asian migration and linguistic presence parts i & ii

Asian Migration and Asian Migration and Linguistic PresenceLinguistic Presence

Parts I & IIParts I & II

General Aims General Aims

To examine the history of the migration of To examine the history of the migration of Asians to the Caribbean. Asians to the Caribbean. What did the slaves and the planters do when What did the slaves and the planters do when

slavery was abolished and how did this affect slavery was abolished and how did this affect interaction/language?interaction/language?

How did the arrival of substitute labour from How did the arrival of substitute labour from (largely) Asia affect the linguistic picture of the (largely) Asia affect the linguistic picture of the Caribbean?Caribbean?

To examine their mark on the linguistic To examine their mark on the linguistic situation on countries such as Guyana, situation on countries such as Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and Suriname (to a lesser extent Cuba).Suriname (to a lesser extent Cuba).

Asian Migration -- Asian Migration -- BackgroundBackground

British Colonies at the time British Colonies at the time Jamaica, Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia, Jamaica, Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia,

Barbados, St. Vincent, Grenada, Barbados, St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Guyana Trinidad, Guyana

Jamaica, Trinidad, Guyana -- large Jamaica, Trinidad, Guyana -- large territoriesterritories

Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia, Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia, Barbados, St. Vincent, Grenada – Barbados, St. Vincent, Grenada – small territoriessmall territories

Asian Migration --BackgroundAsian Migration --Background

SpanishSpanish -- CubaCuba

DutchDutch -- SurinameSuriname

FrenchFrench -- Martinique, Martinique, GuadeloupeGuadeloupe

Some territories had no immigrationSome territories had no immigrationHaiti, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico & Haiti, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico &

BarbadosBarbados


The Apprenticeship system ended in The Apprenticeship system ended in 1838.1838.

Mass exodus from the plantations on the Mass exodus from the plantations on the larger islands (this will help to inform us larger islands (this will help to inform us why different colonies had different why different colonies had different numbers of Asians).numbers of Asians).

Labour shortage on larger plantations.Labour shortage on larger plantations.

Asian Migration - Asian Migration - BackgroundBackground

Marshall (in Beckles and Shepherd Marshall (in Beckles and Shepherd 1996) outlines three views of what 1996) outlines three views of what Africans did upon emancipation.Africans did upon emancipation.

They were so horrified by slavery they They were so horrified by slavery they left the plantations (where they could) left the plantations (where they could) and set up small villages in the interiors and set up small villages in the interiors of territories (the Jamaican experience of territories (the Jamaican experience being the typical example)being the typical example)

Asian Migration - BackgroundAsian Migration - Background

In general, they stayed on plantations In general, they stayed on plantations but many left eventually when but many left eventually when wages/working conditions did not prove wages/working conditions did not prove favorable (typically Barbados)favorable (typically Barbados)

Africans so acculturated to forced labour Africans so acculturated to forced labour they vowed never to do arduous work of they vowed never to do arduous work of any type.any type.


In Cuba abolition did not trigger a In Cuba abolition did not trigger a flight of labour. flight of labour.

Many slaves became waged labourers, often Many slaves became waged labourers, often in similar conditions to the life under slavery in similar conditions to the life under slavery –in barracks, genders typically separated but –in barracks, genders typically separated but a growing reconstitution of family life around a growing reconstitution of family life around the provision grounds.the provision grounds.

Others joined “caudrillas” or work gangs Others joined “caudrillas” or work gangs who hired themselves out to plantations and who hired themselves out to plantations and who moved depending on the terms of who moved depending on the terms of employment.employment.


Situation seemed to be similar for the Situation seemed to be similar for the French colonies. Eric Williams reports French colonies. Eric Williams reports the following: -the following: - 18461846 18561856

34,530 (h.c)34,530 (h.c) 32,000 (h.c.)32,000 (h.c.) MartiniqueMartinique

43,500 (wkrs)43,500 (wkrs) 43,794 (wkrs)43,794 (wkrs)

45,000 (h.c.)45,000 (h.c.) 32,000 (h.c.)32,000 (h.c.) GuadeloupeGuadeloupe

51,522 (wkrs)51,522 (wkrs) 51,659 (wkrs)51,659 (wkrs)


In Jamaica and Guyana substantial In Jamaica and Guyana substantial numbers of ex-slaves remained as numbers of ex-slaves remained as waged workers.waged workers.Hall (1996)Hall (1996)

Golden Grove EstateGolden Grove Estate

18381838 500 workers500 workers

18421842 400 workers400 workers


Labour began to leave the Labour began to leave the plantations (where they could) when plantations (where they could) when planters began to charge rent for planters began to charge rent for provision grounds and housing and provision grounds and housing and when wages became uncompetitive when wages became uncompetitive (this is in a context of falling sugar (this is in a context of falling sugar prices and general economic prices and general economic problems).problems).

Asian Migration --backgroundAsian Migration --background

In the colonies of Barbados, Antigua In the colonies of Barbados, Antigua and St. Kitts – so called high density and St. Kitts – so called high density colonies– where arable land was colonies– where arable land was scarce because of the geography and scarce because of the geography and the scope of the estates, labour was the scope of the estates, labour was plentiful.plentiful.


The West Indian planters pressed for The West Indian planters pressed for liberal immigration policies to solve liberal immigration policies to solve their labour problems. A number of their labour problems. A number of immigration schemes were tried. immigration schemes were tried. West African West African

Phased out in 1865/1870 for grater reliance Phased out in 1865/1870 for grater reliance on Indian immigrantson Indian immigrants

European (poor English and Scots, European (poor English and Scots, French, German, French, German,


Portuguese from MadeiraPortuguese from Madeira

North AmericaNorth America

Asian Migrants – Why were they Asian Migrants – Why were they brought to the Caribbean?brought to the Caribbean?

All other schemes were unproductive. All other schemes were unproductive. They came chiefly to solve labour They came chiefly to solve labour problems i.e. to satisfy the labour problems i.e. to satisfy the labour shortage on the plantations.shortage on the plantations.

Planters required cheap consistent labour. Planters required cheap consistent labour. “The indenture system was a purely “The indenture system was a purely economic undertaking, and no attention was economic undertaking, and no attention was paid to the possible implications of paid to the possible implications of introducing one more ethnic component into introducing one more ethnic component into the West Indies” (Black et al 1976:53)the West Indies” (Black et al 1976:53)

Asian Migrants—Who came from Asian Migrants—Who came from where?where?

Two main Asian groups came to the Two main Asian groups came to the Caribbean.Caribbean.

ChineseChinese IndiansIndians

Asians, by far, dominated numerically. Asians, by far, dominated numerically.

Map of AsiaMap of Asia

Asian Migration – Who came Asian Migration – Who came from Where?from Where?

As early as 1806 efforts were made As early as 1806 efforts were made to import people from Hong Kong to import people from Hong Kong (China) , Singapore (Malaysia) and (China) , Singapore (Malaysia) and Calcutta (India) to settle as peasant Calcutta (India) to settle as peasant farmers and to replace Negro farmers and to replace Negro domestic slaves in Trinidad.domestic slaves in Trinidad.

Asian Migration -- ChinaAsian Migration -- China

Chinese were recruited mainly from Chinese were recruited mainly from Canton. They were generally Canton. They were generally Hakka/CantoneseHakka/Cantonese

After the mid 19After the mid 19thth Century a large number Century a large number came to the West Indies as contract came to the West Indies as contract labourers, but they tended to drift into labourers, but they tended to drift into towns, where they acted as brokers and towns, where they acted as brokers and distributors of food and small distributors of food and small shopkeepers.shopkeepers.

Asian Migration -- ChinaAsian Migration -- China

Between 1853 and 1879, British Guiana Between 1853 and 1879, British Guiana imported more than 14,000 Chinese imported more than 14,000 Chinese workers, with a few going to some of the workers, with a few going to some of the other colonies other colonies

The Chinese languages brought to the The Chinese languages brought to the Caribbean wereCaribbean were CantoneseCantonese Mandarin?? (to the extent that standard Mandarin?? (to the extent that standard

speakers migrated to the West Indies)speakers migrated to the West Indies)

Asian Migration -- IndiaAsian Migration -- India

In July 1844 the British government In July 1844 the British government gave permission for West Indian gave permission for West Indian colonies to import labour from India colonies to import labour from India chiefly at their own expense (minor chiefly at their own expense (minor imperial assistance).imperial assistance).

Calcutta and Madras were Calcutta and Madras were designated as ports of embarkation designated as ports of embarkation in India.in India.


Recruiting agents were paid bounties Recruiting agents were paid bounties (per head). (per head).

Indians were recruited from the cities Indians were recruited from the cities and the depressed areas of the and the depressed areas of the Granges Valley.Granges Valley.

In 1846 the first shipload of 226 In 1846 the first shipload of 226 Indians arrived in Trinidad from Indians arrived in Trinidad from Calcutta.Calcutta.

Asian Migration – India & Asian Migration – India & ChinaChina

According to the rules, they(Indians) According to the rules, they(Indians) were to be were to be Allotted to estates in parties of 20-25 or Allotted to estates in parties of 20-25 or

50 under a headman or sidar.50 under a headman or sidar.Given medical care, housing, provision Given medical care, housing, provision

grounds, monthly food rations, yearly grounds, monthly food rations, yearly allotments of clothing and free return allotments of clothing and free return passage after their contracts expired.passage after their contracts expired.

Asian Migration –India & Asian Migration –India & ChinaChina

Contracts were for five years; nine hours Contracts were for five years; nine hours per day; six days per weekper day; six days per week

Immigrants were bound to reside on the Immigrants were bound to reside on the plantations which indentured them.plantations which indentured them.

Land grants (among other more Land grants (among other more dishonorable tactics) were used to dishonorable tactics) were used to induce immigrants to remain on induce immigrants to remain on plantations after their contracts endedplantations after their contracts ended


The Indian indentureship system was The Indian indentureship system was abolished in1917.abolished in1917.

Between 1838 and 1917, nearly half a Between 1838 and 1917, nearly half a million East Indians (from British India) million East Indians (from British India) came to work on the British West Indian came to work on the British West Indian sugar plantations, the majority going to sugar plantations, the majority going to the new sugar producers with fertile lands. the new sugar producers with fertile lands. Trinidad imported 145,000; Jamaica, Trinidad imported 145,000; Jamaica, 21,500; Grenada, 2,570; St. Vincent, 21,500; Grenada, 2,570; St. Vincent, 1,820; and St. Lucia, 1,550. 1,820; and St. Lucia, 1,550.

Asian Migration cont’dAsian Migration cont’d

Chinese were the main immigrants to Chinese were the main immigrants to Cuba. By 1877 Cuba had 54,000 Chinese. Cuba. By 1877 Cuba had 54,000 Chinese. (Indentureship in Cuba abolished in 1921)(Indentureship in Cuba abolished in 1921)

JamaicaJamaica 37, 000 Indians up to 1921, 4, 500 Chinese up 37, 000 Indians up to 1921, 4, 500 Chinese up

to 1946)to 1946) GuyanaGuyana 1838 – 19001838 – 1900

165,000 Indians, 13,000 Chinese, 12,000 165,000 Indians, 13,000 Chinese, 12,000 PortuguesePortuguese


GuadeloupeGuadeloupeIndians 42,500, Africans 6,500, Chinese Indians 42,500, Africans 6,500, Chinese

500, Madeira, 413, Japanese 500500, Madeira, 413, Japanese 500

SurinameSuriname22,000 Javanese (1890- 1939). By 1971 the 22,000 Javanese (1890- 1939). By 1971 the

Surinamese Javanese community Surinamese Javanese community numbered 60,000, comprising 16% of the numbered 60,000, comprising 16% of the population of the colony. 34,000 Indians population of the colony. 34,000 Indians (1873-1916)(1873-1916)


Trinidad (1845-1916)Trinidad (1845-1916)145,000 Indians, & 4,000 Chinese145,000 Indians, & 4,000 Chinese

Indian languages which were Indian languages which were brought to the Caribbean brought to the Caribbean

Bhojpuri speakers were not the first Indian Bhojpuri speakers were not the first Indian indentured labourers to be brought to the indentured labourers to be brought to the Caribbean. For the first 15 years of Caribbean. For the first 15 years of organized emigration most recruits came organized emigration most recruits came from Chhota Nagpur, the Calcutta from Chhota Nagpur, the Calcutta hinerland and Calcutta itself.hinerland and Calcutta itself.

These people were native speakers of These people were native speakers of Bengali, Oraon, Mundari and Santali and Bengali, Oraon, Mundari and Santali and Tamil (recruits brought from the Port in Tamil (recruits brought from the Port in Madras)Madras)

Indian languages cont’dIndian languages cont’d

Of these first language only Tamil Of these first language only Tamil took root in tiny pockets for almost a took root in tiny pockets for almost a century in Trinidad.century in Trinidad.

By 1860 recruiting concentrated on By 1860 recruiting concentrated on Bihar where regional dialects of Bihar where regional dialects of Bhojpuri, Maithili and Maghi were Bhojpuri, Maithili and Maghi were spoken and later on Uttar Pradash spoken and later on Uttar Pradash where Western Bhojpuri and the where Western Bhojpuri and the Eastern Hindi dialects, mainly Avadhi Eastern Hindi dialects, mainly Avadhi were found.were found.

Indian languages cont’dIndian languages cont’d

Some labourers also came from further Some labourers also came from further west and spoke dialects of Western Hindi west and spoke dialects of Western Hindi and Braj.and Braj.

Note---Though all labourers were Hindi Note---Though all labourers were Hindi speakers they actually spoke geographical speakers they actually spoke geographical varieties which were very different from varieties which were very different from each other and since labourers were each other and since labourers were uneducated they did not know Standard uneducated they did not know Standard Hindi or Urdu.Hindi or Urdu.

Linguistic impact of Asian Linguistic impact of Asian MigrationMigration

Introduction of new languages into Introduction of new languages into the language mosaic which already the language mosaic which already existed in the Caribbean.existed in the Caribbean.

LINGUISTIC IMPACT OF INDIAN LINGUISTIC IMPACT OF INDIAN MIGRATIONMIGRATION

For Indians – there were new For Indians – there were new patterns of language contact, both patterns of language contact, both internal and external, resulting in internal and external, resulting in many linguistic changes.many linguistic changes.

Linguistic impact of Indian Linguistic impact of Indian Migration cont’dMigration cont’d

There was increased interaction There was increased interaction among speakers of the different among speakers of the different geographical dialects.geographical dialects.

In the new environment (Caribbean) In the new environment (Caribbean) they needed linguistic unity.they needed linguistic unity.

This led to dialect levelling and This led to dialect levelling and dialect mixing.dialect mixing.

Linguistic impact of Indian Linguistic impact of Indian Migration cont’dMigration cont’d

There were external contacts with There were external contacts with Indigenous, European and Creole Indigenous, European and Creole languages which caused large scale languages which caused large scale borrowing and some structural changes. borrowing and some structural changes.

Vertovec (1996) provides an 1855 Vertovec (1996) provides an 1855 comment “when these people meet in comment “when these people meet in Trinidad it strikes one as somewhat Trinidad it strikes one as somewhat strange that they may have to point to strange that they may have to point to water and rice and ask each other what water and rice and ask each other what they call it in their language.”they call it in their language.”

Linguistic impact of Indian Linguistic impact of Indian migration cont’dmigration cont’d

For Indians – the development of a For Indians – the development of a new varieties of Hindi (Overseas new varieties of Hindi (Overseas Hindi) distinct from any form of Hindi Hindi) distinct from any form of Hindi in India. Each developed under in India. Each developed under similar social and historical similar social and historical conditions yet have been maintained conditions yet have been maintained in varying degrees.in varying degrees.

Overseas HindiOverseas Hindi

Among the places where what is Among the places where what is referred to as Overseas Hindi referred to as Overseas Hindi developed were Guyana, Trinidad developed were Guyana, Trinidad and Suriname.and Suriname.

Guyanese BhojpuriGuyanese Bhojpuri

Indians emigrated form 1838 – 1916 Indians emigrated form 1838 – 1916 (78 years).(78 years).

Today Guyanese Bhojpuri is used Today Guyanese Bhojpuri is used only in a very limited way by only in a very limited way by members of the oldest generations in members of the oldest generations in rural areas.rural areas.

Guyanese Bhojpuri cont’dGuyanese Bhojpuri cont’d

Rural men and women over 60 ---bilingual in Rural men and women over 60 ---bilingual in GB and Creole/EnglishGB and Creole/English

Between 35 and 59 years ---passive Between 35 and 59 years ---passive bilingualsbilinguals

Under 35 –monolingual in Creole/EnglishUnder 35 –monolingual in Creole/English

GB has very limited use in the home but is GB has very limited use in the home but is used in some folksongs.used in some folksongs.

Trinidad BhojpuriTrinidad Bhojpuri

Indians emigrated between 1845 and Indians emigrated between 1845 and 1916.1916.

Spoken by old, usually rural Indians. Spoken by old, usually rural Indians. It has been displaced by Trinidad It has been displaced by Trinidad English Creole.English Creole.

NB—Standard Hindi is an important NB—Standard Hindi is an important ethnic language in Trinidad today.ethnic language in Trinidad today.

Sarnami Hindi/Sarnami Sarnami Hindi/Sarnami Hindustani/SarnamiHindustani/Sarnami

Between 1873 and 1916 some Between 1873 and 1916 some 34,000 Indian labourers left North 34,000 Indian labourers left North India for Suriname two thirds of India for Suriname two thirds of which settled there (Damssteegt which settled there (Damssteegt 2002:249).2002:249).

In 1980s there were approximately In 1980s there were approximately 130,000 speakers (Damsteegt 130,000 speakers (Damsteegt 2002:251).2002:251).

Sarnami Hindi/Sarnami Sarnami Hindi/Sarnami Hindustani/Sarnami cont’dHindustani/Sarnami cont’d

Although there is widespread bilingualism Although there is widespread bilingualism there has not been a significant shit to there has not been a significant shit to Sranan (the local Creole) or Dutch (the Sranan (the local Creole) or Dutch (the official language).official language).

Sarnami Hindi is the only variety of Sarnami Hindi is the only variety of Overseas Hindi which has been recognized Overseas Hindi which has been recognized as a language in its own rights but is not as a language in its own rights but is not extensively used outside informal extensively used outside informal contexts.contexts.

Social factors and the loss of Social factors and the loss of Asian vernaculars in most Asian vernaculars in most

C’bbean Terr. C’bbean Terr.

All instances of language death are All instances of language death are the result of language shift. the result of language shift.

Investigating the processes leading Investigating the processes leading to language death therefore means to language death therefore means studying language shift situations.studying language shift situations.

Social factors and language Social factors and language loss…cont’dloss…cont’d

With regard to the phenomenon of With regard to the phenomenon of language death two levels are language death two levels are involved.involved.

The environment –political, historical, The environment –political, historical, economic and linguistic realities.economic and linguistic realities.

The speech community –patters of The speech community –patters of language use and attitudeslanguage use and attitudes

Social factors and language Social factors and language loss… cont’d.loss… cont’d.

Concerning the first level – the Concerning the first level – the environment– factors such as status, environment– factors such as status, demography, institutional support demography, institutional support (education and employment), time and (education and employment), time and space, urbanization, occupation, contact space, urbanization, occupation, contact with other groups, pragmatics, access to with other groups, pragmatics, access to information, entertainment and the arts, information, entertainment and the arts, cultural (dis) similarity are relevant.cultural (dis) similarity are relevant.

These influence the second level –speech These influence the second level –speech community (patters of language use and community (patters of language use and attitude)attitude)

Social factors and language Social factors and language loss…cont’d.loss…cont’d.

In terms of causal relations then, In terms of causal relations then, changes within the speech changes within the speech community very often have to be community very often have to be understood as reactions towards understood as reactions towards environmental changes.environmental changes.

Minority languages are the ones Minority languages are the ones threatened by extinction in language threatened by extinction in language shift situations.shift situations.


The minority language has to be The minority language has to be valued highly by the members of a valued highly by the members of a speech community in order for it to speech community in order for it to survive a generally hostile survive a generally hostile environment.environment.

Patterns of language choice reflect Patterns of language choice reflect language attitudes. language attitudes.


In cases of language shift one has to In cases of language shift one has to investigate underlying changes in investigate underlying changes in attitude towards the languages attitude towards the languages involved, that is the abandoned involved, that is the abandoned language and the target language. language and the target language. Additionally investigations have to be Additionally investigations have to be made intomade into

Social factors and language Social factors and language loss… cont’dloss… cont’d

Internal pressure on minority languages Internal pressure on minority languages such as limited communication yield such as limited communication yield caused by restricted distribution of the caused by restricted distribution of the language.language.

External pressures on minority External pressures on minority languages such as stigmatization, languages such as stigmatization, exclusion from education and political exclusion from education and political participation and economic deprivation.participation and economic deprivation.


The actual process of abandoning a The actual process of abandoning a language may be observed in a language may be observed in a decrease indecrease inNumber of speakersNumber of speakersFunctional domainsFunctional domainsCompetenceCompetence

Social factors affecting language Social factors affecting language maintenance and shiftmaintenance and shift

Asian vernaculars in general have Asian vernaculars in general have had no practical value -- they have had no practical value -- they have never been (widely) used in never been (widely) used in broadcasting, newspapers, broadcasting, newspapers, information distribution or information distribution or entertainment in the form of films, entertainment in the form of films, education, employment etc. education, employment etc. European varieties are used for these European varieties are used for these purposes.purposes.

Social factors cont’dSocial factors cont’d

Pragmatic aspectsPragmatic aspects Concerns how widely the language is used and Concerns how widely the language is used and

the benefits gained by its use.the benefits gained by its use.

In Guyana and Trinidad OH is dying because the In Guyana and Trinidad OH is dying because the oldest generation of speakers did not regard the oldest generation of speakers did not regard the language as having practical value, so it was not language as having practical value, so it was not transmitted. Languages have practical value in transmitted. Languages have practical value in areas such as education, employment, wider areas such as education, employment, wider communication, access to information, communication, access to information, entertainment etc. Situation is similar for the entertainment etc. Situation is similar for the Chinese.Chinese.


Urbanization and OccupationUrbanization and Occupation Language shift usually occurs more readily in Language shift usually occurs more readily in

urban areas because of the increased contact. urban areas because of the increased contact. People usually migrate to urban areas in People usually migrate to urban areas in search of greater employment opportunities.search of greater employment opportunities.

Language shift from Overseas Hindi in Trinidad Language shift from Overseas Hindi in Trinidad and Guyana is more extensive in urban areas. and Guyana is more extensive in urban areas. (In general, urbanization does not necessarily (In general, urbanization does not necessarily lead to widespread language shift, but when lead to widespread language shift, but when the shift begins, it may occur more rapidly the shift begins, it may occur more rapidly among the urban population.among the urban population.


Urbanization and Occupation cont’dUrbanization and Occupation cont’d Maintenance of occupation promotes language Maintenance of occupation promotes language

maintenance. Mohan and Zabor (1986:315) maintenance. Mohan and Zabor (1986:315) report a close relationship between having report a close relationship between having been a labourer on the sugar estates and high been a labourer on the sugar estates and high competence in Trinidad Bhojpuri.competence in Trinidad Bhojpuri.

Two factors which have conditioned the near Two factors which have conditioned the near loss Trinidad and Guyanese Bhojpuri therefore loss Trinidad and Guyanese Bhojpuri therefore are the shift in occupation and urbanization.are the shift in occupation and urbanization.


DemographyDemography

Chinese were not a numerically Chinese were not a numerically dominant group (except in Cuba). dominant group (except in Cuba). Numerically non-dominant groups are Numerically non-dominant groups are usually under pressure to conform. usually under pressure to conform.

Social factors affecting language Social factors affecting language maintenance and shiftmaintenance and shift

Size of the group is sometimes an Size of the group is sometimes an ambivalent factor. The expectation is ambivalent factor. The expectation is that the large size of the Indian that the large size of the Indian communities would have encouraged communities would have encouraged language maintenance. In terms of language maintenance. In terms of actual numbers the country with the actual numbers the country with the smallest Indian population, Suriname smallest Indian population, Suriname has one of the thriving varieties of has one of the thriving varieties of overseas Hindi.overseas Hindi.


Time and space can also be an Time and space can also be an ambivalent factor. Longer history of ambivalent factor. Longer history of migration is usually a factor in migration is usually a factor in language maintenance but Suriname language maintenance but Suriname which had the shortest years of which had the shortest years of Indian migration is the only speech Indian migration is the only speech community with OH thriving.community with OH thriving.Trinidad (71years), Guyana (78 years) Trinidad (71years), Guyana (78 years)

Suriname (43years).Suriname (43years).


Contact with other groups.Contact with other groups.Related to urbanization and occupationRelated to urbanization and occupation

—less contact, the greater the chance of —less contact, the greater the chance of maintenance. Indians working and living maintenance. Indians working and living in sugar estates in the rural areas are in sugar estates in the rural areas are usually isolated from other groups usually isolated from other groups (Guyana).(Guyana).


Education and EmploymentEducation and EmploymentEuropean languages served as official in European languages served as official in

Caribbean territories before and after Caribbean territories before and after independence. In Trinidad and Guyana, independence. In Trinidad and Guyana, OH has no official place in education and OH has no official place in education and employment.employment.

Gambhir (1981:3) the major reason for Gambhir (1981:3) the major reason for the shift from OH has been the the shift from OH has been the importance of learning English for importance of learning English for success in education, for economic gain success in education, for economic gain and for political power.and for political power.


Wider communicationWider communicationNo Asian vernaculars have been useful No Asian vernaculars have been useful

for intergroup communication. The for intergroup communication. The advantage of having another language advantage of having another language for wider communication within a for wider communication within a country may be an important factor in country may be an important factor in language shift. (In Suriname however, language shift. (In Suriname however, Sranan is the lingua franca but there has Sranan is the lingua franca but there has been no shift from Sarnami --ethnicity been no shift from Sarnami --ethnicity issues)issues)

asian migration and linguistic presence parts i & ii

Documents

guyana jamaica

migration of asians

larger plantations

barbados africans

large territories jamaica

interiors of territories

puerto rico barbados

large territories antigua