apeh bright
TRANSCRIPT
TECHNICAL REPORT
ON THE STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME
(SIWES)
UNDERTAKEN AT
NBC INFASTRUCTURE WEST AFRICA, PLOT 3123 ONEX,
OPPOSITE MAITAMA DISTRICT
FCT, ABUJA.
PREPARED BY
APEH BRIGHT
11/ENG03/010
SUBMITTED
TO
THE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
AFE BABALOLA UNIVERSITY ADO EKITI
EKITI STATE
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) DEGREE IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
MARCH-AUGUST 2015
i
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that APEH BRIGHT of Matric number 11/ENG03/010 compiled
this report based on his twenty-four weeks Student Industrial Working Experience
Scheme (SIWES) carried out AT NBC INFASTRUCTURE WEST AFRICA,
PLOT 3123 ONEX, and OPPOSITE MAITAMA DISTRICT
FCT, ABUJA.
……………………………….. ……………………………
Academic supervisor Signature and date
………………………………… …………………………
H.O.D civil engineering Signature and date
ii
DEDICATION This report is dedicated foremost to God Almighty for his favor, mercy and grace upon my life
especially during my six months SIWES programme at NBC infrastructure West Africa.
I would also like to dedicate it to my parents and siblings for their love and support and everyone
else that contributed towards making my SIWES training a fun and successful one
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ACKNOWLEDEGEMENT
My appreciation goes to the industrial training fund for their foresight in putting this program in
place and also to my lecturers ENGR. JOHN WASIU, ENGR. DARE OYEBODE, ENGR.
POOPOLA, ENGR. VICTOR ADEBAYO, MRS ENGR.DARAMOLA ,MRS BIMBO
OWOLABI and my H.O.D PROF S.O OYEGOKE whose fatherly advice, devotion, guidance,
sacrifice, suggestions, understanding, technical advice, mentoring, and teachings helped me in
piling up this write up accurately, Thank you for your tenacity of purpose and valuable
contribution. Also many thanks go to the provost college of engineering, PROF. I.E. OWOLABI
for his contributions.
I am grateful to NBC infrastructure West Africa for providing me with such an opportunity to be
exposed to world class civil engineering experience in the construction industry.
I also want to say a big thank you to my industry based supervisors MR. GARO NASBOLIOU
and ENGR.LUCKY YUSUF and to my direct boss MR. NNAEMEKA CHUKWUEKE also to
MR. DOGO UZOCHUKWU, MRS. ERICKA, MR. MIKE, MR. HENRY, MR. EKE
IKECHUKWU and every personnel of the civil engineering department especially the engineer’s
section for welcoming me into their family with open hands.
To MR VICTOR, MR. EKOMA and MR. VICTOR EKE of the machinery department, thank
you all for taking me in like a brother.
To my co-interns FATIMA, BASIL OKEKE and KELECHUKWU thank you all for making my
stay at NBC an exciting and blissful one.
I am deeply indebted to God almighty, the giver of all wisdom, knowledge and understanding,
without whom I would have achieved nothing at all.
Finally to my institution based supervisor ENGR.CHARLES ADEODU and also MR. VICTOR
ADEBAYO for their support and to my other friends, family and colleagues, Thank you all. I am
highly grateful.
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ABSTRACT The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is designed to give university
Undergraduates in Nigeria the relevant practical knowledge and industrial Exposure they need to
fully understand the application of the theoretical knowledge they acquire within the four walls
of the lecture halls. I was fortunate to serve my six months Industrial work experience at NBC
infrastructure West Africa, an international construction company involved in the construction of
buildings and roads, estate development and turnkey projects all over Africa.
This report is a comprehensive summary of all that I learnt and was involved in throughout my
industrial attachment at the civil engineering department of both the head office and Asokoro
branch of the company Abuja Nigeria. I learnt the fundamentals of construction from the mason
work to the iron work etc. I learnt and witnessed the various stages involved to build both a
duplex and bungalow structure from the foundations to the roofing stage; I also witnessed how
retaining walls were constructed.
The chapter one gives details on the meaning and objectives of the student industrial work
experience scheme and also the host company background including its mission, vision and the
company organogram. Chapter one also gives an insight to the overall or assigned works carried
out during the industrial training.
The chapter two of the report contains the literature review of the entire report.
The chapter three is the most hunted chapter which explains my overall internship familiarity in
the last six successive months. This chapter is the main chapter which gives account of the
overall work I executed. It gives a highlight of what I have been involved with and main works
of the construction industry.
After all the chapters explained above I then go to the fourth chapter to outline the main benefits
of the industrial training programme and also some challenges faced during the programme , It is
obvious that the internship has a plus one in terms of improving skills and different abilities as a
whole.
Then finally the last chapter which is the chapter five contains the conclusions and
recommendation based on the entire industrial attachment.
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TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE NO
Title page
Certification ……………………………………………………………………………..…ii
Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………....iii
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………..iv
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………….v
List of plates …………………………………………………………………………….....ix
List of figures ………………………………………………………………………………xi
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………xi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODCTION
1.1 Introduction to siwes…………………………………………………………………..1
1.1.1 Historical perspective on siwes……………………………....……………….1
1.1.2 Objective of siwes ………………………………………………………..…..2
1.1.3 Log book …………………………………………………………………..….2
1.2 Introduction to host company ………………………………………………………..2
1.2.1 Vision ………………………………………………………………………..3
1.2.2 Mission ………………………………………………………………….…...3
1.2.3 Core values …………………………………………………………………..3
1.2.4 Company structure …………………………………………………………..4
1.2.5 Company address …………………………………………………………....4
1.2.6 Contacts ……………………………………………………………………...5
1.2.7 Organization and management ………………………………………………5
1.2.8 Fields of specialization ……………………………………………………....5
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1.3 Introduction to work done ...……………………………………………………….…6
1.3.1 Details of work done ………………………………………………………….6
1.3.2 Flow of work ……………………………………………………………….....7
1.3.3 Assigned works ……………………………………………………………….10
1.4 Site safety ……………………………………………………………………………….12
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Reviews on civil engineering ………………………………………………………....13
2.2 Reviews on construction …………………………………………………………..….13
2.2.1 Types of building construction………………………………………….….13
2.3 What makes up a building structurally?
2.3.1 Sub structure …………………………………………………………..…..15
2.3.2 Super structure………………………………………………………….….16
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS
3.1 Preliminaries ……………..………………………………………………….….……..18
3.1.1 Levelling …………………………………………………………….……...18
3.1.2 Setting out …………………………………………………………….….…18
3.2 Excavations ……………………………………………………………………….……19
3.2.1 Pit and trench excavation ……………………………………………..….... 20
3.3 Back filling ………………………………………………………………………….....22
3.3.1 Compaction …………………………………………………………….…..22
3.4 Foundations ……………………………………………………………………..……...23
3.4.1 Factors affecting the choice of foundation …………………………….…..23
3.4.2 Types of foundation ……………………………………………………..…24
3.4.3 Damp proof course ………………………………………………………....25
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3.4.4 Oversite concrete …………………………………………………………..26
3.5 Construction of structural members ……………………………………………….….27
3.5.1 Columns …………………………………………………………….……..27
3.5.2 Beams ……………………………………………………………………...27
3.5.3 Slabs …………………………………………………………….……....…28
3.5.4 Staircase …………………………………………………………………...28
3.5.5 Retaining wall ………………………………………………………….….28
3.5.6 Parapet ………………………………………………………………….….28
3.6 masonry work …………………………………………………………………………...30
3.6.1 Block type ………………………………………………………………....30
3.6.2 Mortar …………………………….……………………………………...31
3.7 Concrete formwork ………………………………………………………………….….31
3.7.1 Requirements of a formwork …………………………………………....34
3.7.2 Types of formwork ……………………………………………………...34
3.8 Reinforcement bar ……………………………………………………………………....36
3.8.1 Reinforcement for various structural members ………………………….37
3.7.2 Splicing of bar / lapping ……………………………………………….…40
3.7.3 Reinforcement bars used on site ………………………………………...40
3.9 Concrete ……………………………………………………………………………....…..41
3.9.1 Constituents of concrete ………………………………………………....45
3.9.1.1 Cement ……………………………………………………..…41
3.9.1.2 Aggregate …………………………………………………….….42
3.9.1.3 Water………………………………………………………….….44
3.9.1.4 Admixtures …………………………………………………..… 44
3.9.2 Test on concrete …………………………………………………………..46
3.9.3 Mixing of concrete ………………………………………………………..46
3.9.3 Concrete consolidation ……………………………………………………47
3.8.4 Transportation …………………………………………………………….48
3.9.5 Concrete curing …………………………………………………………...48
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING BENEFITS, CHALLENGES FACED AND
RESULTS
4.1 Challenges faced ……………………………………………………………………...…50
4.2 Industrial training benefits …………………………………………………………...….50
4.3 Results ……………………………………………………………………………..…….51
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………..53
5.2. Recommendations………………………………………………………...….53
5.2.1. Recommendation to the company…………………………………………...53
5.2.2. Recommendation to the school ……………………………………………..55
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………..……..56
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LIST OF PLATES
PLATE DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
PLATE 1.1 PROJECT PLANS 7
PLATE 1.2 PROPOSED BUILDING 8
PLATE 3.1 SETTING OUT ON SITE 20
PLATE 3.2 EXCAVATION BEEN CARRIED OUT BY AN
EXCAVATOR
21
PLATE 3.3 ALREADY EXCAVATED TRENCHES 22
PLATE 3.4 ALREADY EXCAVATED PITS 22
PLATE 3.5 BACKFILL ON SITE 23
PLATE 3.6 COMPACTION BEEN CARRIED OUT USING A RAMER 24
PLATE 3.7 STRIP FOUNDATION USED ON SITE 26
PLATE 3.8 A TYPICAL PAD FOOTING ON SITE 26
PLATE 3.9 DAMP PROOF MEMBRANE APPLIED ON SITE 27
PLATE 3.10 HARDCORE PLACED BEFORE THE DAMP-PROOF
MEMBRANE
27
PLATE 3.11 CONCRETE OVERSITE BEEN CARRIED OUT ON SITE 28
PLATE 3.12 MASONRY WORK BELOW GRADE BEAM 31
PLATE 3.13 225*450 BLOCK 31
PLATE 3.14 150 * 450 BLOCK 31
PLATE 3.15 MORTAR USED ON SITE 32
PLATE 3.16 SLAB FORM WORK USING METAL PANELS 34
PLATE 3.17 FALSE FORM WORK 34
PLATE 3.18 FORMWORK FOR ELEVATION COLUMN 35
PLATE 3.19 A BEAM FORMWORK 36
PLATE 3.20 PARAPET FORMWORK 36
PLATE 3.21 RETAINING WALL FORMWORK 37
PLATE 3.22 FOOTING BARS ON SITE 38
PLATE 3.23 COLUMN BARS ON SITE 38
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PLATE 3.24 BEAM REINFORCEMENT ARRANGEMENT ON SITE 39
PLATE 3.25 SLAB REINFORCEMENT ARRANGEMENT ON SITE 39
PLATE 3.26 PARAPETS REINFORCEMENT ARRANGEMET ON SITE 40
PLATE 3.27 RETAINING WALL REINFORCEMENT
ARRANGEMENTS ON SITE
40
PLATE 3.28 DANGOTE CEMENT 42
PLATE 3.29 ELEPHANT CEMENT 42
PLATE 3.30 CRUSHED GRAVEL SAND 43
PLATE 3.31 NATURAL SAND 43
PLATE 3.32 COARSE AGGREGATE 44
PLATE 3.34 MOBILE MIXER 47
PLATE3.35 STATIONERY MIXER 47
PLATE 3.36 CONCRETE POURING 48
PLATE 3.37 CONCRETE VIBRATOR USED ON SITE 48
PLATE 3.39 ROOF RAFTERS ON SITE 51
PLATE 3.40 ROOF COVER USED ON SITE 51
PLATE 4.1 SLAB CONSTRUCTED ON SITE 53
PLATE 4.2 A RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTED ON SITE 53
PLATE 4.3 A CONCRETE STAIRS CONSTRUCTED ON SITE 53
PLATE 4.4 PARAPETS CONSTRUCTED ON SITE 53
PLATE 4.5 ROOF BEAMS CONSTRUCT ON SITE 53
PLATE 4.6 BUNGALOW STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED 54
PLATE 4.7 DUPLEX STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED 54
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
FIG 1.1 COMPANY ORGANIZATION FLOW CHART 4
FIG 1.2 WORK FLOW CHART 8
FIG 3.1 SLUMP CONE AND CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 45
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
TABLE 3.1 MORTAR RATIOS 31
TABLE 3.2 FORMWORK REMOVAL PERIOD ON SITE 36
TABLE 3.3 REINFORCEMENT BAR TYPES 40
TABLE 3.4 ADMIXUTURES 44
TABLE 3.5 MIX RATIOS 46
TABLE 3.6 CURING TABLE 49
.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES
SIWES is an acronym for ‘Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme’ which was initiated by
the federal government of Nigeria in 1972.Students industrial Work Experience Scheme
(SIWES) is a skill training program designed to expose and prepare technical and science
oriented students for industrial work situations which they are likely to encounter after their
transition from the classroom to their place of work.
1.1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SIWES
The students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) started in 1973 with 748 students
from 11 institutions of higher learning participating. By 1978, the scope of participation in
scheme had increased to about 5,000 students from 32 institutions. The Industrial Training Fund,
however, withdrew from the management of the scheme in 1979 owing to problems of
organizational logistics and the increased financial burden associated with the rapid expansion of
SIWES (ITF, 2003). Consequently, the federal Government funded the scheme through the
National University Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE) who managed SIWES for five years (1979-1984). The supervising agencies (NUC and
NBTE) operated the scheme in conjunction with their respective institutions during this period.
The scheme was subsequently reviewed by the Federal Government resulting in Decree No 16 of
August, 1985 which required that all students enrolled in specialized engineering, technical,
business, applied science and applied arts should have supervised industrial attachments as part
of their studies. In the same vein, the ITF was directed by the federal Government to charge and
resume responsibility for the management of SIWES in collaboration with the supervising
agencies, i.e. National Universities Commission (NUC), the National Board for Technical
Education (NBTE) and the National commission for colleges of Education (NCCE).
2
1.1.2 OBJECTIVE OF SIWES
a. Provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skill
and experience in their approved course of study.
b. Prepare students for industrial work situation which they are likely to meet after
graduation.
c. Expose students to working method and machineries that may not be available in their
various institutions.
d. Provide students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work situation
thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice
1.1.3 LOG BOOK
The log book is essentially a record book with periodic entries. It helps keep track of knowledge
acquired over time. It can be a record of data, thoughts or activities. The SIWES log book covers
a period of six months, It is a very important part of the SIWES program as it helps a student to
record his/her daily activities and what he/she has learnt over time. It also serves as a guide for a
student’s report and presentation.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE HOST COMPANY
NBC INFASTRUCTURE WEST AFRICA is a leading construction company offering
integrated solutions and related services. NBC specializes in executing complex works that
require the highest level of technical expertise and Nigeria-specific knowhow.
The company utilizes state-of-the-art construction methods and technologies to ensure that
quality and innovation are prioritized for the benefit of clients. Core competencies cover all
project phases, including planning, design, engineering, construction, maintenance and
operation, for infrastructure, industry and building projects. It is a dynamic organization of
innovative professionals who share a common goal to render the best and most effective services
to the demanding construction industry, which is sensitive to both cost containment and service
levels.
3
1.2.1 VISION
At NBC, our vision is to be Nigeria’s most dynamic construction company.
a. We seize opportunities for both our company and the country.
b. We work with dedication to maintain our clients’ trust.
c. We operate with a holistic approach and a solutions-driven mindset.
d. We seek efficient methods to deliver on our clients’ requisitions.
We integrate our multiple resources, including specialized personnel or production and service
facilities, to achieve the best results.
1.2. 2 MISSION
Guided by our vision, we tend to provide quality services exceeding client‘s expectations while
adhering to the highest standards of technical and individual excellence through continuous
improvement of training and innovation.
a. Adding value to clients.
b. Nurturing and promoting talents.
c. Respecting employees ‘intense efforts and contribution
1.2.3 CORE VALUES
NBC INFASTRUCTURE value system is built on the belief that the company’s duty, apart
from delivering the highest quality standards in work, is to support and advance the development
of its staff, host communities and the country of Nigeria itself.
4
1.2.4 COMPANY STRUCTURE
FIG 1.1 NBC ORGANIZATION FLOW CHART
1.2.5 COMPANY ADDRESS
PLOT 3123 ONEX, OPPOSITE MAITAMA DISTRICT
FCT, ABUJA.
5
1.2.6 CONTACTS
Phone number: +234 (0) 8034080811
Email: [email protected]
www.cachezgrouponline.com
1.2.7 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
In every organization, the most important asset is the people that play essential role in the
performance of the company‘s functions and responsibilities. Thus, NBC INFASTRUCTURE
WEST AFRICA is fortunate to have highly qualified and experienced personnel. Reciprocally,
NBC has aimed to provide its employees with all the basic necessities while performing their
assigned tasks and at the same time equip them through training and seminars to enhance their
capabilities.
The firm is capable of furnishing well-coordinated Architectural and civil engineering design
services by utilizing its in-house staff as well as its professional associates. All engineering
services carry the quality control assurance and guaranty of the company firm.
NBC INFASTRUCTURE WEST AFRICA Carry out any project by forming a dedicated project
team. Each team is headed by a senior design engineer and draftsmen enough to complete the
project in schedule. Design teams are dynamically managed to accommodate necessary and
fluctuating workload and tights schedules. Flexible teaming capability enables NBC to undertake
large and small project with the lowest overhead coasts thus providing the best value to the
client.
1.2.8 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION
NBC INFASTRUCTURE WEST AFRICA is specialized in Architectural, Structural,
Electrical, Sanitary and Mechanical design and construction management of commercial,
residential, industrial, educational, military, sport facilities, hotel and office buildings as well as
earth and rock fill dam, concrete dams, tunnels, water and distribution, drainage, waste water
solid waste disposal, motor ways, and high ways, air field, terminals etc...
6
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO WORKDONE
1.3.1 DETAILS OF WORK DONE
During the first month of the industrial training I was assigned by the management to assist
the site engineer at their head office to carry various works like setting out of foundation layouts,
taking of various levels using surveying instruments and also the construction of various
retaining walls etc. after the first month of the industrial training I was then sent to the Asokoro
branch of the company where NBC was awarded a contract to construct a residential building.
The project consisted of a guest house, a main house with a basement car park, a swimming
pool and security post plus generator house.
PLATE 1.1 PROJECT PLANS
7
PLATE 1.2. PROPOSED BUILDING
The guest house covers a floor area of 187.73 square meters while the main building itself
covers a floor area of 386.06 square meters but in total the project covered a site area of
1815.97 square meters, the above project also consists of a basement.
1.3.2 FLOW OF WORK
The working flow of the consultant and the contractor has many advantages in order to work
every task closely and to solve problems that may arise between them. In every work or project
there is a work flow no matter how small the section is, at my work site that is the asokoro
project the working flow looks like the chart below. As shown in the chart every work was
executed based on this flow
8
FIG 1.2. WORK FLOW CHART
a. Design and supervision team
The team includes the structural engineer, architectural engineers, sanitary engineers, electrical
engineers and other experienced engineers in other professions. The design and supervision team
is a team from the consultant side which guides every work executed in the site and also gives
supervision to the contractor based on the drawing and the specification (bill of quantity).
This team mostly comes to the site when there is a misunderstanding on drawings, working
techniques, drawing detailing error, and for meeting between the three parties. The team provides
continuous service to the project from start to finish, establishing and maintaining the quality and
integrity of each design.
b. Resident engineer
This Position is responsible for multiple construction projects or a single project of a large scale
requiring multiple disciplines. This includes reviewing designs; supervising construction
progress and scheduling; starting up process systems/equipment or facilities for turning over to
the owner's personnel, Supervision of field staff and contractors on site with the responsibility of
quality construction in accordance with the designed plans and specifications. He/she is also
responsible for the approval of change orders, invoices, and payment applications which may
DESIGN AND SUPERVISION TEAM
RESIDENT ENGINEER
PROJECT MANAGER
SITE ENGINEER
FORMAN
SKILLED AND NON SKILLED
WORKERS
SURVEYOR
9
include final payment. So also, the resident engineer mostly controls every work as much as
possible in terms of their quality, cost and time. Testing of materials delivered at site and safety
of workers starting from managers to daily labors are also the duty of the resident engineer.
c. Project manager
The project manager has so many responsibilities at the site and in our site this position is
accountable for the contractor or the owner and is usually appointed by the owner of the
construction company. The main duty of the manager is to manage the whole site work
execution, Make payments to the sub contract workers, Approve material request, to analyze the
work processes, Execute sub-contracting agreements and to review and check the reports made
by the site engineer.
d. Site engineer
The Site engineer shall be accountable for the following tasks and responsibilities:
i. Study of the work plan submitted by the contactors and suggests any modifications.
ii. To watch and inspect the construction work and make sure that it is done in full
accordance with the drawings, technical specifications and bills of quantities.
iii. Supervision of the works on site in accordance with the contract documents and using the
template and procedure established by the consultant.
iv. Inspection and testing of materials prior to their use at site as per sample approved by the
Consultant and ensuring removal of rejected material out from site.
v. Ensuring the correct implementation of the works according to technical specifications,
To designs and quality of materials
vi. Checking of layout and setting out of buildings with respect to the existing structures and
Site levels.
vii. Checking and testing of completed works before they are covered by the contractor,
Taking of photos on a regular basis and also in account of defective works.
viii. Ensuring that health and safety measures are adopted and followed to the full extent.
10
e. Forman
A foreman is the worker or tradesman who is in charge of the construction crew and is also a
skilled supervisor who is responsible to work side by side with the site workers and other
construction design engineers in order to complete a project in a given time limit. His/her job is
to employ the suitable workers on the various tasks needed to complete the job and also to
supervise all phases of the construction project from start to finish or supervise only a portion of
the building process. But normally a foreman is a construction worker with many years of
experience in a particular trade who is charged with organizing the overall construction of a
particular project.
f. Surveyor
In any construction work a surveyor is mandatory so, in our site the surveyor works starting from
setting out to checking verticality, keeping the natural level of the building, checking elevation of
columns.
g. Skilled and non-skilled persons
This group includes masons, carpenter, bar benders, electricians, plumbers and the daily laborers
etc. In our country workers of such group are appointed only by experience this has its own
advantage on the construction. They work everything as they are ordered by whether the Forman
or the site engineer.
1.3.3 ASSIGNED WORKS
My works as an industrial attachment student in the company were mainly of two sides:
a. Office work
b. Site work
a) OFFICE WORK
Reading and interpretation of drawings
Drawings are the means by which the designer conveys the physical, quantitative, and visual
description of the project to the contractors. The drawings are a two-dimensional representation
of the physical structure that meets the objectives of the owner. They are also known as plans or
blueprints
In our site there were 4 types of drawing;
11
i. Architectural drawing
ii. Structural drawing
iii. Sanitary drawing
iv. Electrical installation drawing
This drawing is the main language between the architect, designer and any worker at the site or
office to build the model in position as specified by the designer and the client, based on the
agreement. Thus to work as an engineer in the construction site it is mandatory knowing
drawings and any other specification. Drawings are the most common means of communication
for all types and sizes of project. Thus I understood each drawing and knew every symbol
abbreviation for every section and was able to communicate with different workers using it.
b) SITE WORK
The site work was the most important task for me because the internship main objective lies over
her and I gained enormous knowledge from the site like communication skill, handling workers,
management skill etc. within four month I had the ability to see many works from the project.
The works I was tasked to execute on site are as followed:
i. Supervising of works
ii. Inspecting the work elements and how they work
iii. Checking the work based on the given check list
Every work must be checked whether it is executed based on the methodology that the contractor
provides to the consultant or not. If not the contractor must report the case why they didn‘t
execute upon it.
Details of construction are specified in the drawings, technical specifications and in the general
and special conditions of the contract. The required duty of mine was to ensure that the
construction works were executed in accordance with the contract requirement. I spent most of
my training on the site to become more familiar with site works and to get more practical
knowledge. Site work in general includes every kind of work executed at the site starting from
setting out to the finishing works based on the given specification and methodology.
12
1.4 SITE SAFETY
Safety is defined as the practical certainty that injury, harm or damage will not result from the
use of a substance(s) or agent(s) under a specified condition or quantity and manner of use.
Safety is very important at every site in order to avoid loss of life and property caused by
accidents during construction, operation and maintenance of machineries.
Personal safety used on site;
a. Always wear protective equipment on site
b. Do not drink or take drugs while working
c. Pay attention to personal hygiene
d. Report to your supervisor immediately if you notice any unsafe condition
The personal protection equipment includes:
a. Helmets, Safety boots, Safety belts, Hand gloves,
b. Overall, Nose masks, Safety goggles, and Chin guards.
13
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 REVIEWS ON CIVIL ENGINEERING
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction,
and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads,
bridges, canals, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering is the second-oldest engineering
discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering
from military engineering. [13]
2.2 REVIEWS ON CONSTRUCTION
Construction is the process of creating and building infrastructure or a facility. It differs from
manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass production of similar items without
a designated purchaser and construction is typically done on location for a known client.
Construction as an industry is six to nine percent of the gross domestic product of developed
countries .Construction starts with planning, design, and financing and continues until the project
is built and ready for use large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking. A Project
manager normally manages the job, and a construction manager, design engineer, construction
engineer or project architect supervises it. For the successful execution of a project, effective
planning is essential. Those involved with the design and execution of the infrastructure in
question must consider the zoning requirements, the environmental impact of the job, the
successful scheduling, budgeting, construction site safety, availability and transportation of
building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays and
bidding, etc. [14]
2.2.1 TYPES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
a. Residential building
b. Industrial building etc.
c. Educational Building
d. Institutional Building
14
a. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
These building include any building in which sleeping accommodation provide for normal
residential purposes, with or without cooking and dining facilities. It includes single or multi-
family dwellings, apartment houses, lodgings or rooming houses, restaurants, hostels,
dormitories and residential hostels.
b. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
These are buildings where products or materials of all kinds and properties are fabrication,
assembled, manufactured or processed, as assembly plant, laboratories, dry cleaning plants,
power plants, pumping stations, smoke houses, laundries etc.
c. EDUCATIONAL BUILDING
These include any building using for school, college, assembly for instruction, education or
recreation.
d. INSTITUTIONAL BUILDING
These building are used for different purposes, such as medical or other treatment or care of a
person suffering from a physical or mental illnesses. These building include hospital, sanatoria,
jail etc.
2.3 WHAT MAKES UP A BUILDING STRUCTURALLY?
A building is consists of many structural components. Generally, structural components are
Divided into two categories-
1. Sub structure and
2. Super structure
15
2.2.1 SUB STRUCTURE:
The structure below ground level is called sub structure. Sub structure can also be divided into
three parts;
a. Foundation
b. Plinth
c. grade beams
a. FOUNDATION
The foundation is the lower part of a building. The main function of the foundation is to transfer
load to sub soil. It is the most important part of structure. Most of the failure of a structure may
happen due to foundation failure. Foundation should be strong enough to meet the following
requirements;
i. It should be strong enough to distribute the load to sub soil.
ii. It is capable to support structure.
b. PLINTH
The part between surrounding ground level and ground floor of the building is called plinth. The
purposes of the plinth are;
i. Transfer the incoming load from super structure to the foundation.
ii. Provide damp prove to the building
Support the back filling as a retaining wall. Plinth also increases the esthetical look of the
building.
Keep in mind that, sometimes plinth is not considered as a sub structure and counts as an
individual part of a structure.
c. GRADE BEAMS
Grade beam or grade beam footing is a component of a building's foundation. It consists of a
reinforced concrete beam that transmits the load from a bearing wall into spaced foundations
such as pile caps or caissons. It is used in conditions where the surface soil’s load-bearing
capacity is less than the anticipated design loads.
16
2.2.4 SUPER STRUCTURE
The part above plinth level is called super structure. Super structure contains many other
structural components Such as;
a. Wall
b. Slab
c. lintel
d. beams
e. columns
f. Step stair
g. Roof
h. Parapet
a. WALL
Wall is used to separate the usable area of floor for different purpose. Such as bedroom,
bathroom, kitchen, living etc. Other prime purpose of wall is to provide privacy and security.
b. SLAB
The main purpose of floor is to provide better living space and support of occupants, furniture
and other equipment of a building. The purpose of making different floor in different level of a
building is to create more accommodation within limited space. Floor should be strong, durable,
damp prove and heat protected.
c. LINTEL
Lintel is provided for the purpose of supporting wall above door or window opening.
d. BEAMS
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
17
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams
are characterized by their profile (shape of cross-section), their length, and their material.
e. COLUMNS
A Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements
below. In other words, a column is a compression member.
f. STEP STAIR
Stair is made for easy communication among various floors of a building. Stair consists of steps.
Steps height should be comfortable enough for vertical movement.
g. ROOF
The top most part of a building is the roof. Roof is built for the purpose of enclosing and
protecting the living area/floor area from weather effect. Roof should be stable, durable and
weather resistant.
h. PARAPET
A parapet is a barrier which is an extension of the wall at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony,
walkway or other structure. Where extending above a roof, it may simply be the portion of an
exterior wall that continues above the line of the roof surface, or may be a continuation of a
vertical feature beneath the roof such as a fire wall or party wall. Parapets were originally used to
defend buildings from military attack, but today they are primarily used as guard rails and to
prevent the spread of fires.
i. RETAINING WALL
A retaining wall is a structure that retains holds back any material usually earth and prevents it
From sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material pressure of the material
That it is holding back.
18
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS
The constructions of the projects were carried out through various stages or steps which are
explained below.
3.1 PRELIMINARIES
3.1.1 LEVELLING
Levelling is the measurement of geodetic height using an optical levelling instrument and a level
staff or rod having a numbered scale. Common levelling instruments include the spirit level, the
dumpy level, the digital level, and the laser level.
Having a perfectly level base for the foundations of your house is obviously quite important.
Levelling the ground for this purpose is achieved using what's known as a builder’s auto-leveler -
more commonly referred to as a ‘dumpy level’. This instrument measures the height of two
points on a horizontal plane, allowing the builder to measure whether a bit of ground is level or
not. Levelling will also be carried out on any other areas that need to be level (e.g. paths,
driveways etc.). However this will only be done to exact measurements when it's time to
undertake those projects, as often machinery and the construction process will slightly change
the levels, meaning that the process needs to be redone. I didn‘t see this work but I tried to grasp
some knowledge by asking the engineers how it was worked and its main procedures.
3.1.2 SETTING OUT
Setting out is simply the physical transfer into the ground what was initially on plan or in
paperwork. Transferring the building professionals drawing (the architect) plan onto the ground
is a process of setting out.
Setting out can be complex yet simple. For more accurate transfer some engineers use the
services of land surveyors to get their set out right especially in large projects. Theodolite is
often used by the surveyor or any engineer that has a good knowledge of the application to get
the level of a subject place in relation to a decided point around the building area.
But during the training we used the simple pegging which is common using line, square and
plumb.
19
PLATE 3.1. SETTING OUT ON SITE
3.2 EXCAVATIONS
Excavation is the first step of construction. It refers to the process of removing soil or rock from
its original location, typically in preparation for constructing foundations, basements, and
underground utility lines and for grading of the ground surface. Excavated material required for
backfill or grading fill is stockpiled on the site for subsequent use. The Excavation works we
used included bulk excavation, pit excavation and trench excavation. The main aim of the
excavation work is to remove organic soils or unwanted soil for the safety of the building from
chemical attacking. Excavation shall be carried out to the lines, levels, width, depth and grades
as shown on the drawings, directed by the Engineer.
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PLATE 3.2. EXCAVATION BEEN CARRIED OUT BY AN EXCAVATOR
3.2.1 PIT AND TRENCH EXCAVATION
Naturally this activity follows the bulk excavation. Accordingly, before going into the direct
excavation work, the site was organized in a manner that necessary profiles are put in position by
the carpenters. Appropriate site layout was made and all the positions of the pit excavation in
their exact and right place were located. The settings out of these essential structural bases seek
the approval of the Resident Engineer. The pit excavation works commenced from the center and
proceeded in either direction, along the length of the specific site pit and trench was carried out
by an excavator and manpower respectively. Excavation shall be carried out to the lines, levels,
width, depth and grades and shown on the drawings, directed by the Engineer or as appropriate
to the works to be placed in the excavation. Excavation shall be suitably trimmed and leveled
before subsequent work is placed. In the event of over excavation without the approval of the
Engineer, such over excavated area was filled with selected excavated or borrowed fill material
21
approved by the Engineer and compacted. Excess volume formed in excavation was filled with
selected excavated or borrowed material approved by the Engineer and compacted to the
compaction standard requirements in the Fill Section of the Specification. The excavation of the
pit and the trenches were done manually using diggers by laborers.
PLATE 3.3.ALREADY EXCAVATED TRENCHES
PLATE 3.4.ALREADY EXCAVATED PITS
22
3.3 BACK FILLING
Structural backfill is used to replace excavated earth around a newly constructed structure. Earth,
soil or other materials can be used during this process to restore the strength of the structure's
natural foundation. Structural backfill is an important component of building and wall
construction as it restores the strength of the surrounding earth to ensure a sturdy
structure. The process of structural backfill is fairly simple when done correctly and can be
done by an individual for smaller projects around the home, or by a heavy industrial contractor
for larger public and commercial projects.
PLATE 3.5. BACKFILL ON SITE
3.3.1 COMPACTION
An important part of the grading of the site often includes the compaction of backfill.
Compaction is defined as the densification of a fill by mechanical means. This physical process
of getting the soil into a dense state can increase the shear strength, decrease the compressibility,
and decrease the permeability of the soil. There are four basic factors that affect compaction: soil
type, water content, material gradation and compaction energy.
23
PLATE 3.6.COMPACTION BEEN CARRIED OUT USING A RAMER
3.4 FOUNDATIONS
A foundation is that part of a building which is in direct contact with the ground and its primary
aim is to transmit and spread the loads (dead and live) from the building over a sufficient area of
soil to avoid undue settlement because of the failure of the underlying soil. A good foundation
should satisfy the following requirements:
a) It shall safely sustain and transmit to the ground the loads (dead live and wind) in such a way
as not to cause any settlement or other movement which would impair stability or cause damage
to the whole or any part of the buildings or both.
b) It shall be taken down to such a depth or be so constructed as safeguard the building from
swelling, shrinking of freezing of the subsoil.
c) The materials used must be capable of adequately resisting any attack by sulphates of any
other deleterious matter and chemicals present in the subsoil.
3.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF FOUNDTION
the following are the factors affecting the choice of foundation:
a. Soil type
b. Site condition (topography/slope, water content/flood plain)
c. Type of construction
d. Magnitude of the load and intensity
24
e. Economic and other constructional considerations
f. Type of building
g. The possible effect of weather element e.g. rain.
3.4.2TYPES OF FOUNDATION
the major types of foundation are:
a. STRIP FOUNDATION
This is the commonest type of foundation used or adopted in building one or two storey building
and at most four storeys on firm non-shrinkable sub-soils such as gravel or laterite. It consists of
continuous strip of concrete either in ratio 1:3:6 or 1:2:4.
Strip foundation can be normal, deep or wide.
i. NORMAL STRIP FOUNDATION: is when the width of the foundation footing is not more
than three times the wall thickness
ii. DEEP STRIP FOUNDATION: is when the depth of the foundation is up to 900mm. It is
used especially in shrinkable clayey soil to counteract the variations of soil conditions at
different seasons.
iii. WIDE STRIP FOUNDATION: is used to spread the load over a larger area of soil; it is used
in soil with low bearing capacity such as clayey, marshy ground, silt and build-up soils. The
concrete is usually reinforced in both the transverse and longitudinal direction.
The strip foundation was amongst one of the foundation used during the project. The strip
foundation involves the blinding of dug trenches using concrete with the ratio of 1:3:6 or 1:2:4.
PLATE 3.7 STRIP FOUNDATIONS USED ON SITE
25
b. PADFOUNDATION
these are isolated foundations constructed of reinforced concrete to support columns and
mostly used in framed building construction. They can be used to carry point loads or
can be designed so that the loads of the walls and the buildings are transferred through
ground beams that rest on pad foundations. The pad foundation transfers the loads to a
lower level where soil of sufficient load bearing strata exists. Pad foundation can be
inform of isolated column foundation, continuous column foundation or combined
column foundation.
Pad foundation was also amongst the foundation used on the site, it was used on the duplex
structure.
PLATE 3.8: A TYPICAL PAD FOOTING ON SITE
3.4.3 DAMP PROOF COURSE
Damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and floors
to prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces. Damp problems are one of the most
frequent problems encountered in homes.
Damp proofing is accomplished several ways including:
a. A damp-proof course (DPC) is a barrier through the structure by capillary action such as
through a phenomenon known as rising damp. Rising damp is the effect of water rising
from the ground into your property.
b. A damp-proof membrane (DPM) is a membrane material applied to prevent moisture
transmission. A common example is polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to
26
prevent the concrete from gaining moisture through capillary action. A DPM may be used
for the DPC.
PLATE 3.9: DAMP PROOF MEMBRANE APPLIED ON SITE
PLATE 3.10: HARDCORE PLACED BEFORE THE DAMP-PROOF MEMBRANE
3.4.4 OVERSITE CONCRETE
Oversite concrete is often referred to as German floor by the laymen, others mistake it for DPC,
however oversite concrete is the mass concrete that you pour to cover the entire length and
breadth of a building on the ground floor to serve as a source of additional support to the
structural stability of a building especially storey buildings.
PLATE 3.11 CONCRETE OVERSITE BEEN CARRIED OUT ON SITE
27
3.5 CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
3.5.1 COLUMNS
The column applied on site was the concrete column.
Concrete column are rigid, relatively slender structural members designed primarily to support
axial compressive loads applied to the ends of the member. The concrete columns built on site
were built along with concrete beams and slab.
Concrete column construction process;
Step 1 : fix the reinforcement bars for the concrete column
Step 2 : fix the formwork for the concrete column
Step 3 : pour concrete and wait for it to be cured before removing the formwork
3.5.2 BEAMS
The beams applied on site was the concrete column.
Reinforced Concrete beams are designed to act together with longitudinal and web
reienforcement in resisting applied forces. Cast in place concrete beams are almost always
formed and place along with slab they support
Beam construction process;
Step 1 : fix the formworks for the concrete beam .
Step 2 : fix the reinforcement bar for the concrete beam.
Step 3 : pour concrete .wait for the concrete to be cured before removing the formwork.
Note : reinforcing bars extend into and down column support for structural contiunity and to
develop the requires embedment length for anchorage.
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3.5.3 SLAB
According to the observation on site , the type of slab used on site was the concrete slab.
Concrete slabs are plate structures that are reinforced to span either one or both directions of a
structural bay.
Slab construction proces;
Step 1 : prepare the ground
Step 2 : fix the formwork
Step 3 : install the service pipes
Step 4 : fix the reinforcement bars
Step 5 : pour and compact conctrete
Step 6 : finish the slab surface
Step 7 : cure the concrete slab
3.5.4 STAIRCASE
Concrete stair case was the type of stair built on site , concrete staircases are often specified for
their strenght, durability . fire protection, flood reistance and sound reduction properties .
Concrete staircase construction process;
Step 1 : calculate the stairs dimension
Step 2 : determine the foundations dimension
Step 3: cast the foundation (kicker)
Step 3 : build the formwork
Step 4 : fix reinforcement on formwork
Step 5: prepare and pour the concrete on formwork
Step 6 : wait for concrete to cure before removing formwork
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3.5.5 RETAINING WALL
The project included a basement car park; therefore retaining walls had to be constructed all
around using concrete.
A retaining wall is a structure that retains or holds back any material usually earth and prevents it
From sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material pressure of the material
That it is holding back.
Retaining wall construction process;
Step 1: construct the foundation of the retaining wall.
Step 2: fix the reinforcement bars for the retaining wall.
Step 3: fix the formwork for the retaining wall.
Step 4: pour and vibrate concrete in the formwork.
Step 5: curing of concrete, before removing formwork.
3.5.6 PARAPET
A parapet is a barrier which is an extension of the wall at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony,
walkway or other structure.
The type of parapet built on site was the concrete roof parapet.
Concrete parapet construction process;
Step 1: fix the formwork for the parapet.
Step 2: fix the reinforcement bars for the parapet.
Step 3: pour and vibrate concrete in the formwork.
Step 4: curing of concrete, before removing formwork.
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3.6 MASONRY WORK
MASONRY are works that are executed by laying building material units such as stone and
brick of specified dimension by providing a binding material such as mortar. I got the
opportunity to see masonry work under the grade beam and on the periphery of the building The
masonry works are carried out by mostly experience bricklayers.
PLATE 3.12. MASONRY WORK BELOW GRADE BEAM
3.6.1 BLOCK TYPE
The types of block used on the site were concrete blocks, concrete blocks are usually rectangular
in shape, and Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete, e.g. Portland cement and aggregate,
usually sand and fine gravel for high-density blocks. But the Two sizes of concrete block that
were mostly used on site, were the 225*450(9”) and the 150*450(6”) blocks.
PLATE 3.13. 225*450 BLOCK PLATE 3.14.150 * 450 BLOCK
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3.6.2 MORTAR
Mortar may be defined as a paste formed by mixing binding material, fine aggregate and water in
specific proportions. This paste hardens on drying and binds the bricks, stones or concrete blocks
together. Mortar being used at the construction site was cement mortar.
There are different types of mortars depending upon the c/s ratio. The more the cement, the more
will be the strength so that’s why different mortars are used.
PLATE 3.15: MORTAR USED ON SITE
Following are the different ratios for different purposes.
TABLE 3.1 MORTAR RATIOS
purpose c/s ratio
For 9” brick 1:6
For 6” brick 1:4
plastering 1:4
For roof plaster 1:3
3.7 CONCRETE FORM WORK
As fresh concrete is in plastic state when it is placed for construction purpose so, it becomes
necessary to provide some temporary structure to confine and support the concrete till it gains
sufficient strength for self-supporting. This temporary structure is called form work. Concrete
formwork serves as a mold to produce concrete elements having a desired size and configuration.
It is usually erected for this purpose and then removed after the concrete has cured to a
satisfactory strength. In some cases, concrete forms may be left in place to become part of the
permanent structure. For satisfactory performance, formwork must be adequately strong and stiff
32
to carry the loads produced by the concrete, the workers placing and finishing the concrete, and
any equipment or materials supported by the forms.
In the site the form work material we used was the plywood materials which have a good surface
finish and also metal panels.
Plywood is used extensively for concrete forms and provides the following advantages:
a. It is economical in large panels.
b. It is available in various thickness
c. It creates smooth, finished surfaces on concrete.
The general step used to construct a formwork in the site is:
a. Prepare the false works in the desired position and level.
b. Preparing the form work in a desired shape based on the drawing or the size of the
structure that is going to be cast.
c. Painting with a releasing agent if needed.
d. Nailing it with appropriate bracing element and false work.
The type of formwork that was utilized on our site was a combination of ply wood and timber
where necessary. The purpose of employing ply wood and timber is to make sure that quality
concrete with perfect alignment would result. For horizontal structures like reinforced concrete
slab the ply wood without being cut was placed. At the same time for the beams they use
plywood form work for the soffit and timber or plywood for the sides. For vertical reinforced
concrete structures ply wood formwork with timber false work was used. As most of the
elevation columns assume uniform size, the ply wood was cut in size and was produced in a
manner it could be easily fixed and dismantled. The bracing was done from timber and nailed
perfectly to confine the fresh concrete. Reinforced concrete slabs and beams formwork was
supported and fixed on eucalyptus pops and props (arcos). Dismantling of the formwork
commenced after the allowable dates have elapsed since the day of the concrete casting.
Accordingly column and side formworks will be dismantled after 16 hours elapsed from the
concrete casting and other soffit formworks should stay in position until the concrete gets cured.
The dates of dismantling for the soffit formworks were shortened by the use of fast curing
33
concrete admixtures. The use of these admixtures will allow them to move fast forward with the
construction and immediate utilization of the formwork on other successive structures.
PLATE 3.16: SLAB FORM WORK USING METAL PANELS
PLATE 3.17 FALSE FORM WORK
34
3.7.1 REQUIREMENTS OF A FORMWORK;
a. To be rigid enough to confine plastic concrete at the lines grades and dimensions
indicated on the form plans without bulging or sagging under the load,
b. To be constructed as mortar tight as possible to prevent the loss of concrete ingredients
throughout the joints between the sections, and
c. To be easy to remove with minimal damage to the concrete surface.
d. In case of failure to attain the required strength the conventional date of dismantling the
formwork will be respected.
3.7.2 TYPES OF FORMWORK
a. Formwork to Elevation Columns: same as explained in Foundation Columns. The only
exception here was the height of the columns. Since the height of the columns in some of
the blocks is different than the others, the formwork preparations were consider this fact.
PLATE 3.18: FORMWORK FOR ELEVATION COLUMN
35
b. Formwork to Beams: together sawn timbers of locally available type were made ready
for all internal and external surfaces of the Beams.
PLATE 3.19. BEAM FORMWORK
c. Formwork to Suspended slabs (parapet): Plywood formwork was made available to all
these parts of the structure.
PLATE 3.20 PARAPET FORMWORK
36
d. Formwork to retaining wall: Plywood formworks are mostly used for retaining walls in
order to produce a smooth surface.
PLATE 3.21. RETAINING WALL FORMWORK
TABLE 3.2 FORMWORK REMOVAL PERIOD ON SITE
Vertical columns, walls and beams 16 hours
Soffit work to slab and beams 21 days
Props to slab and beams 21days
3.8 REINFORCEMENT BAR
Concrete is much weaker in tension than in compression. Its tensile strength is approximately
10% of its compressive strength. Therefore, concrete is generally used in conjunction with steel
reinforcement, which provides the tensile strength in a concrete member. The use of plain
concrete without steel reinforcement is limited to pavements and some slabs-on-ground. Steel is
the ideal material to complement concrete because the thermal expansion of both materials is the
same. In other words, when heated or cooled, both steel and concrete expand or contract equally.
Consequently, no stress is caused by differential expansion or contraction. Composite materials
that expand differentially are subjected to such stresses. Steel also bonds well with concrete.
The reinforcement bars used are usually of different sizes depending on the design specifications
37
3.8.1 REINFORCEMENT FOR VARIOUS STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
a. Footing reinforcement
The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load form the structure to the
underlying soil. The type of footing arrangement to use depends on the weight of the entire
structure.
PLATE 3.22. FOOTING BARS ON SITE
b. Column reinforcement
A Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements
below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The type of reinforcement
arrangement used on columns depends on the load to be carried by it.
PLATE 3.23.COLUMN BARS ON SITE
38
c. Beam reinforcement
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams
are characterized by their profile (shape of cross-section), their length, and their material.
PLATE 3.24.BEAM REINFORCEMENT ARRANGEMENT ON SITE
d. Slab reinforcement
The main purpose of floor is to provide better living space and support of occupants, furniture
and other equipment of a building. The purpose of making different floor in different level of a
building is to create more accommodation within limited space. Floor should be strong, durable,
damp prove and heat protected.
PLATE 3.25.SLAB REINFORCEMENT ARRANGEMENT ON SITE
39
e. Parapet reinforcement
A parapet is a barrier which is an extension of the wall at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony,
walkway or other structure. It can be considered to be a suspended slab during construction.
PLATE 3.26 PARAPETS RENIFORCEMENTARRANGEMET ON SITE
f. Retaining wall reinforcement
A retaining wall is a structure that retains holds back any material usually earth and prevents it
From sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material pressure of the material
That it is holding back. Retaining walls are usually highly reinforced in order to withstand
pressure being exerted on it.
PLATE 3.27. RETAINING WALL REINFORCEMENT ARRANGEMENTS ON SITE
40
3.7.2 SPLICING OF BAR / LAPPING
Reinforced concrete can function as a structural material only if there is a perfect bond
(adhesion) between the concrete and the reinforcing bars. This bond allows two lengths of
reinforcing bars to function as one continuous bar through lap splices. Sometimes it becomes
impossible to get required length of bar or it is required to make use surplus small length of bar
and may be the drawing recommend to splice bar at that position. Then it is necessary to give a
suitable lap of bar as shown in the figure over each other to develop full strength.
Splicing length=4×Ø
Where Ø is the
Diameter of the larger
Bar.
3.7.3 REINFORCEMENT BARS USED ON SITE
TABLE 3.3 BAR TYPES
PURPOSE TYPE
Base (footing) Y12
Beams Y12 and Y16
columns Y16 and Y20
slabs Y12 and Y10
links Y10
Retaining walls Y12
3.9 CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite consisting of the dispersed phase of aggregates (ranging from its
maximum size coarse aggregates down to the fine sand particles) embedded in the matrix of
cement paste. These basic components remain in current concrete but other constituents are now
often added to modify its fresh and hardened properties. This has broadened the scope in the
design and construction of concrete structures. It has also introduced factors that designers
should recognize in order to realize the desired performance in terms of structural adequacy,
41
constructability, and required service life. These are translated into strength, workability and
durability in relation to properties of concrete. In addition, there is the need to satisfy these
provisions at the most cost effective price in practice.
3.9.1 CONSTITUENTS OF CONCRETE
The constituents of modern concrete have increased from the basic four (cement, water, stone,
and sand) to include both chemical and mineral admixtures. These admixtures have been in use
for decades, first in special circumstances, but have now been incorporated in more and more
general applications for their technical and at times economic benefits in either or both fresh and
hardened properties of concrete.
3.9.1.1 CEMENT
Cement may be described as a material with adhesive and cohesive properties that make it
capable of bonding mineral fragments into a compact whole. In this process, it imparts strength
and durability to the hardened mass called concrete. If the consistency of the cement paste is
either excessively harsh or excessively wet, there is a danger of segregation, i.e. the aggregate
tends to separate out of the mix; this will adversely affect the quality of the hardened concrete
and result in a honeycombs appearance. The freshly set cement paste gains strength with time, on
account of progressive filling of the void spaces in the paste with the reaction products, also
results in a decrease in porosity and permeability. The types of Portland cement used on site
were the dangote cement and elephant cement.
PLATE 3.28 DANGOTE CEMENT PLATE 3.29 ELEPHANT CEMENT
42
3.9.1.2AGGREGATE
Aggregate is a broad category of coarse particulate material used in construction, including
sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are
the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such
as concrete and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the
overall composite material.
Since aggregate occupies about three-quarters of the volume of concrete, it contributes
significantly to the structural performance of concrete, especially strength, durability and volume
stability. In general, aggregates in concrete have been grouped according to their sizes into fine
and coarse aggregates. It is common to refer to fine aggregate as sand and coarse aggregate as
stone. Traditionally, aggregates are derived from natural sources in the form of river gravel or
crushed rocks and river sand. Fine aggregate produced by crushing rocks to sand sizes is referred
as manufactured sand.
Types of aggregate
a. Coarse aggregate
b. Fine aggregate
a. Fine aggregate
It is the aggregate most of which passes 4.75 mm IS sieve and contains only so much coarser as
is permitted by specification. According to source fine aggregate may be described as:
i. Natural Sand– it is the aggregate resulting from the natural disintegration of rock and
which has been deposited by streams or glacial agencies
ii. Crushed Stone Sand– it is the fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone.
iii. Crushed Gravel Sand– it is the fine aggregate produced by crushing natural gravel.
43
PLATE 3.30: CRUSHED GRAVEL SAND PLATE 3.31 NATURAL SAND
b. Coarse aggregate
It is the aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve and contains only so much
finer material as is permitted by specification. According to source, coarse aggregate may be
described as:
i. Uncrushed Gravel or Stone– it results from natural disintegration of rock
ii. Crushed Gravel or Stone– it results from crushing of gravel or hard stone.
iii. Partially Crushed Gravel or Stone– it is a product of the blending of the above two
aggregate.
PLATE 3.32: COURSE AGGREGATE
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3.9.1.3 WATER
Water that is fit for human consumption (i.e., potable water) is generally considered to be
suitable for concreting. However, when the portability of the water is suspect, it is advisable to
perform a chemical analysis of the water.
3.9.1.4 ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are additives that are introduced in a concrete mix to modify the properties of
concrete in its fresh and hardened states. Fast curing admixtures allow curing the concrete within
3 to 5 days after the date of pouring the concrete. Such application will only be made after the
conduct of the test and the satisfaction of the Resident Engineer. The amount of the admixture to
be added varies in accordance to the manufacturer‘s specification. All relevant documents and
specifications will be available before conducting the mix design and test for approval. After the
satisfaction of the Supervisor, the Contractor will execute the mix.
In our site one type of admixture was used which is the conplast sp 430
TABLE 3.4 ADMIXUTURES
Admixture type use dosage
High performance super
plasticizing admixture,
accelerator
(CONPLAST SP
430)
To provide excellent
acceleration
of strength gain at early stage
and major increase in strength
at
all ages by significantly
reducing
Water demand in a concrete
mix.
Ranges from 1litter per 100 kg
cement material
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3.9.2 TEST ON CONCRETE
Tests conducted at the site for concrete work was the slump test.
SLUMP TEST
This is done to determine the quality and quantity of the aggregates used and also to know the
appropriate specifications (mixing ratio) for a particular task. The slump test can be done by the
use of a 300mm cone with 200mm base diameter. The concrete is poured to half of the cone and
tapped 25times with a tapping rod and then filled completely and tapped 25times again. The
purpose of this tapping is to avoid air space present in the concrete and to create proper
compaction. After filled to the base top, tapped and leveled it is immediately turned upside down
and the cone mould is removed to allow the concrete stand on its own. The reduction of height
measured from the standing concrete and the original height of the cone is known as the slump.
There are three (3) types of slump which are
a. True slump: occurs when the reduction is even.
b. Shear slump: occurs when one side is 25-50mm.
c. Collapse slump: is when we cannot determine the shape of the concrete standing.
FIG 3.1. SLUMP CONE AND CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION
NOTE: The slump test should be carried out within 2-5mins. When the slump test fails means we
should go back and check the specifications of the concrete.
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3.9.3 MIXING OF CONCRETE
When making concrete it's important to use the correct concrete mixing ratios to produce a
strong, durable concrete mix. The ratio of aggregate to sand to cement is an important factor in
determining the compressive strength of the concrete mixture. Mixing water with the cement,
sand, and stone will form a paste that will bind the materials together until the mix hardens. The
strength properties of the concrete are inversely proportional to the water/cement ratio. Basically
this means the more water you use to mix the concrete (very fluid) the weaker the concrete mix.
The less water you use to mix the concrete (somewhat dry but workable) the stronger the
concrete mix. Accurate concrete mixing ratios can be achieved by measuring the dry materials
using buckets or some other kind of measuring device. By measuring the mixing ratios you will
have a consistent concrete mix throughout your entire project.
MIX RATIO USED ON SITE
Table 3.5 MIX RATIOS
Mix ratio purpose
1:3:6 blinding
1:11
2:3 Not used
1:1:2 Not used
1:2:4 Reinforced concrete
FOR EXAMPLE MIXING USING 1:2:4 ENTAILS
1 is one head pan of cement (half bag of cement), 2 is two head pan of sharp sand,4 is four head
pan of granite.
To mix a concrete by mixing machine:
1) First put 20 liters of water into the machine,
2) put 1 head pan of cement(half bag),
3) put 2 head pan of sharp sand,
4) put 4 head pan of granite, and the machine will mix it all together.
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Concrete was mixed using the following equipment on site.
a. Using movable mixer (self-loading): this mixer is a wheel mounted; the production
capacity is 1.38 𝑚3concrete per batch. The time required for one batch is 20 minutes.
PLATE 3.34: MOBILE MIXER
b. Stationery mixers: (feed by man power) those are mixers that use ―nominal mixing‖ or
traditional mixing of concrete. Their productive capacity is 0.227𝑚3 and the time
required for one batch is 6 minutes.
PLATE 3.35: STATIONERY MIXER
3.9.4 CONCRETE CONSOLIDATION
One of the most important steps when pouring concrete is the consolidation or vibration of
concrete. Concrete vibrators, if used properly, will help consolidate concrete and will reduce the
amount of air pockets inside the concrete mass. You can use internal vibrators or external
vibrator depending on the application and where the concrete is being placed. However, there are
very important factors that you need to consider before buying a concrete vibrator: frequency,
power and size.
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It is usual that both types of concrete vibrators can be used on a single application depending on
the size of the pour. External vibrator shall be used to reach the center while internal vibrator can
be used to consolidate the center portion of the concrete mass. Lack of consolidation can cause
voids, rock pockets, honeycombing, and poor bonding with the rebar. In extreme cases, improper
consolidation can affect the structural integrity of the walls. On the other hand, excessive
vibration can create bulged walls and blowouts.
PLATE 3.36: CONCRETE POURING PLATE 3.37 CONCRETE VIBRATOR USED ON SITE
3.9.4 TRANSPORTATION
The process of carrying the concrete mix from the place of it’s mixing to final position of
deposition is termed as transportation of concrete. There are many methods of transportation as
mentioned below-
a. Transport of concrete by pans
b. Transport of concrete by wheel barrows
c. Transport of concrete by tipping lorries
d. Transport of concrete by pumps
Transport of concrete by pans and wheel barrows were mostly used on site
3.9.5 CONCRETE CURING
Curing is the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in concrete for a
period of time immediately following placing and finishing so that the desired properties may
develop. The need for adequate curing of concrete cannot be overemphasized. Curing has a
strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete; proper curing will increase durability,
strength, water tightness, abrasion resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and
thawing and deicers. Exposed slab surfaces are especially sensitive to curing as strength
49
development and freeze-thaw resistance of the top surface of a slab can be reduced significantly
when curing is defective.
TABLE 3.6 CURING TABLE
Duration percentage
After day 1 16%
After 3days 40%
After 7days 67%
After 28days 100%
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CHAPTER FOUR
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING BENEFITS, CHALLENGES FACED AND RESULTS
4.1 CHALLENGES FACED
Construction projects are complex and time-consuming undertaken them require the interaction
with and Cooperation of many different persons to accomplish. The construction industry is
typically divided into various specialties, with each area requiring different skills, resources, and
knowledge to participate effectively in it. In fact I was able to resolve some challenges but some
were above my limit and even the workers at the site. In general I was faced with the following
challenges during the industrial training period:
a. Communication problem with local workers at the site.
b. Shortage of working drawings like structural, architectural, sanitary, electrical and
some other details.
c. Weather condition of the site.
d. Shortage of knowledge in some portion of the work at the site.
e. Underestimation by workers such as engineers, Forman.
f. Unsatisfactory answers for questions from the engineers.
g. Poor Safety strategies.
4.2 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING BENEFITS
In my six months working at the Asokoro residential development project with NBC
INFASTRUCTURE I got to acquire enormous knowledge in different tasks as described above
in different section. Those different knowledges earned me a very good performance during the
industrial training period and I also gained a lot of experience that will help me after graduation
in the upcoming working era of mine.
The following are the outline of some of the industrial training benefits:
a. Improvement on my practical skills.
b. Upgrading of my theoretical knowledge.
c. Upgrading of my interpersonal communication skills.
d. Improvement on my team playing skills.
e. Improvement on my entrepreneurship skill
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4.3 RESULTS
PLATE 4.1 SLABS CONSTRUCTED ON SITE PLATE 4.2 A RETAINING WALL
CONSTRUCTED ON SITE
PLATE 4.3 A CONCRETE STAIRS CONSTRUCTED ON SITE
PLATE 4.4 PARAPETS CONSTRUCTED ON SITE PLATE 4.5 ROOF BEAMS CONSTRUCT ON
SITE
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PLATE 4.6 BUNGALOW STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED
PLATE 4.7 DUPLEX STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED
53
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. CONCLUSIONS
First and foremost I thank Almighty God, the giver of life for his tender mercies, compassion and
undying love for keeping me from the beginning of the SIWES program down to the completion
of the program. The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) training at NBC
INFASTRUCTURE WESTAFRICA was concluded on the 25th of august 2015.
The training was a bridge between the theoretical knowledge and the practical knowhow in the
field of civil engineering work. The responsibilities of the hosting company are to teach student
and shape the student in the six months as a real site worker. My hosting company was a
construction firm who assisted me and my colleagues that took part in the training in acquiring
Enormous knowledge in various positions.
The program played an important role to break the conventional thought that field works can
only be implemented by students who hold a degree or people who have an experience in
building construction. We were able to acquire a high level of confidence to deal with problems
that arise in a building construction. Since I took on my training program with NBC
INFASTRUCTURE WEST AFRICA, I got the opportunity to work in the different parties of
construction from the electrical to the plumbing section and many more etc. which helped me to
gain more knowledge by seeing what they were all about. With all been said I am fully confident
that I can but up a structure.
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
5.2.1. Recommendation to the company
Most works on site require careful attention and successive supervision but in some cases site
operation are carried out improperly due to different causes. Those kinds of carelessness are not
good for either the consultant or the contractor. Therefore I suggest that supervisors and site
engineers take a careful look after the works are executed on the site and also the work that will
54
be executed. On the site there are works which are performed in a way they are not supposed to
be performed. Such operations lead to safety problem, loss of human power and even human life
Thus I recommend the following for the company:
a. Testing of materials before they are delivered to the site and also before they are used on
site.
b. It is better to use steel form work than wood (plywood) formwork as it can be repetitively
used, stiff, and not flammable and easier to remove without damaging the Concrete
structure.
c. The mixing is very local and should be mixed using mixing plant and the proportion
should be designed properly.
d. Bar staggering around support also need special attention or redesigning because of that
it is hard to compact using vibrator machine.
e. A cover material should be used for the curing of any casted concrete structure until it
attains its strength.
f. Addition of water for concrete casting should be known not by guessing.
g. Making use of modern machinery or equipment for high productivity so as to finish
various operations on time.
Safety work around the site
Human life is irreplaceable therefore safety should be a watchword in the construction industry.
But now days it has become very common to hear accidents in the construction industry.
Therefore, it cannot be denied to work on increasing the safety condition of the site. The most
effective way of avoiding risks is to setup preventive strategy. Like putting on of the following
a. Helmets
Wearing of helmets should be mandatory for some staffs, supervisors and visitors as mentioned
on the contract document. Such should be made ready available on site, with the appropriate
coloring.
55
b. Safety boots
Safety boots should also be always worn on site, in order to avoid little accidents like nail
piercing etc. it should also be made ready available to all site staff/workers.
Accident administration
Even After implementing the above stated methods of prevention of accident, there could
still be different disastrous Calamities within the project, which necessitate the
application of most serious and acute acting Administration.
a. First Aid: - A dresser, who has relevant professional background should be assigned on
site for any Possible first aid.
b. Secondary Treatment: Some accidents may require secondary treatment as a result of
infliction serious injury.
5.2.2. Recommendation to the school
The students that partake in the internship programme are owned by the university and are given
to various hosting companies to teach us throughout the six month. So therefore, before, during
and after the internship training at the companies the school should fulfill the following:
a. Evaluating and supervising student as they are in the site by sending mentors on time.
b. Giving courses that are appropriate for the site work before the internship training is
commenced like report writing, quantity survey etc.
c. Working with the hosting companies closely in order to address more knowledge to the
students.
d. Sending the students on time to search for a hosting company.
e. Organizing students that reside in the same place to create a team playing skill and
provide group working environment in order to share ideas.
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REFERENCES
1. Ministry of work and urban development proclamation ―Ethiopian building code of
standard Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1995
2. FREDERICK S. MERRITT JONATHAN T. RICKETTS ―Building design and
construction hand book McGraw hill, six editions, 2001
3. W.F. CHEN, J.Y.RICHARD LIEW ―The civil engineering hand book, second edition,
2003
4. SU.PILLA, DEVADAS MENON “reinforced concrete design McGraw hill, second
edition, and 2003
5. Madan MEHTA, Walter SCARBOROUGH and Diane ARMPRIEST “building
construction principle, materials and system, prentice hall, second edition, 2013
6. Construction material, geotechnical, quantity survey and structural handouts
7. www.k2narchitectureandengineeringconsultancyplc/facebook.com
8. www.wikipedia.com
9. Oversite concrete - Portland cement. | Civil Construction tips
http://civilconstructiontips.blogspot.com.ng/2011/06/oversite-concrete-portland-
cement.html
10. www.cachezgrouponline.com
11. www.academia.edu.com
12. Www.BuildingContractorSecrets.com
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering
14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction