalofonly20kgseizedbetween2006and2008.9 Ephedrineandpseudoephedrine,themainmethamphetamineprecursors,aretraffickedintothecountryfromChina,India andThailand.10From2003to2008,lessthan1mtofephedrinewasseizedeachyearexceptfor2006when1.3mtwere seized.In2009,ephedrineseizuresjumpedto1.5mtandthendroppedagainin2010to34kg.11Atthesametime, however,Myanmarhasreportedsignificantseizuresofcoldtabletscontainingpseudoephedrine,with9.4millionsuch pillsseizedin2009and4.5millionpillsseizedin2010.12Increasingseizuresofpharmaceuticalpreparationsthatcontain ephedrineandpseudoephedrinemayaccountforthelowamountofbulkephedrineseizuresinrecentyears,asprecursor traffickershavestartedtousedifferentformsofprecursorchemicalsinordertoavoidlawenforcementdetectionandto circumventstrictinternationalcontrolsonprecursorchemicals. Most of the methamphetamine manufactured in Myanmar is trafficked to other countries, primarily in the Greater MekongSubregion.However,domesticmethamphetamineuseisreportedlyontherise.Useofmethamphetaminepills hasincreasedeveryyearsince2003.13Usehasspreadfromtheborderareasnearmanufacturingcentrestourbanareas. Therehasbeennoreporteddomesticuseofcrystallinemethamphetaminetodate.14

thailandThailandhasoneofthelargestmarketsformethamphetamineintheregion.Whilemethamphetaminepilluseremains the most common form of drug use in the country, the use of crystalline methamphetamine has become increasingly widespread. DomesticmanufactureofmethamphetamineinThailandislimitedtosmall-scalemanufacture.Overthepastthreeyears, lawenforcementauthoritieshaveseizedmethamphetaminepilltabletingoperationslocatedintheoutskirtsofBangkok andinsurroundingprovincesaswellasinthenorthernprovinceofChiangRai,indicatingthatpillpressingoperationsare takingplaceintheareaborderingMyanmar.15InJuly2010,aSwedishnationalarrestedintheeasternprovinceofRayong waschargedwithmanufacturingcrystallinemethamphetamineinhishome.16 Largequantitiesofcoldtabletscontainingpseudoephedrine,sourcedprimarilyfromThailand,MalaysiaandtheRepublic ofKorea,wereseizedinThailandsborderareasandatSuvarnnabhumiInternationalAirportin2009and2010.17Most6 7 8 9 UNODC,2010c. ThishasbeensuggestedbyauthoritiesfromMyanmarandThailand(ONCB,2009). UNODC,2010c. UNODC,2010c.

10 ONCB,2009andCCDAC,2010. 11 UNODC,2010d.Theincreasein2006wasduetogreaterlawenforcementefforts(UNODC,2008). 12 DAINAP;UNODC,2010c. 13 UNODC,2010d. 14 UNODC,2010d. 15 ONCB,2010a. 16 ONCB,2011. 17 ONCB,2010b.

21

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTthailand: seizures of crystalline methamphetamine, 2004-20107,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 400 3,000 300 2,000 1,000 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 200 100 0 800 700 600 500

of the tablets were believed to be destined for illicit ATS manufacturing facilities in Myanmar. Since 2008, approximately 35 million preparations and 192 kg of bulk pseudoephedrine have been seized in the country. 18 The increasingquantityoftheseizuresindicatestraffickersare smugglinglargerquantitiesofpharmaceuticalpreparations toproductioncentres. Although there is growing domestic methamphetamine manufactureinThailand,themajorityofthemethamphetaminepillsfoundinthecountryissourcedfromMyanmar. DuetoincreasedillicitmanufactureinMyanmar,seizuresof methamphetamineinbothpillandcrystallineformsinThailand have increased each year since 2007. During that period,methamphetaminepillseizuresrosefrom14million pillsin2007to22millionpillsin2008,27millionpillsin 2009andnearly50millionpillsin2010.Atthesametime, seizures of crystalline methamphetamine also increased dramatically,with47kgseizedin2007,53kgin2008,209 kgin2009and773kgin2010.19

Number of seizures

MostofthemethamphetaminethatentersThailandisfor domesticusebutlimitedquantitiesarealsotransshippedto othermarkets,includingEurope,NorthAmerica20andthe Number of seizures MiddleEast.Crystallinemethamphetamineistraffickedinto Seizures (kg) thecountryfromMyanmarandCambodiabothfordomestic use and for onward trafficking to Malaysia, the Philippines,HongKong,ChinaandJapan.21Asinseveralother Source: DAINAP countriesinEastandSouth-EastAsia,increasingamounts ofcrystallinemethamphetaminearetraffickedintoThailand bycouriersfromtheIslamicRepublicofIran.In2009,eightIraniandrugtraffickerswerearrestedwith27kgofcrystalline methamphetamine.FromJanuarytoSeptember2010,79IraniandrugtraffickerswerearrestedinThailandwithnearly 109kgofthedrug.Iraniancourierstypicallyattempttotrafficmethamphetamineincrystalline,liquidandpowderform intothecountryviaSuvarnnabhumiInternationalAirport.22 MostecstasyinThailandisreportedlytraffickedbyairfromtheNetherlands.23Inaddition,criminalsyndicatesbasedin MalaysiaandSingaporetrafficecstasyintoThailandbylandandair.24MostketamineistraffickedintoThailandacrossits borders with Cambodia and Malaysia. In 2010, police arrested seven Indian couriers and seized 150 kg of ketamine powderatSuvarnnabhumiInternationalAirport.25ReporteduseofecstasyandketamineinThailand,however,isdeclining. Theuseofmethamphetaminepillsandcrystallinemethamphetaminehasshownanupwardtrendsince2008.In2010, morethan80%ofallpersonswhoreceiveddrugtreatmentinspecializedtreatmentfacilitiesandcorrectionalinstitutions reportedmethamphetaminepillsastheprimarydrugofuse.ThailandisoneofthefewcountriesintheregionthatprovidesspecializedtreatmentforATSusers.

18 ONCB,2010b. 19 DAINAP;2010,ONCB2010b. 20 INCB,2010a. 21 ONCB,2010b. 22 ONCB,2010b. 23 ONCB,2010a. 24 ONCB,2010b. 25 ONCB,2010b.

22

Seizures (kg)

Greater meKonG suBreGion / ThAILANDthailand: drug treatment admissions, 2010neW aDmissions DruG type Methamphetamine pills Crystalline methamphetamine Ecstasy-type (MDMA) Cannabis Cocaine heroin Inhalants Ketamine Kratom Opium totalSource: DAINAP

aLL aDmissions totaL 80,470 1,630 152 5,625 12 518 3,152 8 1,956 918 94,441 maLe 89,822 1,214 102 6,664 11 1,276 4,037 6 2,136 1,451 106,719 femaLe 8,225 805 82 77 7 62 115 5 53 436 9,867 totaL 98,047 2,019 184 6,741 18 1,338 4,152 11 2,189 1,887 116,586

maLe 73,530 939 83 5,559 7 500 3,064 3 1,904 713 86,302

femaLe 6,940 691 69 66 5 18 88 5 52 205 8,139

thailand: drug treatment admissions, 2009neW aDmissions DruG type Methamphetamine pills Crystalline methamphetamine Ecstasy-type (MDMA) Cannabis Cocaine heroin Inhalants Ketamine Kratom Opium totalSource: DAINAP

aLL aDmissions totaL 71,635 701 251 6,699 12 538 4,626 11 1,420 1,056 86,949 maLe 78,620 435 181 7,794 15 1,232 5,517 11 1,527 1,482 96,814 femaLe 8,196 408 103 104 4 62 197 1 34 485 9,594 totaL 86,816 843 284 7,898 19 1,294 5,714 12 1,561 1,967 106,408

maLe 64,690 350 155 6,610 10 513 4,466 10 1,385 795 78,984

femaLe 6,945 351 96 89 2 25 160 1 35 261 7,965

thailand: ats and ketamine seizures, 2006-2010DruG type (measurement) Methamphetamine pills (pills) Crystalline methamphetamine (kg) Ecstasy-type (MDMA) (pills) Ketamine (kg) 2006no. of seizures Quantity no. of seizures

2007Quantity no. of seizures

2008Quantity no. of seizures

2009Quantity no. of seizures

2010Quantity

36,252 13,820,000 73,014 14,340,000 113,877 22,115,911 105,916 26,640,206 125,195 48,587,522 734 300 95 92.2 26,656 22.7 1,258 295 63 47.4 315,444 2.8 1,960 460 140 52.9 486,533* 18.1 2,507 296 130 209 58,024 18.9 6,602 147 154 733.02 16,081 172.03

* 2008 pill seizures converted into kg equivalents at 1 pill = 300 mg. Source: DAINAP

23

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTLao people's Democratic republicDrugcontrolauthoritiesintheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublichaveidentifiedtherapidspreadofATSandothersyntheticdrugsasthecountrysprimarydrugthreat.LaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublichasnotreportedanyillicitmethamphetaminemanufacturesince1998.Recentseizuredataindicatethatmethamphetamineincreasinglytransitsthecountry from Myanmar to Cambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam, particularly along the Mekong River and the countrys rapidly improvingroadnetwork.26In2008,157seizuresofmethamphetamine(about81%ofallmethamphetamineseizures) weremadeenroutefromtheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublictoThailand.27 Priorto2008,annualseizuresofmethamphetaminepillsintheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublicamountedtobetween 0.5millionand2millionpills,exceptin2005whenalmost4.7millionpillswereseized.Inlinewiththespikeinmethamphetamine pill seizures in other countries in the Greater Mekong Subregion, the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic reportedamorethanfour-foldriseinpillseizuresfrom84casesin2007to194casesin2008and357casesin2009.In 2010, methamphetamine pill seizures increased significantly, due to a single seizure in February of 21.8 million pills believedtohaveoriginatedfromMyanmar,evidentlyenroutetoThailand.28Itwasoneofthelargestmethamphetamine pillseizureseverintheGreaterMekongSubregion.Thetotalwasnearlytentimeshigherthanthe2.3millionmethamphetaminepillsseizedin2009. Inaddition,thereareindicationsthattransnationalorganizeddrugtraffickinggroupsareincreasinglysmugglingprecursor chemicalsusedinthemanufactureofATSthroughtheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic.29InAugust2009,lawenforcementauthoritiesseizedlargequantitiesofcoldremediesbeingtraffickedtoMyanmarfromVietNamthroughLaoPeoples DemocraticRepublic,whichwereintendedtoprovidepseudoephedrineformethamphetaminemanufacture. ThespilloverofmethamphetaminefromMyanmarhasimpacteddrugusepatternsintheLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic which were previously dominated by opium use. In 2005, government authorities in the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic reported the escalation of methamphetamine use along trafficking routes adjacent to the Mekong River and identifiedmethamphetaminepillsastheprimarydrugofuseinthecountry.Inthesameyear,theLaoPeoplesDemocratic Republicrecordeditsfirstcrystallinemethamphetamineseizure,indicatingthatthesupplyofmethamphetamineentering thecountrywasdiversifying.Injectinguseofmethamphetaminewasreportedforthefirsttimein2008. ATSuseishighestinurbanareasandisincreasingamongyoungdrugusers.UNODCestimatesthatin2008,anestimated 1.4%ofthepopulationaged15-64hadusedmethamphetamineatleastonceinthepreviousyear.30ThereisalsoincreasingATSuseinsomeruralareasthatformerlycultivatedopiumpoppy.31Overthepastfiveyears,morethan80%ofall drug-relatedarrestsandthemajorityofdrugtreatmentadmissionshaveinvolvedmethamphetamineinpillform,32representing a considerable burden on the limited law enforcement, judicial, prison and health care resources of the Lao PeoplesDemocraticRepublic. Lao peoples Democratic republic: seizures of methamphetamine pills, 2006-2010DruG type Methamphetamine pillsSource: DAINAP

measurement No. of pills

2006 1,755,989

2007 1,272,815

2008 1,227,205

2009 2,335,330

2010 24,530,177

number of patients at somsanga treatment and rehabilitation center, 2003-2009DruG type Total no. of patients FemalesSource: LCDC, 2010b

2003 1,714 0

2004 2,658 0

2005 1,376 25

2006 1,177 28

2007 1,894 137

2008 1,682 105

2009 1,964 118

26 LCDC,2010a. 27 WCO,2009. 28 LCDC,2011. 29 INCB,2011a. 30 UNODC,2011a. 31 LCDC,2010a. 32 DAINAP.

24

Greater meKonG suBreGion / CAMBODIA

cambodiaCambodiahasasignificantandincreasingproblemwiththeillicitmanufacture,traffickinganduseofATS.Inaddition, thecountryisbeingtargetedbytransnationaldrugtraffickingorganizationsasatransitrouteforATSandotherdrugsto othercountriesbothinandoutsidetheregion. OfficialreportsofillicitATSmanufactureinCambodiafirstemergedin2007whenpolicedismantledalarge-scalelaboratory in Kompong Speu province that was reported to have manufactured at least 1 mt of chloropseudoephedrine, an intermediateinthemanufactureofmethamphetamine.IllicitATSmanufactureinthecountryhassinceincreasedconsiderably.In2009,Cambodiareportedtheseizureoffivelaboratoriesandprecursormanufacturingsites.33 SeizuresofsubstantialquantitiesofprecursorchemicalsusedforillicitATSmanufacturehavealsobeenreportedinCambodiainrecentyears.In2009,Cambodianauthoritiesseized886kgofpreparationscontainingpseudoephedrine,2,814 kg of ephedra grass, 13 kg of ephedra seeds as well as 1,373 kg of unknown liquids.34 In the same year, Cambodia reporteditsfirstseizureofanextractionsiteforephedrine,intheKompongChamprovince,whichwasutilizingephedra grasssuspectedtohavebeentraffickedfromnorthernChina.35 InAugust2010,druglawenforcementauthoritiesinCambodiarecordedthelargestsingleseizureofsmuggledpseudoephedrinetodateinthecountry.About12.9milliontabletswereseizedinBanteayMeancheyprovinceneartheThaiCambodiaborder.TheseizurewascarriedoutincooperationwithlawenforcementofficersfromtheRepublicofKorea andThailand.36SignificantseizuresofpseudoephedrinetabletswerealsoreportedinDecember2010inPhnomPenh. Safrole-richoils(SRO),37havevariouslicitcommercialusesintheperfumeandpesticideindustry,butcanbedivertedfor theillicitmanufactureofecstasy.SROcontinuetobeillicitlyharvestedandsold,althoughatfarlowerlevelsthaninpreviousyears. WhilethereissomeindicationthatthedomesticmanufactureofATSisincreasing,mostATSfoundinCambodiaistraffickedfromneighbouringcountries.Previously,ATSenteredCambodiaprimarilythroughitsborderwithThailand,whereas overthepastfewyearsmostATSseizedinCambodiahavebeensmuggledacrossitsborderwiththeLaoPeoplesDemocraticRepublic,inparticularthroughtheremotenorthernprovincesalongtheMekongRiver.AlargeamountoftheATS andotherdrugstraffickedintoCambodiaisdestinedforillicitmarketsinothercountries.38Someofthemethamphetaminetraffickedintothecountryisre-tabletedandsoldonthestreetsaslowpuritymethamphetaminepills.39 Since2007,methamphetaminepillseizuresinthecountryhavedeclined,whichmaybeanindicationofincreaseddomesticillicitATSmanufactureandareducedneedforthetraffickingofthedrugsintothecountry.In2010,methamphetamine pillseizuresinCambodiatotaled82,746,nearly40%lowerthanthe2009totalandnearly30%lowerthanthe2008 total.Atthesametime,however,the10kgofcrystallinemethamphetamineseizedinthecountryin2010ismorethan twicetheamountseizedin2009(4.6kg)andrepresentsthehighestamountseizedinthecountrysince2007. Although the domestic use of methamphetamine in Cambodia remains high, government experts have reported two successiveyearsofdeclininguse.In2009,usersofmethamphetamineinbothpillandcrystallineformaccountedforabout 70%ofallillicitdrugusers.Cambodianauthoritiesreportthatuseofcrystallinemethamphetaminehasovertakenthe useofmethamphetaminepills.40PreliminarydatareportedbyCambodiain2011,however,indicatesapossiblespikein methamphetaminepillseizures.

33 NACD,2009. 34 NACD,2010a. 35 NACD,2009. 36 NACD,2010b;UNODC,2010b. 37 SafroleisasubstancelistedinTable1oftheUnitedNationsConventionAgainstIllicitTraffickinginNarcoticDrugsandPsychotropicSubstancesof1988,as wellasinCambodiasDrugLaw.TheInternationalNarcoticsControlBoarddefinessafrole-richoilsasbeinganymixturesornaturalproductscontaining safrolepresentinsuchawaythatitcanbeusedorrecoveredbyreadilyapplicablemeans(INCB,2009b). 38 NACD,2011. 39 NACD,2010c. 40 DAINAP.

25

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTcambodia: seizures of selected drugs, 2005-2010DruG type Methamphetamine pills Crystalline methamphetamine Ecstasy-type (MDMA) Ketamine measurement No. of pills kg No. of pills kg 2005 351,651 2 2006 428,553 16.2 2007 420,287 6.75 300 2008 116,772 1.9* 33 495** 2009 137,249 4.6 3,352 1.14 2010 82,746 9.9 1,056 0.001

* Plus 15 'small packs' undefined weight. ** Small bottles, undefined weight. Source: DAINAP

viet namVietNamisbecomingthenextbigmarketformethamphetaminemanufacturedintheregion,partlyduetoitslarge, increasinglyaffluentandurbanpopulation.Theuseofheroinandopiumcontinuetodominateinthecountry.Theuse ofmethamphetaminepillsandecstasyhasincreasedeveryyearsince2003.41Crystallinemethamphetamineuse,which wasfirstreportedinVietNamin2008,42hassincerisensignificantly,especiallyamongyoungpersonsinurbanareas.43 MethamphetaminemanufactureinVietNamappearsminimal,withthefirstmanufacturinglaboratoryreporteddismantledinJune2005.44However,thefullextentofATSmanufactureandthetradingofprecursorchemicalsinVietNamis difficult to assess due to the limited information available. The large number of chemical wholesalers, suppliers and manufacturers in Viet Nam provides an increasing opportunity for the diversion of precursor chemicals into illicit ATS manufacture.SomeofthepseudoephedrineseizedinAustraliain2008-2009wasreportedlyshippedfromVietNam.45 SeizuresofATSarenotuniformlyreportedinVietNam,butthelimiteddatashowthatinthefirstsixmonthsof2010,a totalof22kgandmorethan83,000pillsofmethamphetaminepillswereseized.46Mostofthemethamphetaminefound inVietNamandsmalleramountsofheroinaresourcedfromMyanmarandaretraffickedintothecountrybylandfrom Cambodia.47 Duringthepastfewyears,anincreasingamountofsyntheticdrugsaswellashallucinogenswhicharenotcontrolledby theGovernmentofVietNamhavebeenseizedbypoliceinmajorprovincesandcities.TheuseofTFMPP(Trifluoromethylpennylpiperazine),BZPandSeaWater(GammaHydroxybutyricAcid,orGHB),widespreadinentertainmentvenues, hasbeenidentifiedbyVietnameseauthoritiesasanewtrendandseveralreportsstatethatthesedrugsareavailablefor saleontheInternet.48

chinaATS use in China had become increasingly widespread by the end of the 1990s and by the early 2000s ATS use had overtakenopiumasthesecondmostcommonlyuseddruginthecountry.Ketamineusehasalsobecomeincreasingly prevalentsinceitwasfirstreportedin2004,asthecountryisamajorproducerofthesubstance.Thelackofnationally representativedruguseprevalenceestimates,however,remainsamajorchallengetotheadequatemonitoringofATS trendsinthecountry. MostofthemethamphetamineusedinChinaismanufactureddomestically.However,comparedtoothercountriesinthe GreaterMekongSubregion,ChinaexperiencedasurgeinmethamphetaminepillstraffickedintothecountryfromMyanmarin2009and2010,49atrendreflectingthesubstantialandincreasingseizuresofmethamphetaminepillsinYunnan province bordering Myanmar.50 In 2009, more than 40 million methamphetamine pills51 were seized in China, which41 DAINAP. 42 DAINAP. 43 SODC,2010a. 44 SODC,2008. 45 INCB,2011a. 46 DAINAP. 47 SODC,2009. 48 SODC,2010b. 49 NNCC,2010a. 50 Methamphetamineseizuresintheprovincerosefrom2.2mtin2008to3.2mtin2009and4.6mtin2010(NNCC,2010b;NNCC,2011a). 51 FiguresforChinadonotincludeadditionalsignificantseizuresmadeintheSpecialAdministrativeRegions(SAR)ofHongKongandMacao,andTaiwan Province.

26

Greater meKonG suBreGion / ChINAaccounted for roughly 40% of all the methamphetamine pills seized in the East and South-East Asia region during theyear,ascomparedtoonlyapproximately6millionpills seizedinChinain2008.In2010,thetotalnumberofmethamphetaminepillsseizedamountedtoover58.4million. Despite the impact of the spillover of Myanmar-manufactured methamphetamine pills in 2009, aggregate seizures of methamphetamine (in both pill and crystalline forms) duringtheyear(6.6mt)remainedwithintherangeofthe 6.1mtand6.8mtseizedeachyearduringthe2005-2009 period. In 2010, aggregate seizures of methamphtamine increasedto9.9mt,withlargeamountsseizedinYunnan province;areflectionofthediversificationofATStrafficking routesintheGreaterMekongSubregion.52 SeizuresofillicitATSmanufacturingfacilitiesinChinahave increased significantly since 2005 and a considerable number of ketamine manufacturing facilities have also been dismantled. China reports the highest seizures of ketamineintheworld,havingreportedannualseizuresof about5.4mtforthepastfouryears.The5.3mtofketamine seized in China in 2008 accounted for nearly twothirdsofthe8.2mtseizedgloballyduringtheyear.53

china: ats seizures, 2001-201012,000 10,000 Seizures (metric tons) 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Source: DAINAP

ATSmanufactureinChinaisbecomingmoresophisticatedandincreasinglydiversifiedwiththesynthesisofprecursors andthedifferentstagesofmanufacturingbeingdividedacrossprovinces,includingTaiwanProvinceofChina.54In2010, atotalof378illicitATSmanufacturinglaboratoriesweredetected55comparedto391facilitiesin200956and244facilitiesin2008.57Priorto2006,mostillicitATSmanufacturingactivityinChinaoccurredinthesouth-easternprovincesof GuangdongandFujian.However,increasedlawenforcementeffortsappeartohaveshiftedsomemanufacturetocentral China.In2009,mostoftheclandestinemanufacturinglaboratoriesseizedwereinGuangdong,Sichuan,Henan,Hunan andHubeiprovincesandweremanufacturingcrystallinemethamphetamineandketamine.58 SignificantseizuresofprecursorchemicalscontinuedtobereportedinChina.In2010,234suchcaseswerereported, includingtheseizureof869mtofcontrolledprecursorchemicalsand49mtofuncontrolledchemicals.In2009,China reported1,366violationsofprecursorchemicalcontrolandtheseizureofapproximately3.2mtofprecursors,including theseizureofnearly9mtofhydroxylaminehydrochloride,aprecursorusedinthemanufactureofketamine.59

Hong Kong (special administrative region of china)MostclandestineATSmanufactureinHongKong,Chinahasconsistedofecstasy-typetabletingandrepackagingoperations.60 However, Hong Kong police reported the seizure of two small-scale clandestine crystalline methamphetamine manufacturing facilities in 2009 and the dismantling of a larger crystalline methamphetamine manufacturing facility locatedinanindustrialestatein2010.61 Ecstasyusehasdeclinedinrecentyears,possiblyduetothegrowingpopularityofthesignificantlylessexpensiveketamine.MuchoftheecstasyseizedinHongKong,ChinacontainssubstancesotherthanMDMA,suchasketamineand methamphetamineand,morerecently,trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine(TFMPP),whichiscurrentlynotcontrolledinHong Kong,China.6252 NNCC,2011b. 53 UNODC,2010e. 54 NNCC,2009. 55 NNCC,2011b. 56 Ithasnotbeenestablishedwhetherall391illicitlaboratorieswererelatedtoATS(NNCC,2010b). 57 UNODC,2010e. 58 NNCC,2011a. 59 NNCC,2010c. 60 HKNB,2010. 61 HKNB,2011. 62 HKNB,2011.

27

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENT Ketamine users account for nearly 38% of all drug users in Hong Kong, China. Among drug users below the age of 21 an estimated 84% have used ketamine.63 Previously, most of the ketamine trafficked into Hong Kong, China was traffickedinsmallquantitiesacrossthelandboundarywithmainlandChina,byalargenumberoftraffickers.By2005, large,multi-kiloquantitiesofketamineoriginatinginIndiaandtransportedintoHongKong,ChinaviaSouth-EastAsia were also detected. There are indications that criminal syndicates are increasingly procuring the precursor chemical hydroxylamine hydrochloride to manufacture ketamine in illicit laboratories rather than diverting the drug from the legitimatemarket.64 Theuseofmethamphetamine,primarilyincrystallineform,emergedinHongKong,Chinaintheearly1990s,andhas stabilizedinrecentyearsatabout10%ofthedruguserpopulationandapproximately16-21%ofreporteddrugusers undertheageof21.65Seizuresofcrystallinemethamphetaminehaveremainedstablesince2007atabout43kgper year.MostofthecrystallinemethamphetaminetraffickedintoHongKong,ChinaistraffickedfrommainlandChina;some ofitdestinedforoverseasmarketssuchasAustralia.66

taiwan province of chinaTaiwanProvinceofChinaisasourceofmethamphetaminemanufactureandremainsasourceforpharmaceuticalpreparationscontainingpseudoephedrinethataredestinedforcountriesinCentralAmericaandOceania. In2010,TaiwanProvinceofChinareporteditslargesteverketamineseizureof850kgwhichoriginatedfrommainland China,aswellasanadditional480kgofketaminewhichwasdetectedonboardafishingvessel.InNovember2010, authoritiesseized60kgofamphetamineoriginatingfrommainlandChinawithastreetvalueofUSD1.6millionatTaipei Port.Duringtheyear,authoritiesalsoreportedtheseizureofabout20kgofpseudoephedrinepillsandamanufacturing laboratoryinKaohsiungwithamanufacturingcapacityofapproximately1.5mtofmethamphetamine.67 TaiwanProvinceofChinaalsoseizessignificantandincreasingquantitiesofketamineandmethamphetaminethatoriginatefrommainlandChina.IndiaalsoremainsasourceofdivertedketaminetraffickedintoTaiwanProvinceofChina.

nortH-east asiaThemajordrugcontrolprobleminNorth-EastAsiacontinuestobetheuseofATS,primarilycrystallinemethamphetamine. ATSmanufactureremainslimitedinJapanandtheRepublicofKorea,althoughsignificantquantitiesofcrystallinemethamphetaminearemanufacturedinthePhilippines.

JapanInJapan,crystallinemethamphetaminecontinuestobethemaindrugofuse.Thecountryfirstexperiencedwidespread methamphetamineuseinthe1950s,andagaininthemid-1980sandlate1990s.68Manufactureofmethamphetamine inJapanisextremelyrare,butinJune2010,twoIraniannationalswerearrestedonsuspicionofmanufacturingmethamphetamine in their home. In addition, Japan has reported several incidents involving the diversion of pharmaceuticals containingATSprecursorchemicalssince2003,with66suchcasesbeingreportedin2008.In2010,authoritiesreported severalincidentsofdomesticmethamphetaminemanufactureandseizuresofliquidmethamphetamineatvariousinternationalairportsinJapan,69pointingtothepossibleriskofexpandingdomesticillicitmanufacture,especiallyasmethamphetaminepricesinthecountryareincreasing.70 Traditionally, China has been the primary source of methamphetamine seized in Japan, but in recent years methamphetaminefromothercountriesaroundtheworldhasbeentraffickedintothecountry.71Muchofthemethamphetamine foundinJapanissmuggledfromoverseasbyinternationalandJapanesedrugtraffickingorganizations.Morethanhalf ofthearrestsrelatedtomethamphetamineduringthepastfiveyearshaveinvolvedlocalBoryokudan(Yakuza)organ-

63 HKSB,2011. 64 HKNB,2010. 65 HKNB,2010. 66 HKNB,2010. 67 INCSR,2011. 68 JNPA,2011. 69 INCSR,2011. 70 JMHLW,2009. 71 JNPA,2010a;JNPA,2010b.

28

nortH-east asia / REPUBLIC OF KOREAJapan: ats-related arrests, 2006-2010DruG type Methamphetamine Ecstasy-type (MDMA)Source: JNPA, 2011

2006 11,606 370

2007 12,009 296

2008 11,025 281

2009 11,655 107

2010 11,999 62

Japan: ats seizures, 2006-2010DruG type Crystalline methamphetamine Ecstasy-type (MDMA) and other synthetic drugs* UNODC, 2010d. Source: JNPA, 2011

measurement Kg Pills

2006 126.8 186,226

2007 339.3 1,233,883

2008 397.5 217,172

2009 356.3* 85,688

2010 302.3 17,326

izedcrimemembers.AswithmanycountriesinAsia,many nationals from the Islamic Republic of Iran have been arrestedinJapaninmethamphetamine-relatedcasesinthe past few years, including 85 in 2009 and 50 in 2010.72 MuchofthemethamphetaminetraffickedintoJapanconsists of small packages carried by couriers who enter the country by air and sea. However, sophisticated trafficking networks are playing an increasing role in methamphetaminetraffickinginJapan,whichisreflectedbythenumber oflargeseizuresrecordedinthecountry.Since2008,Japan has reported an average of 352 kg of methamphetamine seized each year, slightly less than the amounts seized in theearlypartofthedecade.73 Crystalline methamphetamine use in Japan has remained generallystableduringmostofthepastdecade.Injectingis theprimarymodeofadministrationforcrystallinemethamphetamine in the country. Methamphetamine pill use has not been reported in Japan. Use of ecstasy pills is more common but declining numbers of arrests and declining seizuresofthedrugoverthepastseveralyearssuggestthat usehasgonedown.74Duringthepastdecadeabout80% of all drug-related arrests in the country have involved methamphetamine. In addition, more than 50% of all drug-related treatment demand from clients in psychiatric treatment facilities was for ATS use (last reported in 2005).75

sources of methamphetamine trafficking to Japan, 2010

China 17.8%

Others 29.6%

T aiwan P rovince ofChina 10.4% HongKong, China 6.7% UAE 8.1%

T hailand 3.7% Mexico 4.4% B enin 5.2%

Malays ia 6.7%

Nigeria 7.4%

Source: JNPA, 2011

republic of KoreaCrystallinemethamphetamine,commonlyknownlocallyasphiloponorhiropponintheRepublicofKorea,remainsthe mostcommonlyuseddrugandhasaccountedforabout60-70%ofalldrug-relatedarrestsinthecountrysince2008. However,reporteduseandavailabilityofthedrughavesincedeclined,whichisalsoreflectedbythecontinuallydeclining seizures,fromapproximately26kgin2008to11kgin2010,andsteadilyrisingpricesforthedrug.76ATSusershave accountedformorethan95%ofallpersonsadmittedtodrugtreatmentinthecountrysince2008.72 JNPA,2011. 73 JNPA,2011. 74 JNPA,2010b. 75 JMHLW,2007. 76 SPO,2011.

29

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTMostofthecrystallinemethamphetaminefoundintheRepublicofKoreahascomefrommainlandChinabutincreasing amountsofthedrugareenteringthecountryfromCambodia,Malaysia,SouthAfricaandtheTaiwanProvinceofChina.77 Inrecentyears,severalnationalsofChinaandThailandhavebeenarrestedintheRepublicofKoreafortraffickingmethamphetamine.78 LimitedillicitmethamphetaminemanufacturehasbeenreportedintheRepublicofKoreasincethelate1990s.However, in2010authoritiesreportedtheseizureoffoursmall-scalekitchen-typeclandestinemethamphetaminemanufacturing operations.79In2008and2009therewerenoreportedseizuresofprecursorchemicalsintheRepublicofKorea,although ithasbeenindicatedasoneofthesourcecountriesforephedrinetraffickedtoAustralia.80InAugust2010,approximately 12.8 million pharmaceutical preparations containing pseudoephedrine, originating from the Republic of Korea, were seizedinCambodiaafterhavingbeentraffickedacrossthelandborderwithThailand.However,itisunclearwhetherthese productswereintendedfordirectuseorforuseinillicitmethamphetaminemanufacture.81 republic of Korea: ats-related arrests, 2006-2010DruG type ATS totalSource: SPO, 2011

2006 6,006 7,709

2007 8,521 10,649

2008 7,457 9,898

2009 7,965 11,875

2010 6,771 9,732

republic of Korea: ats seizures, 2006-2010DruG type Crystalline methamphetamine Methamphetamine pills Ecstasy -type (MDMA)Source: SPO, 2011

measurement kg No. of pills No. of pills

2006 21.5 0 356

2007 23.7 196 18,323

2008 25.5 151 714

2009 15.2 1 894

2010 11.8 5 486

retail prices of crystalline methamphetamine in the republic of Korea, 2006-2010DruG type Crystalline methamphetamineSource: SPO, 2011

measurement Per gram

2006 860

2007 770

2008 536

2009 664

2010 693

philippinesCrystallinemethamphetamine(shabu)hasbeenthemostcommonlyuseddruginthePhilippinesforthepasttwodecadesandsignificantillicitmethamphetaminemanufactureandtraffickingcontinuetooccur.In2009,crystallinemethamphetamineusersaccountedfor62%ofalldrugusersinthecountryand,since2004,theyhaveaccountedforalmost 63% of persons receiving drug treatment. Since 2008, about two-thirds of all drug-related arrests in the country profile of drug users in the havebeenrelatedtocrystallinemethamphetamine.Thereis philippines, 2010 no reported use of methamphetamine pills in the Philip poly-drugusers pines. Inmajorcitiestheuseofecstasyisbecomingincreasingly popular among young nightclub goers. Ecstasy use, however, remains limited due to the high price and low availability. The use of synthetic substances, such as Benzylpiperazine (BZP), or mimic ecstasy, has also been noted.8277 SPO,2010. 78 SPO,2009. 79 SPO,2011. 80 INCB,2010a. 81 UNODC,2010b. 82 PDEA,2010.

morethansixyearsdurationoftakingdrugs 57.23%single 33.92%unemployed majorityofthepatientswereonlyabletofinishhighschool

maletofemaleratio9:1 20to29yearsagebracketSource: PDEA, 2011

30

nortH-east asia / PhILIPPINES

primary ats trafficking routes for the philippinesChina

Area of research

Myanmar Lao PDR

Thailand

Cambodia Viet Nam Philippines

Malaysia Malaysia

Primary international trafficking routes for crystalline methamphetamine manufactured in the Philippines ATS manufactured in China are trafficked directly to the Philippines or through Thailand

Source: PDEA, 2010 Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Lines represent origin and intended destination, not necessarily the exact route used, and may include completed or stopped trafficking attempts.

No. of persons in treatment

IllicitcrystallinemethamphetaminemanufactureinthePhilippines was first reported in 1996, and in 1997, the first industrial-scale clandestine manufacturing facility was dismantled. From 2002 to 2010, a total of 72 clandestine crystallinemethamphetaminelaboratoriesweredismantled bydruglawenforcementauthorities.83Overthepastfew years, methamphetamine manufacture has shifted from large and medium-sized facilities to smaller kitchen type laboratoriesinmetropolitanareasandhasbeencharacterizedbythemanufactureofincreasinglyhigherpuritymethamphetamine. Overall methamphetamine seizures have declinedsharplyinthePhilippinessince2008,from845kg to149kgin2009and64kgin2010.84 DomesticallymanufacturedmethamphetamineisalsotraffickedtocountriesintheregionsuchasCambodia,Indonesia and Thailand as well as to countries outside the region. The Philippines Drug Enforcement Agency reports thatninetransnationalcriminalgroupsand85localgroups are involved in drug manufacturing and trafficking in the country. 85 Methamphetamine is also trafficked into the countryfromChina,primarilybymaritimevessels.86

philippines: rehabilitation centre admissions, 2006-20106,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

83 PDEA,2011. 84 DAINAP. 85 PDEA,2010. 86 PDEA,2009.

Source: PDEA, 2011

31

2011 GLoBaL ATS ASSESSMENTsoutHern arcHipeLaGoAskeytransitcountriesformethamphetaminetrafficking,bothIndonesiaandMalaysiahaverecentlyexperiencedincreasingproblemswiththemanufactureanduseofATSdrugs,particularlymethamphetamineincrystallineform.

malaysiaPreviously,Malaysiawasakeytransitcountryforsmallamountsofcrystallinemethamphetamine,ecstasyandketamine enroutetoconsumersinAustralia,China,Indonesia,Japan,SingaporeandThailand,duetothehighpricesofthesedrugs intheaforementionedcountries.87Overthepastfiveyears,Malaysiahasalsobecomeasignificantmethamphetamine manufacturinglocation,demonstratingthespeedwithwhichshiftsinpatternsofclandestinemanufacture,trafficking andusecanoccur. Since2008,authoritieshavereportedthedismantlingofmorethan30largeandsmall-scaleATSmanufacturinglaboratories.In2009,authoritiesseized11suchfacilities,primarilylocatedinKualaLumpurandsouthernMalaysia,aswellas alargequantityofprecursorchemicals,including80kgofephedrineand80kgofpseudoephedrine.In2010,Malaysia reportedtheseizureofsixlargemethamphetaminemanufacturinglaboratories,onelargeecstasymanufacturingfacility andonelargeketamineproducingoperation.88 ThecountryisalsobeingtargetedbyIraniandrugtraffickingorganizations.In2009and2010,morethan150Iranian nationalswerearrestedforattemptingtosmugglecrystallinemethamphetamineintoMalaysia.89Myanmaristheprimary source of methamphetamine pills trafficked into Malaysia and is also a source of some crystalline methamphetamine foundinthecountry.EcstasyisgenerallysmuggledintothecountryfromtheNetherlands,90althoughseizuresofthe drughavedeclinedsharplysince2008. KetamineissmuggledintoMalaysia(mainlybyIndiannationals)fromChennai,India,viaairandsearoutes.91Ketamine seizuresdoubledeachyearbetween2007and2009,whennearly1.1mtofthesubstancewereseized.In2010,ketamine seizuresdroppedto334kg. In 2008, crystalline methamphetamine seizures in Malaysia increased ten-fold from the previous year to 679 kg, and increasedbyanother70%in2009to1,160kg,duetoasingleseizureof972kgofcrystallinemethamphetamineinMay 2009.Crystallinemethamphetamineseizuresdroppedto887kgin2010,butstillrepresentedthesecondhighestseizure totaleverreportedinthecountry. ATSusehasincreasedconsiderablyinMalaysiainthepastfewyears.In2010,anestimated36%ofalldrugusersinthe countryusedATS,comparedwith18%in2009and8%in2008.92Injectinguseofcrystallinemethamphetaminewas reportedforthefirsttimeinMalaysiain2009.

indonesiaSimilartoMalaysia,IndonesiawasformerlyatransitcountryforATSwhichhasgoneontodevelopsignificantproblems withATSmanufactureanduse.By2010,crystallinemethamphetaminesurpassedcannabisastheprimarydrugofusein thecountry. Forthepastsixyears,Indonesiahasreportedaconsiderablenumberofseizuresoflargesophisticatedillicitlaboratories manufacturingcrystallinemethamphetamineandecstasy.In2009,druglawenforcementauthoritiesinIndonesiadismantledatotalof37ATSmanufacturingoperations,thehighestfigurereportedtodate.Theseizedfacilitiesincluded12 small-scalekitchentypelaboratoriesinprivateresidences,suggestingthatsomeATSmanufacturersarereducingthesize oftheirfacilitiestoavoiddetectionbythelaw.93Ofthe26illicitATSmanufacturingfacilitiesdismantledin2010,nine weresmall-scalecrystallinemethamphetaminemanufacturingoperationsand12wereecstasymethamphetamineoperations.Anadditionalthreeecstasytabletingfacilitieswerealsoseizedduringtheyear.94Thecontinuinghighlevelofecstasy manufactureinIndonesiaraisesconcernthatthecountrycouldreplaceEuropeastheprincipalsourceofMDMAinthe region.87 RMP,2010a. 88 DAINAP. 89 RMP,2010b. 90 RMP,2010a. 91 RMP,2010a. 92 RMP,2010c. 93 BNN,2010. 94 DAINAP.

32

soutH asia / INDIAAlthoughtheillicitmanufactureoflargequantitiesofATShaspartiallyeliminatedtheneedforthetraffickingofATSinto thecountry,asignificantamountofcrystallinemethamphetamineseizedinIndonesiain2009wasreportedashaving beensmuggledintothecountryfromtheIslamicRepublicofIranbyIraniancouriers,aswellasfromChina.Duringthe year,morethan25IraniancourierswerearrestedformethamphetaminesmugglingatinternationalairportsinIndonesia. AuthoritiesinIndonesiaalsoreportdrugtraffickingactivitybyWestAfricancriminalsyndicates.95 ATSseizuresinIndonesiahavefluctuatedinrecentyearsbuthaveshownanoveralldecreasingtrend.Seizuresofcrystallinemethamphetaminein2008totaled710kgbutdroppedto238kgin2009and354kgin2010.Similarly,ecstasy seizuresin2009and2010wereapproximatelytwo-thirdsbelowtheamountsseizedin2007and2008whenoverone millionpillswereseizedineachyear.

soutH asiaSouthAsiaislocatedatthecrossroadsofdrugsupplybetweenthesourcesinSouth-EastAsia(formerlyknownasthe GoldenTriangle)andWestAsia.Traditionally,thesubregionhasbeenaffectedbytheillicitmanufacture,traffickingand useofdrugs,mostlyopiates.Overthepastfewyears,however,SouthAsiahasbecomeanareaforillicitATSmanufacture and ATS trafficking. The fact that India has one of the largest chemical industries in the world and Bangladesh has a growingchemicalindustryhasmadeSouthAsiancountriesincreasinglyvulnerabletopotentialexploitationbycriminal organizations. SouthAsiahaswitnessedseveraltypesofillicitATSmanufacture,rangingfromsmall-scalekitchen-typelaboratoriesto largerscalemanufacturingfacilities.Inaddition,criminalorganizationshaveengagedintheextractionofephedrineor pseudoephedrinefrompharmaceuticalpreparationsorhavedevelopednewtechniquesfortheillicitchemicalsynthesis of ephedrine. There has also been an increase of ketamine trafficking to neighbouring East and South-East Asia and outsideAsia. SouthAsiaisalsoatransitregionfortheATStraffickedfromneighbouringSouth-EastAsia.TraffickingofmethamphetaminepillsfromMyanmarintoIndia,NepalandBangladeshisontherise.

indiaIndiahasoneofthelargestchemicalindustriesintheworldandisoneofthemajorexportersofephedrineandpseudoephedrine,thechemicalsfrequentlyusedintheillicitmanufactureofmethamphetamine.ThefirstknownillicitATS laboratorywasdetectedanddismantledinKolkatainMay2003.In2004,alaboratorywasseizedinHyderabad(southeastern India), and another laboratory was seized in Gurgaon (northern India) in 2006. Several additional facilities or attempts to establish facilities for the illicit manufacture of ATS, mostly methamphetamine, were uncovered by law enforcementagenciesbetween2004and2010. In2007,anillicitlaboratoryforthemanufactureofmethamphetamineandtheextractionofprecursorsfrompharmaceuticalpreparationswasdiscoveredinMumbai.Thisdiscoveryhighlightsthefactthattraffickershaveresortedtodiverting pharmaceuticalpreparationstocircumventstrictercontrolsoverprecursorchemicalsinbulkform.ThistrendhascontinuedandIndiareportedseizuresof1.2mtofephedrinepreparationstotheInternationalNarcoticsControlBoardin2009. Inaddition,criminalorganizationshavealsostartedtomanufactureprecursorchemicalsillicitlyasindicatedbythediscoveryofaclandestineephedrinelaboratoryinthenorthwestofIndiain2009. In 2010, two clandestine methamphetamine laboratories and two ephedrine laboratories were discovered, and large quantitiesofmethamphetamineanditsprecursorsephedrineandpseudoephedrinewereseizedonthepremises.96 Traditionally,ATSprecursorsweretraffickedfromIndiatoMyanmar,butrecently,precursorsfromIndiainbulkorinthe formofpharmaceuticalpreparationshavebeenseizedinvariousregions,particularlyinCentralAmerica,NorthAmerica andAfrica.AlongwithChina,Indiaisthemostfrequentlymentionedsourcecountryofseizedillicitshipmentsofephedrineandpseudoephedrine. ATSareroutinelyseizedinIndia.Seizuresofmethamphetamineandamphetaminepillsarepredominantlymadeinthe northeastofthecountryborderingMyanmar,whichisalsothesourceoftheseproducts.Methamphetaminepowder,on theotherhand,isprimarilymanufacturedinIndia. India has also become a significant source for ketamine, a hallucinogenic substance not under international control. KetamineismanufacturedlegallyinIndia.Inrecentyears,ketamineofIndianoriginhasbeensmuggledintocoun