AP Review for Unit 6-10

• Review: Watch the video and tell me what was wrong with this research?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AmNuVgVmIBs&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=27

Research methods

Standard Deviants Experiments

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j04DPW37OKE

Standard Deviants Classical Conditioning

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21YYHS3YUyE&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=2

The Law of Effect

• Edward Thorndike• One of the 1st to research this

kind of learning (operant) Locked cats in a cage

• Behavior changes because of its consequences

• Rewards strengthen behavior.• If consequences are

unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.

• Called the whole process instrumental learning.

rewarded behavior is likely to recur.

Operant Conditioning

Standard Deviants Operant Conditioning

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1fGcSyT-5M&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=3

Reinforces

• A reinforcer is anything the INCREASES a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement:• The addition of something pleasant.

• Candy for pushing a lever.

Negative Reinforcement:• The removal of something unpleasant.

• Hitting the alarm snooze.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk

Examples of Negative Reinforcement

Taking aspirin to relieve a headache.Hurrying home in the winter to get out of the cold. 3.

Giving in to an argument or to a dog's begging.Fanning oneself to escape the heat.Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad.Smoking in order to relieve anxiety.Following prison rules in order to be released from

confinement.Feigning a stomachache in order to avoid school. 9.

Putting on a car safety belt to stop an irritating buzz.Turning down the volume of a very loud radio.Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain.Saying "uncle" to stop being beaten.

ContinuousReinforce the behavior

EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited. Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association.

• Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited.

• Acquisition comes more slowly.

• But is more resistant to extinction.

• FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.

Continuous v. Partial ReinforcementPartial also called

Intermittent

Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous

reinforcement refers to reinforcement being administered to each instance of a response

Partial reinforcement lies between continuous reinforcement and extinction

TYPE MEANING OUTCOME

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses

Activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up

Variable Ratio

Number of responses needed for reinforcement varies

Greatest activity of all schedules

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement depends on a fixed time

Activity increases as deadline nears

Variable Interval

Time between reinforcement varies

Steady activity results

Ratio Schedules1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a

response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.

2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

Interval Schedules1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a

response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)

2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed interval Reward on fixed time basis

Leads to average and irregular performance

Fast extinction of behavior

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

Variable interval

Reward tied to specific number of responses

Leads quickly to very high and stable performance

Moderately fast extinction of behavior

SCHEDULEFORM OF REWARD

Reward given after varying periods of time

Leads to moderately high and stable performance

Slow extinction of behavior

Reward given for some behaviors

Leads to very high performance

Very slow extinction of behavior

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE

EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR

PunishmentMeant to decrease a

behavior.Positive Punishment• Addition of something

unpleasant.

Negative Punishment (Omission Training)

• Removal of something pleasant.

Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh!

Classical Conditioning and Humans

• John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment.

Click to see Baby Albert to some nice jazz.

This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.

The Contingency Model Contingency theory proposes that for learning to take place, a

stimulus must provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will occur. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not always produce learning and contended that it is necessary for the CS to signify a contingency.

This is one of the reasons some people can not lose weight or quit smoking.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwQXYtM8DTQ

Day 9 - Contingency Theory - A lesson from the HAT

Latent Learning:• Latent learning – learning

in the absence of rewards• Humans and animals will

work in the absence of rewards

• If one group is given rewards and the other is not, the rewarded group will work harder

• But…if the non rewarded group is eventually rewarded at a later time, they will work hard because the think a reward might come at a later time.

• Edward Tolman – Rats and maze example (rats created a cognitive map)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9UDvHAsddE

Latent LearningEdward Tolman – Rats

and maze example (rats created a cognitive map)

Cognitive Map: mental picture

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBTP7W5c3c8&feature=related

Social or Observational Learning

Modeling by watching the behavior of a model. For example; if you want to learn a new dance step you watch someone else do it.

Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll

We learn through modeling behavior from others.

Observational learning + Operant Conditioning

Click pic to see some observational learning.

Children See, Children Do

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw

Biological Factors in Learning:

• Historically speaking, humans have avoided foods that are sour/bitter from a survival standpoint.

• Taste Aversions – an intense dislike or avoidance of food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

MemoryStandard Deviants Memory

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zf7zMl630lY&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=19

Information Processing Model: compares our memory to a computer

3 Step Process in how Memory Works

Three step process….

1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.

2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.

3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Three Stages of Memory

Stage 1 - Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system

Stage 2 - Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memoryLimited capacity (7 items)Duration is about 30 seconds

Stage 3 - Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity and long duration

Three Stage Model

Atikinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory, describes 3 different memory systems characterized by time frames:

Short Term Memory Activity

Three Stage ModelLong Term Memory

Unlimited storehouse of information.Explicit ( or declarative)

memories: our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize. EG. Sematic (facts and general knowledge)and episodic (birthdays)

Implicit ( or non-declarative) memories: our long term memory for skills and procedures to do things by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled. (Eg. Swimming.)

Recall Versus RecognitionRecallyou must retrieve

the information from your memory

fill-in-the blank or essay tests

Recognitionyou must identify the

target from possible targets

multiple-choice tests

Retrieving Memories Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory

storage.

Mnemonics

A trigger to aid memory, involving prompts such as visual imagery or sounds. Since imagery is at the heart of memory. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory.

1. Method of Loci

2. Link Method3. Context

Effects

Theories of ForgettingProactive interference: old

information interferes with recall of new information

Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information

Decay theory: memory trace fades with time

Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss)

Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

PhonemesIn a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

B, a, and t Chat has three phonemes, ch, a, and t.

How many phonemes does platypus have?

MorphemesIn a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning.

Can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix).

Grammar

A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others.

Capitalize the beginning of a sentence

SemanticsThe set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language.

Adding ed at the end of words means past tense.

The Chinese languages do not have expansive semantic rules. They usually have totally different symbols for different tenses.

SyntaxThe rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

In English, adjectives come before nouns, but not in Spanish!!

Is this the White House of the House White?

ChomskyInborn Universal Grammar

We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned.

We have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gU-B0-DCKI

Chomsky's View of Language Development

Whorf’s Linguistic RelativityThe idea that

language determines the way we think (not vive versa).

•The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past.

Lev VygotskyRussian

psychologist, contemporary of Piaget but his work not published in English until after his death in 1934

Believed that Piaget ignored the role of culture on cognitive development

Vygotsky’s TheoryCognitive development = active

internalization of problem-solving processes as a result of interaction with others Ie, learning is ACTIVE, SOCIAL, and CREATIVE

(ASC, sound familiar?)Children learn how to think through their

interactions with othersWhere Piaget saw the child as a scientist,

Vygotsky saw the child as an apprentice

Zone of Proximal DevelopmentVygotsky’s view:

“…what a child can do with assistance today she will be able to do by herself tomorrow.” (Vygotsky, 1978)

Contrast with Piaget:“Every time we teach a child something, we keep

him from inventing it himself. On the other hand, that which we allow him to discover for himself will remain with him visible for the rest of his life.” (Piaget, in Piers, 1972)

OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION-MAKING,AND FORMING JUDGEMENTS

Confirmation Bias Stress/Tension

Fixation

Tendency to search for info That confirms one’s beliefs

Availability Heuristic

Representative Heuristic

Judge the liklihood of events based on How well they match a prototype.

Inability to see problem from a freshPerspective.

Judge the liklihood of events on howAvailable the event is in our memory.

Influenced by media.

Some stress helpful, but can Overload.

Daniel BooneThinking Cap

Mental SetFunctional Fixedness

Theories of Motivation and Emotion

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UP4dEr1wsjM&feature=player_embedded

Clips for class motivation

3 Main Debates:1. Nature vs. Nurture: How do genetic inheritance (nature) and experience (nurture) influence our development?

blog.lib.umn.edu

2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity (Stages) Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through the sequence of separate states like climbing rungs on a ladder?

Stability vs. Change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?

Reflexes:automatic (means involuntary) responses

Babinski Reaction- Foot is rubbed against and the rest of the toes fan out.

Moro Reflex- Baby feels like it is falling and arms and legs go out in search of something to hang onto.

Rooting Reflex- if the baby is touched at the end of the mouth, the baby still turn and begin to suck.

Grasping Reflex- Touch a babies hand it will close.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY

Mary Ainsworth Attachment Theory

1. Secure Attachment- Just like it sounds the child is secure that mom is coming back and happy to see her when she does.

2. Avoidant Attachment -when mom comes back the child avoids them.

3. Anxious Attachment they are anxious in their surroundings . abc-counselling.com

Ainsworth had a parent drop off their child with a stranger and then observed how the child reacted. She came up with Three distinctive attachments:

Terms that go With Piaget’s cognitive development

1. Object Permanence: The understanding that the an object exists even if they can not see it. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwXd7WyWNHY

2. Egocentric: cannot look at the world through anyone’s eyes but their own. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0

3. Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gUY8GM7rco

Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Stages

http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget's_Stages

Stage 1:Pre-conventional Morality

from appsychology.com

dailycaller.com

Motivated by trying to avoid punishment. Morality based on rewards and punishments.If you are rewarded then it is OK.If you are punished, the act must be wrong.

Lauren will give her dad the money because she does not want to be punished.

Stage 2: Conventional Morality

from appsychology.com

Based on wanting to please and being accepted by others.

Around teen age: Lauren might give her dad the money because it will improve her relationship with him or she could not give it to him because she wants to gain her moms approval.

Stage 3: Post-Conventional Morality

Based on self-defined ethical principles or a sense of justice.

Your own personal set of ethics.

from appsychology.com

drsusanziebarth.com

Lauren would not give her father the money because she would recognize her father’s addiction is destroying her family and wrong for society.

Criticisms of Kohlberg

from appsychology.com

Carol Gilligan pointed out that Kohlberg only tested boys.

Boys tend to have more absolute value of morality.

Girls tend top look at situational factors.

Stage 1: Trust v. Mistrust

from appsychology.com

stock-images-illustrations.com

Can a baby trust the world to fulfill its needs?The trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their lives.

+ Hope, drive- Sensory distortion, withdrawal

Stage 2: Autonomy V. Shame & Doubt

from appsychology.com

Toddlers begin to control their bodies (toilet training).Control Temper TantrumsBig word is “NO”Can they learn control or will they doubt themselves?

+ Will power, self control - Impulsivity, compulsivity

Stage 3: Initiative V. Guilt

from appsychology.com

Word turns from “NO” to “WHY?”Want to understand the world and ask questions.Is there curiosity encouraged or scolded?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjA7sSVtTFA

+ Purpose, direction

- Ruthless, inhibition

Stage 4: Industry v. Inferiority

from appsychology.com

School beginsWe are for the first time evaluated by a formal system and our peers.Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments?Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives…inferiority complex.

+ Competence, initiation- Narrow character, low

motivation

Stage 5: Identity v. Role Confusionfrom appsychology.com

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SR8j_P1O0os&feature=related

In our teenage years we try out different roles.Who am I?What group do I fit in with?If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis.

+ Self certainty, fidelity

- Withdrawal, fanaticism

Stage 6: Intimacy v. Isolation

from appsychology.com

Have to balance work and relationships.

What are my priorities?

realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com

bostonist.com

Stage 7: Generativity v. Stagnation

from appsychology.com

Is everything going as planned?Am I happy with what I created?Mid –life crisis!!!

mariansgarden.ca

Stage 8: Integrity v. Despair

from appsychology.com

Look back on life.Was my life meaningful or do I have regret?

lolbyte.com bridezilla.com

Jung’s Basic Assumptions

Less focus on sexuality, more on human history and the supernatural

Duality (Dual nature to personality) All people have essentially “two” personalities on a variety of

variables (Introversion and Extraversion) Good Evil Yen Yang

Collective Unconscious a common reservoir of images derived from our species universal experiences. It explains why, for many people, spiritual concerns are deeply rooted and why people in different cultures share certain myths and images, such as mother as a symbol of nurturance.

Jung’s Archetypes

Archetypes: archetype as an expression of the Self and considers that by exploring the manifestations of the archetypes one can take the first step on the path towards individuation

Best-known archetypes Persona/Shadow, Animus/Anima, Magician, Child-god, Mother,

Hero/Demon

Jung’s Topographical Model

Conscious What we are currently aware of (class, Spring Break)

Unconscious Where battles between opposing archetypes take place (memories, understanding of future, and repressed battles; struggle between Persona and Shadow for identity)

Collective Unconscious Where archetypes are (Understanding and awareness of Persona and Shadow by all human beings)

Personality“Characteristic pattern of thinking,

feeling and acting.”

Four major perspectives on Personality

Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivationsTrait - specific dimensions of personalityHumanistic - inner capacity for growthSocial-Cognitive - influence of environment

Freud & Personality Structure

Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drivesPleasure Principle

Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic waysReality Principle

Super Ego

- voice of consciencethat focuses on howwe ought to behave

Critic's of Freud (Neo Freudians)

Karen Horney and Alfred Adler agreed with Freud that childhood is important but believed that childhood social not sexual tensions are crucial for personality formation.

He really only studied wealthy woman in Austria.

His results are not empirically verifiable (really hard to test).

No predictive power.

Neo-FreudiansPsychodynamic Theories

Alfred Adler and his ideas of superiority and inferiority.

Adler also talked about birth order and how it played a part in personality.

What are projective tests, you ask?Projective tests aim to provide this

“psychological x-ray” by asking test takers to describe or tell a story. Henry Murray introduced the TAT test or Thematic Apperception test, in which people view the picture and then make up stories about them.

Their answers can give some insight into their latent content.Ask me to read you something…a story.. And you will write

your response.

Another way to measure Psychoanalysis is the Rorschach Inkblot

Test

The most widely used projective testA set of ten inkblots designed to identify

people’s feelings when they are asked to interpret what they see in the inkblots.

Assessing TraitsHow can we assess traits?

(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)

Personality InventoriesMMPI• most widely used personality inventory• assess psychological disorders (not normal traits)• empirically derived - test items selected based

upon how well they discriminate twixt groupsof traits

Trait Theories of PersonalityThey believe that we

can describe people’s personalities by specifying their main characteristics (traits).

Traits like honestly, laziness, ambition, outgoing are thought to be stable over the course of your lives.