ap review chapters 40-43. fast facts tissues: groups of cells with a common structure and function -...
TRANSCRIPT
AP Review
Chapters 40-43
Fast Facts
Tissues: groups of cells with a common structure and function- epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle
Epithelial tissue:- covers the outside of the body and lines the organs within the body- cells are held together by tight junctions
Fast Facts
Connective tissue:- functions to bind and support other tissues- ex. loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood
Nervous tissue:- senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another- nerve cells, or neurons, are specialized to transmit signals
Fast Facts
Muscle tissue:
- composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses
- skeletal (striated) muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
Fast Facts
Animals maintain homeostasis, or internal balance within their systems
Negative feedback: a change in the variable being monitored triggers the control mechanism to counteract further change
Positive feedback: a change in some variable that triggers mechanisms that amplify rather than reverse change
Fast Facts
Regulated change: some are cyclical such as in hormone levels in women while others are reactions to challenges of the body (like infections).
Fast Facts
The flow of energy into and out of an animal can be viewed as a “budget”
- most of the energy taken in is used to produce ATP to power resting metabolism and temperature regulation
- excess ATP can be used for biosynthesis
Fast Facts
The flow of energy into and out of an animal can be viewed as a “budget”
- most of the energy taken in is used to produce ATP to power resting metabolism and temperature regulation
- excess ATP can be used for biosynthesis
Fast Facts
The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus initiate food processing
The stomach stores food and performs preliminary digestion
- the stomach secretes gastric juices and mixes them with food by a churning motion
- also present in the gastric juices is pepsin, an enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins
Fast Facts
The small intestine is the major organ of digestion and absorption
- the pancreas produces hydrolytic enzymes and an alkaline solution
- the liver produces bile.
Fast Facts
Most absorption occurs in the small intestine
- s.i. has a large surface area due to the folding of the lining into villi
- each villus has many microscopic appendages called microvilli which increase the rate of absorption
Fast Facts
In insects blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system
- no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid
In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from interstitial fluid
Fast Facts
Fast Facts
Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid called plasma
- blood plasma is 90% water
- in the plasma are red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), and platelets
RBC, or erythrocytes, are the most common blood cells
- main fcn. is to transport O2
- lack nuclei; leaves more space for hemoglobin
Fast Facts
Gas exchange: the uptake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide
- don’t confuse with (cellular) respiration
Respiratory medium: source of oxygen
- air and water
Respiratory surface: part of an animal where gases are exchanged
Fast Facts
The arrangement of capillaries in a fish gill enhances gas exchange and reduces the energy cost of ventilation
Countercurrent exchange: blood flows in opposite direction to the movement of water past the gills
- as blood moves through the capillary, it becomes more and more loaded with oxygen. Simultaneously, it encounters water with even higher oxygen concentrations.
Fast Facts
Tracheal systems and lungs are respiratory adaptations of terrestrial animals
Tracheal system: made up of air tubes that branch throughout the body
Unlike the tracheal systems that branch throughout the insect’s body, the lungs are restricted to one location
Sample Question
Structure and function are related in the various organ systems of animals. Select two of the following four organ systems in vertebrates: respiratory
digestive
excretory
nervous
For each of the two systems you choose, discuss the structure and function of two adaptations that aid in the transport or exchange of molecules (or ions). Be sure to relate structure to function in each example.
Fast Facts
The skin and mucous membranes provide first-line barriers to infection
Phagocytic cells, inflammation, and antimicrobial proteins function early in infection
Mechanisms depend mainly on phagocytosis: the ingestion of invading organisms by certain types of white cells
Fast Facts
Fast Facts
Lymphocytes provide the specificity and diversity of the immune system
Two main types: B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells)
- recognize and respond to particular microbes and foreign molecules (antigen)
- B cells secrete proteins (antibodies) to fight antigens
Fast FactsAntigens interact with
specific lymphocytes, inducing immune responses and immunological memory
- clonal selection: the cloning of lymphocytes into effector cells (short-lived) and memory cells (long-lived)
Fast Facts
The immune system exhibits the feature of self-tolerance
- major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are a series of glycoproteins that mark the body as “self”
- MHC provides a biological fingerprint; found in studying skin graft rejection and acceptance
Fast Facts
In response to antigens, the immune system can mount a humoral response or a cell-mediated response
Humoral immunity: attack free antigens
- B cells form Plasma cells
- plasma cells secrete antibodies for an antigen
Fast Facts
Cell-mediated immunity: T cells are active against viruses and bacteria that have infected cells
- activated T cells become TH or TC; TH activate B cells that produce antibodies, TC destroy infected body cells
Fast Facts
Fact Facts
Homeostasis: the ability of animals to regulate their internal environment
- thermoregulation: maintaining internal temperature
- osmoregulation: regulation of the gain and loss of water
- excretion: removal of nitrogen-containing waste products
Fact Facts
An animal’s nitrogenous wastes are correlated with its phylogeny and habitat
- Some animals will excrete ammonia directly, but many species will convert it to urea or uric acid
Fact Facts
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
- the nephron is the functional unit of the kidneys
- waste is filtered from the blood and collected as urine in each kidney
Fact Facts
The nephron has three functions:
- glomerular filtration of water and solutes out of the blood
- tubular reabsorption of water and molecules from the tubules back into the blood
- tubular secretion of waste products into the distal tubule
Fact Facts
The nervous system and hormones regulate kidney function
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): hormone primarily responsible for producing urine and regulating water balance
- an antidiuretic is any chemical that prevents excessive urine production
Fact Facts
Endocrine system
- helps control chemical composition and volume
- ensures successful growth and development
- gamete production, fertilization, embryo development and nourishment, and delivery
- regulates metabolism
- regulates response to environmental changes (starvation, dehydration, temperature)
Fact Facts
Effects of hormones
Synergistic effects: the effects of two or more hormones complement each other; response is “summation” of individual effects
Antagonistic effects: the effect of one hormone opposes the other
- ex. insulin lowers blood sugar while glucagon raises it
Sample QuestionsFeedback mechanisms are used by organisms to
maintain the steady-state physiological condition known as homeostasis. Choose three of the following and for each, explain how feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
a) Blood glucose concentration
b) Calcium ion concentration
c) Body temperature
d) Osmolarity of the blood