Argumentation: Argumentation:

The Appeal to Reason

ArgumentArgument

A reasoned, logical way of asserting the soundness of a position, belief, or conclusion.

Take a stand. Support your position with evidence.Urge others to share your perspective.

The PurposeThe Purpose

To convince others to accept– or at least acknowledge the validity of– your position

To defend your position, even if others cannot be convinced to agree

To question or refute a position you believe to be misguided, untrue, dangerous, or evil

Argument vs. PersuasionArgument vs. Persuasion

Argument and persuasion are not equivalent.

Persuasion is a general term that refers to the method by which a writer moves an audience to adopt a belief or to take action.

What is the purpose? What is the purpose?

Argumentation appeals to reason and is composed of a series of statements that lead logically to a conclusion.

The purpose: to demonstrate to an audience that certain ideas are valid and that others are not.

Choosing a TopicChoosing a Topic

Choose a topic that interests you.Be open-minded and willing to consider all

sides of a question. Consider the topic from other people’s

viewpoints so that you understand what they believe and can use this knowledge to build a logical case.

Taking a StandTaking a Stand

After you have chosen your topic, you are ready to take a stand– to state the position you will argue in the form of a thesis.

Thesis: Solar power is the best available solution to the impending energy crisis.

1. You believe there will be an energy crisis.

2. There is more than one possible solution.

3. Solar energy is a better solution than any other.

Is the Topic Debatable? Is the Topic Debatable?

There is no point in arguing a statement that people regard as self-evident.

A good argument contains an antithesis. Thesis: Because immigrants have contributed

much to the development of the U.S., immigration quotas should be relaxed.

Antithesis: Even though immigrants have contributed much to the development of the U.S., immigration quotas should not be relaxed.

Gathering EvidenceGathering Evidence

All the points you make in your paper must be supported.

If they are not, your audience will dismiss them as unclear or unfounded.

You can sometimes support a statement with appeals to pathos (emotion), but most of the time you support your points with logos– by providing logical evidence to support your position

Kinds of EvidenceKinds of Evidence

Evidence can be fact or opinionFacts: most believe them to be true, and

they can be verified independently. Opinions: not all of them are equally

convincing. Go with the opinions of experts rather than individuals.

Criteria for EvidenceCriteria for Evidence

Relevant: use examples that support your points. Do not digress!

Representative: include a full range of opinions about your subject, not just one side or the other.

Sufficient: include enough evidence to support your claims. Consider your audience! Skeptics need much more proof!

Deductive vs. InductiveDeductive vs. Inductive

Deductive arguments use syllogism1. Major premise: All Olympic runners are

fast. 2. Minor premise: Florence Griffith Joyner

is an Olympic runner. 3. Conclusion: Therefore, Florence Griffith

Joyner is fast.

DeductiveDeductive

The Declaration of Independence1. Major premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve

no loyalty.2. Minor premise: King George III is a

tyrannical ruler. 3. Conclusion: Therefore, King George III

deserves no loyalty.Why is this argument valid?

Invalidating an ArgumentInvalidating an Argument

Major premise: All dogs are animals. Minor premise: All cats are animals. Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs are cats.

Both premises are true, but cats are not included in the major premise of the syllogism.

If the syllogism is defective, the argument is invalid.

Arranging the parts is simple:Arranging the parts is simple:

Introduce the topic of the paper and the thesis statement (The thesis statement is almost always at the end of the introduction)

State the facts of the caseProve the thesis with your argumentsDisprove your opponents argumentsEnd the essay

There may be times that you will There may be times that you will disprove opposing arguments before disprove opposing arguments before proving your own; it will depend upon proving your own; it will depend upon

the arguments and your readers. the arguments and your readers. There may also be times when the There may also be times when the statement of the facts will be the statement of the facts will be the

introduction to your paper (with the introduction to your paper (with the thesis statement following the thesis statement following the

statement of facts)statement of facts)

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

The introduction should catch and The introduction should catch and hold the readers’ attention and focus hold the readers’ attention and focus

their attention on the their attention on the thesis thesis statement. statement. The The thesis statementthesis statement

(your topic, attitude about the topic, (your topic, attitude about the topic, and, possibly, audience) is usually and, possibly, audience) is usually

found as a single sentence at the end found as a single sentence at the end of the introduction.of the introduction.

STATEMENT OF FACTSSTATEMENT OF FACTS

The statement of the facts may contain The statement of the facts may contain circumstances, details, summaries, and circumstances, details, summaries, and

narration. It is a non-argumentative narration. It is a non-argumentative presentation of the facts concerning the presentation of the facts concerning the

situation or problem under discussion. In situation or problem under discussion. In other words, you simply discuss the other words, you simply discuss the problem objectively without trying to problem objectively without trying to

persuade the reader.persuade the reader.

This section informs the readers about the facts This section informs the readers about the facts of the case, reminds the readers of certain of the case, reminds the readers of certain events or details (often through the use of events or details (often through the use of

summary), establishes the reason why you have summary), establishes the reason why you have the authority to speak on the topic, or provides a the authority to speak on the topic, or provides a

vivid illustration, real or fictional, showing the vivid illustration, real or fictional, showing the significance of the topic.significance of the topic.

It should be brief, and vivid. If you obscure the It should be brief, and vivid. If you obscure the facts, you are defeating the purpose. Delete facts, you are defeating the purpose. Delete

irrelevant information andirrelevant information and information which information which contributes little to the reader’s contributes little to the reader’s

understanding.understanding.

CONFIRMATIONCONFIRMATION

The confirmation is where you provide The confirmation is where you provide your arguments. This is the central part of your arguments. This is the central part of the essay and often the longest section. the essay and often the longest section. With the audience rendered attentive by With the audience rendered attentive by

the introduction and informed by the the introduction and informed by the statement of fact, you show why your statement of fact, you show why your

position concerning the facts should be position concerning the facts should be accepted and believed.accepted and believed.

Your argument will be more effective if Your argument will be more effective if you give concrete examples from:you give concrete examples from:

historyhistorypoliticspolitics

literatureliterature

It also will be more effective if you go into It also will be more effective if you go into detail as to why these examples prove detail as to why these examples prove

your point.your point.

The more specific you are, the better your The more specific you are, the better your argument will be.argument will be.

Yes, you can use personal experiences –Yes, you can use personal experiences –but remember ----but remember ----

It’s like a diving competition where you It’s like a diving competition where you must consider the level of difficulty ----must consider the level of difficulty ----

If you have an easy dive – the level of If you have an easy dive – the level of difficulty is low – and you have to have an difficulty is low – and you have to have an

almost perfect divealmost perfect dive

If you talk about personal experience, your If you talk about personal experience, your level of difficulty is low – and your writing level of difficulty is low – and your writing

must be close to perfect!must be close to perfect!

REFUTATIONREFUTATION

Usually you deny the truth of one of the Usually you deny the truth of one of the premises on which the opposing argument is premises on which the opposing argument is

built, or you can object to the inferences drawn built, or you can object to the inferences drawn by the opposition from premises which cannot by the opposition from premises which cannot

be broken down. be broken down.

If your opponent states that the sales of a If your opponent states that the sales of a company shot up over 25% after using a company shot up over 25% after using a

musical jingle in an advertising campaign, you musical jingle in an advertising campaign, you could counter by saying that the statement is could counter by saying that the statement is

true, but the reason sales increased was true, but the reason sales increased was because of a 15% cut in prices. Look at logical because of a 15% cut in prices. Look at logical

fallacies to see some common errors in fallacies to see some common errors in reasoning.reasoning.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

The conclusion in this type of essay should:The conclusion in this type of essay should:

render the audience to be well disposed to you render the audience to be well disposed to you and ill-disposed toward your opponent,and ill-disposed toward your opponent,

magnify your points and minimize your magnify your points and minimize your opposition,opposition,

put the audience in the proper mood, and/orput the audience in the proper mood, and/or

refresh the memory of the audience by refresh the memory of the audience by summarizing the main points of the argument.summarizing the main points of the argument.