are women more vulnerable to climate change in rural south africa?
TRANSCRIPT
Are women more vulnerable to climate change and other interacting stressors in the
rural Eastern Cape, South Africa?
Sheona Shackleton Department of Environmental Science,
Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
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With acknowledgement to the entire IDRC project team, particularly Leigh Cobban, Georgina Cundill and Marty Luckert who contributed specifically to this paper
Introduction
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Introduction Purpose of this paper
• To illustrate that the question “are women more vulnerable?”
is not necessarily easy nor straightforward to answer.
• In fact, it is a complex question with complex answers given: the range of interacting stressors and shocks that people and the
ecosystems they depend on face; the heterogeneity that exists locally amongst individuals, households and
communities; and different conceptual understandings and framings of vulnerability and
gender.
• We have a tendency to make assumptions and rely on stylised views, while the notion of vulnerability requires more nuanced exploration. 3
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Introduction and conceptualisation Gender, multiple stressors and vulnerability
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FRAMING OF VULNERABILITY In this paper I use both a risk-hazard and entitlements-livelihoods/ political ecology framing (Ribot, 2014). The combination of underlying cause and susceptibility in the conceptualisation of vulnerability makes it important to analyse the socially constructed factors that influence exposure to stresses and ability to respond. Gender is an important one of these.
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Introduction and conceptualisation Gender, multiple stressors and vulnerability
• Climate change does not occur in isolation from a host of other social, political, economic and biophysical factors across scales that affect livelihoods and vulnerability, such as: – poorly conceived policies and weak governance – poverty and inequality – HIV/AIDS – institutional breakdown – crime – ecosystem degradation
• These multiple risks and stressors have differential
impacts across different communities, social groupings and households, with each also having differential ability to respond based on their context, livelihood activities, assets and capabilities.
• Gender differences are often particularly stark.
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Introduction and conceptualisation Gender, multiple stressors and vulnerability
Gender is often treated in a simplistic binary fashion. There is a need for studies that: • Consider gender in terms of its interactions with
other intersecting social categories (age, income, ethnicity).
• Move beyond simple male and female headed HH, to capture the heterogeneity that exists in these. Households vary in terms of the gender and ages of other members, with implications for production and adaptive capacity.
• Consider women less as helpless victims but as
active agents with some influence on their own lives. • Recognise men may also be vulnerable in different
ways and how this intersects with women’s vulnerability.
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
More subtle and nuanced treatment of gender in this study
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EXAMPLES OF INFLUENCE OF GENDER OF HH MEMBERS BEYOND HEAD Some external gendered constraints faced by female-headed HH, e.g. limited property rights, may be alleviated by the presence of an adult male in the household. Conversely, adult males in female-headed HH may impose internal constraints on innovation through reinforcement of restrictive gender-related norms. Male only HHs may face a unique set of constraints related to, for example, food production and, in SA, access to grants.
In recognition of this, we considered four gender categories of HH: • only male adults, • male-headed with adult females (typical
family structure), • female-headed with adult males
(widowed, divorced or single women with a son, brother or other adult male in the HH)
• only single, widowed or divorced female adults.
• We also considered aspects related to men and women as individuals.
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Introduction Aim and research questions
Aim: • To investigate differentiated vulnerability and responses among
men and women and households with different gender structures paying attention to the many interacting stressors that influence local livelihoods.
Embedded in this are the following questions: • What makes rural women more/less vulnerable, i.e. what
determines or influences their vulnerability? • How are rural women responding? • What role do ecosystem services play in women’s responses?
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Approach to the study
Questions answered through a gendered analysis of: • Household livelihoods and asset holdings
(indicators of sensitivity and adaptive capacity).
• Perceptions and ‘lived experiences’ of
vulnerability in relation to multiple stressors (exposure).
• Types of responses employed when faced with risk, and how these may be impacted by CC.
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Shackleton et al. 2014. AGENDA
Study area and methods
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action 11
Study site location
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Worked in two settlements (Willowvale/Gatyana and Lessyton) in the
Eastern Cape of South Africa
Willowvale – remote, rural, NR dependent, wetter. poorer
Lesseyton, peri-urban, formal layout, dry, near Queenstown
Study area
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Methods • Multiple studies and mixed methods (10
student dissertations from larger IDRC funded project).
• HH survey of 340 hh (demographics,
livelihood assets, HIV proxies, welfare perceptions, shocks and responses, livelihood activities, income – cash and in kind)
• Focus group discussions linked to a social
learning process (in-depth discussions of vulnerability – stories - and means of coping)
• Participatory workshops with different gender
groups (mental maps of stressors, choices for responses)
• 20 life histories narrated by vulnerable men
and women 13
Findings
Livelihoods and income sources (sensitivity and adaptive capacity)
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Livelihoods and income sources
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Differences in mean (± standard error) quarterly household income (ZAR) of gender headship types in Lesseyton Lesseyton Only male
adults (N = 47)
Male headed with female
adults (N= 45)
Female headed with male adults
(N= 53)
Only female adults (N = 25)
P value
Total quarterly income
6952± 735
7869 ± 770
7926± 794
4905 ± 660
0.077
Formal employment
1433± 324
3566 ±725
1928 ±458
573 ±298
0.007 Lower income
and formal employment
Self-employment
214 ± 109
350 ±157
168±88
504 ±285
0.852 Higher self-employment – shows ability to
adapt
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Livelihoods and income sources
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Differences in mean (± standard error) quarterly household income (ZAR) of gender headship types in Gatyana/Willowvale Only male adults
(N = 36)
Male headed with female
adults (N= 41)
Female headed with male adults
(N= 43)
Only female adults
(N = 48)
P value
Total quarterly income
9157.35 ± 1776.84 8162.87 ± 629.12
7005.67 ± 851.91
5505.06 ± 521.79
0.012
Formal employment 2630.33 ± 1553.35 526.83 ± 275.95
837.21 ± 565.41 1000.00 ± 399.50
0.431
Only HH with adult males only have high
employment in Willowvale
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Livelihood and income sources by HH gender structure
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Willowvale Natural
resources9%
Formal employment
29%
Casual employment
2%Self-employment
1%
Grants 44%
Remittances3%
Crops1% Livestock
11%
Figure 8.2.2 e: Average livelihood portfolio of households with only adult males in Gatyana
Natural resources
7%Formal
employment6% Casual employment
2%
Self-employment
4%
Grants 64%
Remittances1%
Crops2%
Livestock14%
Figure 8.2.2 f: Average livelihood portfolio of male headed households with adult female in Gatyana
Natural resources
8%Formal
employment12%
Casual employment
4%
Self-employment
4%Grants 54%
Remittances8%
Crops2%
Livestock8%
Figure 8.2.2 g: Average livelihood portfolio of female headed households with adult males in Gatyana
Natural resources
10%
Formal employment
18%
Casual employment
1%
Self-employment
3%
Grants 51%
Remittances6%
Crops1% Livestock
10%
Figure 8.2.2 h: Average ilivelihood portfolio of households with only adult females in Gatyana
Remittances higher in female
HH
More reliance' on NRs in female
HH
Gants similar across gender
groups
Stadler 2012
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Livelihood and income sources by HH gender structure
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Natural resources
3%
Formal employment
21%
Casual employment
11%
Self-employment
3%
Grants 50%
Remittances3%
Crops0%
Livestock9%
Figure 8.2.2 a: Average livelihood portfolio of households with only adult males in Lesseyton
Natural resources
3%
Formal employment
45%
Casual employment
8%Self-
employment5%
Grants 29%
Remittances4%
Crops0%
Livestock6%
Figure 8.2.2 b: Average livelihood portfolio of male headed households with adult females in Lesseyton
Natural resources
7%
Formal employment
24%
Casual employment
4%
Self-employment
2%
Grants 50%
Remittances8%
Crops0%
Livestock5%
Figure 8.2.2 c: Average livelihood portfolio of female headed households with adult males in Lesseyton
Natural resources
5%
Formal employment
12%
Casual employment
6%
Self-employment
10%
Grants 59%
Remittances7%
Crops1%
Livestock0%
Figure 8.2.2 d: Average livelihood portfolio of households with only female adults in Lesseyton
Employment highest in Males with adult
female HH
Self-employment highest for female
only HH
Highest grants in female only HH
Lesseyton
“I cannot afford to build a decent dwelling for my family due to financial constraints. And to raise children on a social grant is very hard for me. It was better when my husband was alive” (Gatyana, female, 52 years).
Stadler 2012
Assets - access and stocks (adaptive capacity)
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Asset access, stocks, adaptive capacity
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Lesseyton Gatyana
Male only
M+F adults
F+M adults
Female only
Male only
M+F adults
F+M adults
Female only
Demo. (4) Most adults Most pensioners
Fewest pensioners Fewest in total
Most in total
Fewest adults
Most adults Most pensioners
Fewest adults Fewest pensioners
Human (4) Skills high Lang. high Content high
low low low
Social (5) High trust/ cohesion
Natural (7) More land More river and medicinal plants More land
Less bushmeat Less land (than male)
Less bushmeat Less land (than male)
Physical (3) Most kraals Least kraals Less hh items than male
Kraals most fewest
Financial (2) Less savings and debt (than male)
Less savings (than male) Stadler 2012
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Asset access, stocks and adaptive capacity
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Social Capital Table 9: Mean (± standard error) cognitive social capital scores of different groups in Lesseyton and Gatyana
Lesseyton Gatyana Only male adults Mean 20.9±0.5 22.2±0.4 N 47 37 Male headed with female adults Mean 20.7±0.5 22±0.5 N 45 41 Female headed with male
adults Mean 20.9±0.7 22.7±0.5
N 53 43 Only female adults Mean 21.2±0.7 22±0.5 N 25 48 P = 0.007 P = 0.699
Higher social capital
20.00
20.50
21.00
21.50
22.00
22.50
23.00
Male headed households(n=170)
Female headed householdswith adult male (n=83)
Female headed householdswithout adult male (n=85)
Social Capital
Stadler 2012
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Asset access, stocks and adaptive capacity
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Natural capital: Land
Table 2: Differences in mean (± standard error) area of garden (m2) of households in different groups in Lesseyton and Gatyana Lesseyton Gatyana Only male adults Mean
N 259.3±78.3 46
6018.5±1644.4 35
Male headed with female adults
Mean N
123.9±31.9 45
6303.48±765.04 40
Female headed with male adults
Mean N
119±33.7 50
3885.05±646.5 40
Only female adults Mean N
47.1±18.7 25
4418.49±678.39 47
P = 0.053 P = 0.095 About ½ land area
Shocks and stresses experienced and local perceptions of what makes
people vulnerable (exposure to risk)
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Perceptions and experiences of stressors and vulnerability
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People’s own understandings of what makes them vulnerable - social-learning process
Lesseyton, Lukanji Municipality Gatyana, Mbashe Municipality
Education and
capacity
If you cannot do anything for yourself
/dependency; not having skills to deal with
opportunities
Lack of education
Crime Women fear rape when walking alone Women being vulnerable, rape
theft and crime – takes away, affects farming
Socio-economic/
development
Access to police stations, distance to clinics
and not getting medication, lack of
knowledge about socio-economic rights,
social grants
Unemployment, HIV/AIDS, Poverty
Household
dynamics
Lack of parental care and guidance for
children, relying on remittances that do not
come on time or at all
Lack of parental care, infidelity, rrugs and
alcohol
Climate Drought effect on livestock/vegetables The weather is changing
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Perceptions and experiences of stressors and vulnerability
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Social learning story Women used to rely on their crops for food and remittances. But can no longer do this because of > drought, > variability in the weather and increasing unemployment.
Structural and social drivers of vulnerability - lack of education, low levels of skill, corruption, job loss, dependence on others and grants, lack of electricity, and drug and alcohol consumption by men.
Social Learning Stories • HIV: Women susceptible of sudden loss of
income through death of breadwinners. • Shoulder responsibility for orphaned
children and have difficulty in maintaining authority
• Home based care groups – child headed households and elderly
Social learning story
Trend toward buying food Less self-reliance
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Perceptions and experiences of stressors and vulnerability: Multiple stressors
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Mental map: Women in Lesseyton
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action 28
Mental map - men in Lesseyton
Perceptions and experiences of stressors and vulnerability: Multiple stressors
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Perceptions and experiences of stressors and vulnerability: HIV/AIDS
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Table 7: Percentages of households experiencing different types of HIV/Aids impacts across gender headship types and differences in mean (±standard error) number of HIV/Aids impacts
Lesseyton
Only male adults
(N = 47)
Male headed
with female adults
(N= 45)
Female headed
with male adults
(N= 53)
Only female adults
(N = 25)
P Value
Type of HIV/Aids impact Non affected 40.4 66.7 28.3 32 0.001
Chronic illness and receiving free care
46.8 28.9 58.5 48 0.034
Illness-related death in previous 10 years
17 8.9 26.4 20 0.164
Presence of de facto orphans 25.5 13.3 30.2 28 0.242
Total Mean (±standard error) 0.89±0.133
0.51±0.126
1.15±0.136 0.96±0.158 0.007
High % of female headed hh with each of the HIV proxy
indicators
-
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
Male headedhouseholds
(n=170)
Female headedhouseholds with
adult male (n=83)
Female headedhouseholds
without adultmale (n=85)
Household HealthIndex
Adult Health Index
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Perceptions and experiences of stressors and vulnerability: Food security
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Table 5: Differences in mean (± standard error) weighted perceptions of food security for households in different groups in Lesseyton and Gatyana Lesseyton Gatyana Only male adults Mean 0.91±0.121 0.65±0.124 N 47 37 Male headed with female
adults Mean 0.91±0.122 0.70±0.120
N 45 40 Female headed with male
adults Mean 1.00±0.111 0.69±0.138
N 53 42 Only female adults Mean 1.08±0.162 0.75±0.121 N 25 48 P = 0.810 P = 0.108 Female headed hh despite
having lower income saw themselves as more food
secure than other hh types
Dietary studies showed that only young men were not obtaining their full calorific
needs (lowest perception of food security).
Responses to shocks and stressors and reliance on climate sensitive sectors
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Responses
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• All HHs experienced greater than one shock in the previous two years (>20 % had death in the hh; 2010 drought; loss of job, etc.)
• Financial assets (average savings < R500) cannot generally provide a safety net.
Regarding responses:
• A lower % of female only HH reported doing nothing. Female only HH had more self-employment – more innovation.
• More female only HH turned to kin for support compared to other gender categories.
• Women in general took in orphans, and started care and gardening groups.
• A large proportion of FHH indicated natural resource gathering as a response.
Shackleton et al. 2014,
Clarke 2012
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Responses – NR as a safety net
Pair-wise ranking* of coping strategies by women in Gatyana
Coping strategies using assets
Assistance (S)
Change role (H)
Harvest NR (N)
Sell assets (P)
Loan (F) Assistance (S)
Change role (H)
Harvest NR (N)
Sell assets (P)
Assistance (S)
Assistance (S)
Harvest NR (N)
Sell assets (P)
Change role (H)
Harvest NR (N)
Change role (H)
Harvest NR (N)
Harvest NR (N)
*Items in columns are compared against items in rows and the better of the two indicated in the table
Pair-wise ranking* of coping strategies by men in Gatyana Coping strategies using assets
Assistance (S)
Change role (H)
Harvest NR (N)
Sell assets (P)
Loan (F) Loan (F) Loan (F) Loan (F) Loan (F) Assistance (S)
Assistance (S)
Assistance (S)
Sell assets (P)
Change role (H)
Change roles (H)
Change roles (H)
Harvest NR (N)
Harvest NR (N)
*Items in columns are compared against items in rows and the better of the two indicated in the table
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2
Stadler 2012
What does this all mean? Conclusions and implications
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Key conclusions – re women in general
• Women’s higher reliance on ecosystem services and their greater use of natural resource safety nets in response to shocks may make them more susceptible to CC.
• Women’s higher exposure to multiple risks in
relation to crime, violence, rape and HIV undermines their adaptive capacity.
• Women take on the burden of caring for the sick and children – erodes assets.
• Women are susceptible to sudden loss of income due to the death of breadwinners.
• This may be countered by women’s greater
levels of collective action in response to stressors – care groups, gardening groups.
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Key conclusions – re different female headed HH
• Lower income and inability to access to formal employment makes them FHH’s (esp female only) more vulnerable, and more reliant on local climate sensitive safety nets.
• Low access to land may threaten food security in the future esp
for female only HH. • Female only HH’s slightly lower human capital, higher child
dependence, and lower health scores affects their adaptive capacity.
• FHH’s lower savings limits their responses.
• FHHs use more child labor, may be inter-generational costs.
• Female only HH’s higher reliance on social grants undermines
their resilience as these are not permanent. • Some of this vulnerability may countered by female only HH’s
higher food security and cognitive (bonding) social capital.
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Main gender differences in terms of livelihoods relate to flow or income rather than assets. Female only HH clearly have lower adaptive capacity.
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Key conclusions – re men and male headed HH • Men also vulnerable – job loss, impacts on
livestock production. • Male only HHs are food insecure and lack
access to social grants.
• Male headed HH consume more alcohol with associated social ills.
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CONTEXT MATTERS Seeing heterogeneity within and between different areas/contexts. Different contexts can result in the reverse of findings across gender groups.
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
How do local people see it?
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Men and women cope differently Lesseyton % Willowvale % Examples
Yes 74 46 Men are stronger, more active
No 20 54
Women are more caring, look after money, weaker, less skills
Women are more vulnerable to shocks Lesseyton % Willowvale % Examples
Yes 50 46 Men bring home the income
No 44 54 Women left to look after family
Men and women are both seen as vulnerable by community members
Almost ½ - ½
Clarke 2012
Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
What does this mean for vulnerability and adaptation policy?
• Need to recognise multiple sources of shocks and stress and vulnerabilities. Facilitate ‘learning how to be prepared’.
• Address basic development, services and infrastructural needs (education!). Can’t separate CCA from development and structural inequalities.
• Recognise different contexts have different pros and cons for vulnerability and adaptive
capacity – different strengths to build on; understand background of long term changes . • Need profiling and targeted support for different types of individuals and households
– Recognise that the youth are the dominant demographic. – Recognise men and women may respond differently and have different assets – Recognise where men can be involved in reducing women’s vulnerability (gender based
violence, health care). – Provide support to women where they have taken initiative.
• Need to support longer term asset building and improved access to assets – issues of justice wrt to land, loans, insurance, so assets aren’t eroded following shocks.
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
What does this mean for vulnerability and adaptation policy?
• Build local agency and community institutions/ support systems. Many of the stressors highlighted are social and behavioural – partly within the hands of people themselves. Find opportunities for intergenerational and inter-gender communication. More involvement of women in decision-making.
• Improve natural resource governance.
• Address social concerns like alcoholism, rape, domestic violence, corruption Social workers need to get more involved in adaptation.
• New forms of social protection.
• Provide information and extension. Currently extension services not working optimally. Support women’s agricultural groups and home gardens.
• Identify barriers to responses and adaptation and seek ways to overcome these - especially the less obvious barriers such as cognitive/cultural that could increase vulnerability of specific groups.
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Gender and Climate Change: Women, Research and Action
Thank you! Acknowledgements • IDRC Ecohealth Programme • The IDRC project team • Communities of Willowvale and
Lesseyton and specifically members of our two social learning groups
• Ross Shackleton for the beautiful
portraits of the women of Willowvale (all given back to them)
• Rhodes University, SA National Research
Foundation and CIFOR for making it possible for me to be here today
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