ap environmental science summer assignment 2019...ap environmental science summer assignment 2019 1....

AP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

SUMMER ASSIGNMENT 2019

1. DOWNLOAD AND COPY ALL FILES IN THIS SUMMER ASSIGNMENT PACKET FOR YOUR APES NOTEBOOK. YOU WILL NEED TO MAINTAIN A 2” TO 3” THREE-RING NOTEBOOK BINDER FOR THIS COURSE. ALL WORK FOR THIS COURSE MUST BE MAINTAINED THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. REMEMBER THAT YOUR AP EXAM IS CUMULATIVE, AND YOU ARE GATHERING THE INFORMATION YOU WILL NEED TO STUDY AS WE PROGRESS THROUGH THE SCHOOL YEAR. I SUGGEST THAT YOU DIVIDE YOUR NOTEBOOK WITH THE FOLLOWING DIVISIONS: PART 1: APES SYLLABUS PART 2: CHAPTER NOTES PART 3: CHAPTER VOCABULARY PART 4: MATH FORMULAS AND PRACTICE PART 5: BIOLOGY & CHEMISTRY REVIEW PART 6: FRQ’s (FREE RESPONSE QUESTIONS) PART 7: APES LABS PART 8: MISCELLANEOUS 2. YOU WILL BEGIN ASSEMBLING YOUR APES NOTEBOOK BY PLACING A COPY OF YOUR APES SYLLABUS, OUTLINES OF CHAPTER NOTES FOR CHAPTERS 01 AND 02, VOCABULARY LISTS FOR CHAPTERS 01 AND 02, THE MATH FORMULAS AND PRACTICE PACKET, AND THE APES BIOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY REVIEW SHEETS PROVIDED IN THIS SUMMER ASSIGNMENT. OTHER SECTIONS OF YOUR BINDER WILL BE COMPLETED AS WE PROGRESS THROUGH THE COURSE. 3. COPY AND READ THE CHAPTER 01 AND CHAPTER 02 NOTE OUTLINES. FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH THE INFORMATION IN THESE TWO OUTLINES, AS WE WILL BE ADDRESSING THIS INFORMATION THE FIRST WEEK OF SCHOOL. NOTE THAT YOUR CHAPTER NOTES ARE COPYRIGHTED BY THE BOOK PUBLISHER. THEY ARE FOR YOUR USE ONLY, AND SHOULD NOT BE SHARED IN ANY WAY THROUGH DIGITAL MEANS. 4. YOU WILL MAKE VOCABULARY CARDS FOR BOTH CHAPTER 01 AND CHAPTER 02 WORDS PROVIDED IN THIS ASSIGNMENT. YOU MAY USE THE NOTE PACKETS PROVIDED, AS WELL AS OTHER ADDITIONAL SOURCES TO DEFINE EACH WORD. MAKE SURE THAT YOU DEFINE THE WORDS AS THEY PERTAIN TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE.

EXAMPLE OF HOW VOCABULARY CARDS SHOULD BE COMPLETED: FIRST CARD IN STACK FRONT OF VOCABULARY CARD BACK OF THE VOCABULARY CARD HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF HOW YOUR VOCABULARY CARDS SHOULD BE COMPLETED. YOU MAY USE 3” X 5” LINED INDEX CARDS. THEY ARE VERY INEXPENSIVE AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR, SO YOU MAY WANT TO BUY SEVERAL PACKS, AS WE WILL BE USING THEM THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. WHEN COMPLETED, EACH CHAPTER OF VOCABULARY WORDS SHOULD BE IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER, CARDS NUMBERED, AND PLACED IN ITS OWN ZIP-LOCK BAGGIE, WITH YOUR NAME AND CLASS PERIOD ON THE FIRST INDEX CARD, AS SHOWN ABOVE. THE CARDS FOR CHAPTER 01 AND CHAPTER 02 WILL BE DUE THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS. I WILL NOT PROVIDE BAGGIES FOR YOUR CARDS, SO PLEASE MAKE SURE THAT THEY ARE READY TO BE COLLECTED AS DESCRIBED ABOVE. NO CARDS WILL BE ACCEPTED LATE! DO NOT TURN IN CARDS HELD TOGETHER WITH PAPER CLIPS, BINDER CLIPS, OR RUBBER BANDS. THESE OFTEN BECOME DISLODGED AND MAY CAUSE YOUR CARDS TO BECOME LOST!

CHAPTER AND TITLE HERE

CHAPTER 1:

SCIENCE & SUSTAINABILITY

YOUR NAME HERE APES CLASS PERIOD HERE

PUT CARD NUMBER IN 1 UPPER RIGHT CORNER #1 THROUGH END OF STACK & ALL WORDS IN ALPHA ORDER!

WORD HERE

USE THE BACK OF THE CARD TO DEFINE THE VOCABULARY WORD ON

THE FRONT OF THE CARD.

5. DOWNLOAD AND PRINT THE APES MATH FORMULAS AND APES MATH PREP REVIEW DOCUMENTS PROVIDED. WE WILL BE REFERRING TO THE MATH FORMULAS THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. YOU WILL NEED TO COMMIT THESE FORMULAS TO MEMORY, AS THEY WILL NOT BE PROVIDED FOR YOU ON YOUR AP EXAM. COMPLETE THE PROBLEMS IN THE MATH PREP REVIEW PACKET. HAVE A WORKING UNDERSTANDING OF HOW THESE PROBLEMS ARE COMPLETED. THIS ASSIGNMENT MUST BE COMPLETE AND TURNED IN ON THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS. ALL WORK MUST BE SHOWN, AND UNITS MUST BE INCLUDED FOR YOU TO RECEIVE CREDIT. WE WILL HAVE A MATH TEST WITHIN THE FIRST TWO WEEKS OF SCHOOL. 6. DOWNLOAD AND PRINT THE APES BIOLOGY REVIEW DOCUMENT. DEFINE EACH TERM/CONCEPT LISTED. YOU MUST COMPLETE THIS ASSIGNMENT, AND TURN IT IN ON THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS. 7. DOWNLOAD AND PRINT THE APES CHEMISTRY REVIEW DOCUMENT. YOU MUST COMPLETE THIS ASSIGNMENT, AND TURN IT IN ON THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS. 8. COPY THE SUMMER ASSIGNMENT 2019 CHECKLIST ON THE NEXT PAGE. PRINT YOUR NAME ON IT AND HAVE YOUR PARENTS SIGN AND DATE THE BOTTOM OF THE FORM. TURN IT IN PRIOR TO LEAVING CCHS IN JUNE, 2019.

AP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE SUMMER ASSIGNMENT 2019

THE FOLLOWING WORK MUST BE COMPLETED AND TURNED IN ON THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS: ______ 1. CHAPTER 01 VOCABULARY CARDS – 38 TERMS ______ 2. CHAPTER 02 VOCABULARY CARDS – 80 TERMS ______ 3. APES MATH PREP REVIEW PROBLEMS – 62 PROBLEMS. DO NOT RETURN THE ENTIRE PACKET. WRITE OUT EACH PROBLEM, SHOWING YOUR CALCULATIONS AND UNITS. ______ 4. APES BIOLOGY REVIEW PACKET – 40 TERMS ______ 5. APES CHEMISTRY REVIEW PACKET – 28 CHEMICAL TERMS AND 6 pH QUESTIONS.

NO WORK WILL BE ACCEPTED LATE! Please sign that you have reviewed your Summer Assignment and that your parents are aware that these items are due on the first day back to school in August, 2019. Please return a copy of this form prior to leaving CCHS in June, 2019. _____________________ _____________________ Student Name (PRINT) Date _____________________ _____________________ Parent signature Date

9 Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

1 Science and Sustainability: An Introduction to Environmental Science Chapter Objectives This chapter will help students: Describe the field of environmental science Compare renewable and nonrenewable resources, and explain the importance

of natural resources and ecosystem services to our lives Discuss population growth, resource consumption, and their consequences Explain what is meant by an ecological footprint Describe the scientific method and the process of science Identify and illustrate major pressures on the global environment Discuss the concept of sustainability, and cite sustainable solutions being

pursued on campuses and in the wider world

Lecture Outline I. Our Island, Earth

1. The astronaut’s view of Earth reveals that its systems are finite and limited.

2. As our population, technological power, and resource consumption all increase, so does our capacity to alter our surroundings and damage the very systems that keep us alive.

A. Our environment surrounds us. 1. Our environment consists of all the living and nonliving things

around us. 2. We are part of the “natural” world, and our interactions with the

rest of it matter a great deal.


B. Environmental science explores our interactions with the world. 1. We have modified our environment. 2. Environmental science is the scientific study of how the natural

world works, how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment.

3. Environmental scientists study the issues most centrally important to our world and its future.

C. We rely on natural resources. 1. Natural resources are the substances and energy sources we take

from our environment and that we rely on to survive. 2. Renewable natural resources, such as sunlight, wind, and wave

energy, are perpetually renewed and essentially inexhaustible. Nonrenewable natural resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, are in finite supply and are formed far more slowly than we use them. Once we deplete a nonrenewable resource, it is no longer available.

D. We rely on ecosystem services. 1. Our planet’s ecological systems purify air and water, cycle

nutrients, regulate climate, pollinate plants, and recycle our waste. Such essential services are commonly called ecosystem services.

2. In recent years, our depletion of nature’s goods and our disruption of nature’s services have intensified, driven by rising resource consumption and a human population that grows larger every day.

E. Population growth amplifies our impact. 1. Today, our population has grown beyond 7 billion people. 2. Two phenomena triggered our remarkable increase in population

size. The agricultural revolution occurred around 10,000 years ago as humans transitioned from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural way of life.

3. The industrial revolution began in the mid-1700s. It entailed a shift from rural life, animal-powered agriculture, and hand-crafted goods toward an urban society provisioned by the mass-production of factory-made goods and powered by fossil fuels (nonrenewable energy sources including oil, coal, and natural gas).

4. Our sheer numbers are putting unprecedented stress on natural systems and the availability of resources.

F. Resource consumption exerts social and environmental pressures. 1. Industrialization increased the amount of resources each of us

consumes.


2. One way to quantify resource consumption is to use the concept of the ecological footprint, which expresses the cumulative area of biologically productive land and water required to provide the resources a person or population consumes and to dispose of or recycle the waste the person or population produces.

3. Wackernagel and his colleagues calculate that our species is now using 50% more of the planet’s renewable resources than are available on a sustainable basis. This excess use has been termed overshoot.

4. People from wealthy nations have much larger ecological footprints than do people from poorer nations.

G. Conserving Earth’s natural capital is like maintaining a bank account. 1. We can think of our planet’s vast store of resources and ecosystem

services—Earth’s natural capital—as a bank account. To keep a bank account full, we need to leave the principal intact and spend just the interest, so that we can continue living off the account far into the future. If we begin depleting the principal, we draw down the bank account.

H. Environmental science can help us learn from mistakes. 1. Historical evidence suggests that civilizations can crumble when

pressures from population and consumption overwhelm resource availability.

2. If we cannot forge sustainable solutions to our problems, then the resulting societal collapse will be global. Fortunately, environmental science holds keys to building a better world.

II. The Nature of Environmental Science 1. Environmental scientists aim to comprehend how Earth’s natural

systems function, how these systems affect people, and how we influence those systems.

2. Solutions are applications of environmental science. A. Environmental science is interdisciplinary.

1. Environmental science is interdisciplinary, bringing techniques, perspectives, and research results from multiple disciplines together into a broad synthesis.

2. Interdisciplinary fields are valuable because their practitioners consolidate and synthesize the specialized knowledge from many disciplines and make sense of it in a broad context.


3. Environmental science is broad because it encompasses not only the natural sciences but also the social sciences. Most environmental science programs focus more on the natural sciences, whereas programs that emphasize the social sciences often use the term environmental studies.

4. An interdisciplinary approach to addressing environmental problems can produce effective solutions for society.

B. Environmental science is not the same as environmentalism. 1. Environmental science involves the scientific study of the

environment and our interactions with it. 2. Environmentalism is a social movement dedicated to protecting

the natural world from undesirable changes brought about by human actions.

III. The Nature of Science 1. Science is a systematic process for learning about the world and

testing our understanding of it. 2. Knowledge gained from science can be applied to address society’s

needs. 3. Virtually everything in our lives has been improved by the

application of science. A. Scientists test ideas by critically examining evidence.

1. Scientists examine how the world works by making observations, taking measurements, and testing whether their ideas are supported by evidence.

2. A great deal of scientific work is descriptive science, research in which scientists gather basic information about organisms, materials, systems, or processes that are not yet well known.

3. Once enough basic information is known about a subject, scientists can begin posing questions that seek deeper explanations about how and why things are the way they are. At this point scientists may pursue hypothesis-driven science, research that proceeds in a more targeted and structured manner, using experiments to test hypotheses within a framework traditionally known as the scientific method.

B. The scientific method is the traditional approach to research. 1. The scientific method is a technique for testing ideas with

observations.


2. The steps of the scientific method are: a. Make observations. b. Ask questions. c. Develop a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement that attempts

to explain a phenomenon or answer a scientific question. d. Make predictions. A prediction is a specific statement that can

be directly and unequivocally tested. e. Test the predictions. An experiment is an activity designed to

test the validity of a prediction or hypothesis; it involves manipulating variables, or conditions that can change. The independent variable is the variable that the scientist manipulates, while the dependent variable is the one that depends on the independent variable. Scientists conduct controlled experiments by controlling for the effects of all variables except the tested one. Often, controlled experiments have a treatment area that is manipulated and another that is not, called a control.

f. Analyze and interpret results. Scientists record data, or information, from their studies and analyze the data using statistical tests. If experiments disprove a hypothesis, the scientist will reject it and may formulate a new hypothesis to replace it. If experiments fail to disprove a hypothesis, this lends support to the hypothesis but does not prove it is correct.

C. We test hypotheses in different ways. 1. A manipulative experiment is an experiment in which the

researcher actively chooses and manipulates the independent variable.

2. Researchers conduct natural experiments to test their hypothesis by searching for correlation, or statistical association among variables.

3. This type of evidence is not as strong as the causal demonstration that manipulative experiments can provide, but often a natural experiment is the only feasible approach.

D. The scientific process continues beyond the scientific method. 1. To have impact, a researcher’s work must be published and made

accessible to the community. The scientific method is embedded in this larger process, including:


a. Peer review. Research results are submitted to a journal for publication. Other scientists who specialize in the subject area are asked to provide comments and criticism and judge whether the work merits publication. This process is known as peer review.

b. Conference presentations. Scientists frequently present their work at professional conferences and receive comments on their research.

c. Grants and funding. Most scientists spend considerable time writing grant applications to private foundations or government agencies for support of their research. Conflicts of interest sometimes arise when results are in conflict with the interests of the funding agency.

d. Repeatability. The careful scientist may test a hypothesis repeatedly in various ways before submitting it for publication. After publication, other scientists will attempt to reproduce the results in their own experiments.

e. Theories. If a hypothesis survives repeated testing by numerous research teams, it may be incorporated into a theory. A theory is a widely accepted, well-tested explanation of one or more cause-and-effect relationships that has been extensively validated by a great amount of research. In science, a theory is not speculation or hypothesis.

E. Science goes through paradigm shifts. 1. A paradigm is a dominant view regarding a topic, and the “shift” is

when one is abandoned for another. 2. Paradigm shifts demonstrate the strength and vitality of science,

showing science to be a process that refines and improves itself through time.

3. Understanding how science works is vital to assessing how scientific interpretations progress through time as information accrues.

IV. Sustainability and Our Future A. Achieving sustainable solutions is vital.

1. Society’s primary challenge today is finding out how to live within our planet’s means, such that Earth and its resources can sustain us—and all life—for the future. This is the challenge of sustainability, a guiding principle of modern environmental science.


B. Population and consumption drive environmental impact. 1. Like rising population, rising per capita consumption magnifies the

demands we make on our environment. 2. Discrepancies in affluence lead to large differences in the

ecological footprint of citizens from different nations. 3. The most comprehensive scientific assessment of the condition of

the world’s ecological systems and their capacity to continue supporting our civilization was completed in 2005, called the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

C. Energy choices will shape our future. 1. Our reliance on fossil fuels amplifies virtually every impact we

exert on our environment. 2. In extracting coal, oil, and natural gas, we are splurging on a one-

time bonanza, because these fuels are nonrenewable and in finite supply. Attempts to reach further for new fossil fuel sources all seem to threaten to have more impact for relatively less fuel.

D. Sustainable solutions abound. 1. Many workable solutions are at hand.

a. Renewable energy sources are beginning to replace fossil fuels, and energy-efficiency efforts are gaining ground.

b. Scientists are pursuing soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, and organic agriculture.

c. Laws and new technologies have reduced air and water pollution in wealthier societies.

d. Conservation biologists are helping to protect habitat and safeguard endangered species.

e. Better waste management is helping us to conserve resources. f. Governments, businesses, and individuals are taking steps to

reduce emissions of the greenhouse gases that drive climate change.

2. These are a few of many efforts. E. Students are promoting solutions on campus.

1. Proponents of campus sustainability seek ways to help colleges and universities reduce their ecological footprints.

2. College and universities are centers of lavish resource consumption.


3. Reducing the ecological footprint of a campus can be challenging. 4. Students, faculty, staff, and administrators on thousands of

campuses are working together to make the operations of educational institutions more sustainable.

F. Environmental science prepares you for the future. 1. As our society comes to appreciate the challenges of creating a

sustainable future, colleges and universities are helping students to learn how to confront these challenges.

2. At most schools, fewer than half of students take even a single course on the basic functions of Earth’s natural systems, and still fewer take courses on the links between human activity and sustainability.

3. Environmental literacy is a basic understanding of Earth’s physical and living systems and how we interact with them.

4. Students taking environmental science will be better qualified for the green-collar job opportunities of today and tomorrow. They will also be better prepared to navigate the many challenges of creating a sustainable future.

V. Closing the Loop A. Finding effective ways of living peacefully, healthfully, and

sustainably on our diverse and complex planet will require a thorough scientific understanding of both natural and social systems.

B. Environmental science helps us understand our intricate relationship with our environment and informs our attempts to solve and prevent environmental problems.


CHAPTER 01: SCIENCE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Key Vocabulary Terms:

agricultural revolution campus sustainability control controlled experiment correlation data dependent variable descriptive science ecological footprint ecosystem services environment environmentalism environmental literacy environmental science environmental studies experiment fossil fuels hypothesis hypothesis-driven science

independent variable industrial revolution interdisciplinary natural capital natural resources natural sciences nonrenewable natural resources overshoot paradigm peer review predictions renewable natural resources science scientific method social sciences sustainability theory treatment variables

1 Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

2 Earth’s Physical Systems: Matter, Energy, and Geology Chapter Objectives This chapter will help students: Explain the fundamentals of matter and chemistry and apply them to real-

world situations Differentiate among forms of energy and explain the first and second laws of

thermodynamics Distinguish photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and chemosynthesis, and

summarize their importance to living things Explain how plate tectonics and the rock cycle shape the landscape around us List major types of geological hazards and describe ways to minimize their

impacts

Lecture Outline I. Central Case Study: The Tohoku Earthquake: Has It Shaken the

World’s Trust in Nuclear Power? A. At 2:46 p.m. on March, 11, 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake hit the

Japanese island of Honshu. B. The damage from the earthquake was supplemented by a following

tsunami. C. A tsunami is a powerful surge of seawater generated when an offshore

earthquake displaces large volumes of rocks and sediment on the ocean bottom, suddenly pushing the overlying ocean water upward.


D. The raging water swept up to 9.6 km (6 mi) inland, scoured buildings from their foundations, and inundated towns, villages, and productive agricultural land.

E. This tsunami severely damaged the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant.

F. To prevent a full-blown catastrophe that could render large portions of their nation uninhabitable, Japanese authorities flooded the reactor cores with seawater pumped in from the ocean.

G. A 20-km (12-mi) area around the Fukushima Daiichi plant has been permanently evacuated. Some of the greatest concerns center on contaminated food and water, so crops and seafood from the region will require testing for radiation for many years to come.

H. After the accident, public opposition to nuclear power in Japan ran high, and the government ordered the immediate shutdown and reinspection of its 48 nuclear reactors.

I. Given their global implications for the future of energy production, the events of March 11, 2011, will be keenly recalled in all corners of our world.

II. Matter, Chemistry, and the Environment 1. An understanding of matter itself helps us to fully appreciate all the

processes of our world. 2. All material in the universe that has mass and occupies space is

called matter. Types of matter and some of the important ways they interact are called chemistry.

A. Matter is conserved. 1. Matter may be transformed from one type of substance into others,

but it cannot be created or destroyed. This principle is referred to as the law of conservation of matter.

B. Atoms and elements are chemical building blocks. 1. The nuclear reactor at Fukushima Daiichi used the element

uranium to power its reactors. 2. An element is a fundamental type of matter, a chemical substance

with a given set of properties that cannot be broken down into substances with other properties.

3. Elements especially abundant on our planet include hydrogen, oxygen, silicon, nitrogen, and carbon.


4. The periodic table of the elements organizes the elements according to their chemical properties and behavior.

5. Atoms are the smallest units that maintain the chemical properties of the element.

6. Atoms of each element contain a specific number of protons in the atom’s nucleus and this number is called the element’s atomic number.

7. Most atoms also contain neutrons in their nuclei, and an element’s mass number denotes the combined number of protons and neutrons in the atom.

8. An atom’s nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles known as electrons, which balance the positive charge of the protons.

Isotopes 1. Atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons are

referred to as isotopes. 2. Some isotopes, called radioisotopes, are radioactive and “decay”

by changing their chemical identity as they shed subatomic particles and emit high-energy radiation.

3. The greatest danger from radioisotopes occurs when they enter the bodies of organisms through the lungs, skin, or digestive system.

4. Each radioisotope decays at a rate determined by that isotope’s half-life, the amount of time it takes for one-half the atoms to give off radiation and decay.

Ions 1. Atoms may gain or lose electrons, thereby becoming ions,

electrically charged atoms, or combinations of atoms. 2. The damaging radiation emitted by radioisotopes is called ionizing

radiation because it generates ions when it strikes molecules. C. Atoms bond to form molecules and compounds.

1. Atoms bond together and form molecules, combinations of two or more atoms.

2. A molecule composed of atoms of two or more different elements is called a compound. a. One compound is water, two hydrogen atoms bonded to an

oxygen atom. b. Another is carbon dioxide, consisting of one carbon atom

bonded to two oxygen atoms.


3. Atoms bond together because of an attraction for one another’s electrons. a. When electrons are shared between atoms, a covalent bond

forms. b. When an arrangement allows water molecules to adhere to one

another in a type of weakly attractive interaction, this is called a hydrogen bond.

c. In compounds in which strength of attraction is sufficiently unequal, an electron may be transferred from one atom to another. This creates oppositely charged ions that form ionic bonds.

4. Elements, molecules, and compounds can also come together in mixtures without chemically bonding or reacting.

D. Water’s chemistry facilitates life. 1. Water’s ability to form loose connections of hydrogen bonds gives

it several properties that help to support life and stabilize Earth’s climate.

2. Hydrogen bonding gives water properties such as a high heat absorption capacity, a solid form that is less dense than the liquid form, and an ability to dissolve, or hold in solution, many other molecules, particularly ions and other partially charged molecules.

E. Hydrogen ions determine acidity. 1. In any aqueous solution, a small number of water molecules

split apart, each forming a hydrogen ion (H+) and a hydroxide ion (OH–). a. Solutions in which the H+ concentration is greater than OH–

concentration are acidic.

b. The reverse case creates solutions that are basic, or alkaline. 2. The pH scale quantifies the acidity or alkalinity of solutions.

a. A pH less than 7 indicates an acidic solution. b. A pH greater than 7 indicates a basic solution. c. Pure water has a pH of 7. d. The pH scale is logarithmic; each step represents a tenfold

difference in hydrogen ion concentration. 3. Most biological systems have a pH between 6 and 8.


F. Matter is composed of organic and inorganic compounds. 1. Organic compounds consist of carbon atoms joined by covalent

bonds. 2. One class of organic compounds that is important in environmental

science is the hydrocarbons, which consist solely of bonded atoms of carbon and hydrogen.

3. Some hydrocarbons from petroleum have become ubiquitous in our modern lifestyle because they are moldable into nearly any shape and resist chemical breakdown. Although these plastics have many benefits for consumer products, they can be a persistent source of pollution because of their longevity in the environment.

G. Macromolecules are building blocks of life. 1. Organic compounds sometimes combine to form long chains of

repeated molecules. These chains are called polymers. There are three types of polymers that are essential to life: proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. Along with lipids (which are not polymers), these types of molecules are referred to as macromolecules because of their large sizes.

2. Proteins consist of long chains of organic molecules called amino acids. Some produce tissues and provide structural support; others provide energy storage and immune system functions. Still others are hormones or chemical reaction catalysts called enzymes.

3. Nucleic acids direct the production of proteins. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) carry the hereditary information for organisms. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, each of which contains a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Regions of DNA coding for particular proteins that serve particular functions are called genes.

4. Carbohydrates include simple sugars that are three to seven carbon atoms long. Glucose fuels living cells and serves as a building block for complex carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates include starch, an energy storage compound, chitin, a structural component of shells, and cellulose, the most abundant organic compound on Earth, found in the cell walls of plants.

5. Lipids include fats and oils (for energy storage), phospholipids (for cell membranes), waxes (for structure), and steroids (for hormone production). Although chemically diverse, these compounds are grouped together because they do not dissolve in water.


III. Energy: An Introduction 1. Energy is the capacity to change the position, physical

composition, or temperature of matter—in other words, a force that can accomplish work.

A. Energy comes in different forms. 1. Two major forms of energy that scientists commonly distinguish

are potential energy, energy of position or composition, and kinetic energy, energy of motion.

2. Chemical energy is essentially potential energy stored in the bonds among atoms. Converting molecules with high-energy bonds into molecules with lower-energy bonds releases energy, producing motion, action, or heat.

3. Nuclear energy, the energy that holds atomic nuclei together, and mechanical energy, such as that stored in a compressed spring, are other types of potential energy.

B. Energy is always conserved, but it changes in quality. 1. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can change

from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed. 2. The second law of thermodynamics states that the nature of

energy will change from a more-ordered state to a less-ordered state, as long as no force counteracts this tendency. Systems tend to move toward increasing disorder, or entropy.

3. The order of an object or system can be increased by the input of energy from outside the system.

C. Some energy sources are easier to harness than others. 1. The nature of an energy source helps to determine how easily

people can harness it. 2. In each attempt we make to harness energy, some portion escapes.

We can express our degree of success in capturing energy in terms of the energy conversion efficiency, the ratio of the useful output of energy to the amount we need to input.

D. Light energy from the sun powers most living systems. 1. The energy that powers the Earth’s biological systems comes

primarily from the sun. 2. Some organisms use the sun’s radiation directly to produce their

own food. Such organisms, called autotrophs or primary producers, include green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. In the


process of photosynthesis, autotrophs use sunlight to power a series of chemical reactions that transform molecules with lower-energy bonds— water and carbon dioxide—into sugar molecules with many high-energy bonds.

E. Photosynthesis produces food for plants and animals. 1. Photosynthesis occurs within cell organelles called chloroplasts,

where the light-absorbing pigment chlorophyll uses solar energy to initiate a series of chemical reactions. a. In a series of chemical reactions called light reactions,

photosynthesis uses solar energy to split water molecules to form hydrogen ions and the oxygen we breathe.

b. The light reactions produce high-energy molecules that fuel reactions in the Calvin cycle where sugars are formed.

2. The net process of photosynthesis is defined by the chemical equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + the sun’s energy→ C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2

3. Animals depend on the sugars and oxygen from photosynthesis. F. Cellular respiration releases chemical energy.

1. Organisms make use of the chemical energy created by photosynthesis in a process called cellular respiration, which is vital to life.

2. The net equation for cellular respiration is the exact opposite of that for photosynthesis:

C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy 3. Cellular respiration occurs in all living things—in both the

autotrophs that create glucose and in heterotrophs, organisms that gain their energy by feeding on other organisms.

G. Geothermal energy also powers Earth’s systems. 1. Although the sun is life’s primary energy source, it is not the only

source of energy for our planet. An additional, although minor, energy source is the gravitational pull of the moon, which in conjunction with the sun’s gravitational pull causes ocean tides. Another significant energy source is geothermal heating emanating from inside Earth, powered primarily by radioactivity.

2. Geothermal energy also powers biological communities. On the ocean floor, jets of geothermally heated water gush into the icy-cold depths. These hydrothermal vents can host entire communities of specialized organisms that thrive in the extreme high-temperature, high-pressure conditions.


3. Bacteria in deep-sea vents use the chemical-bond energy of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to transform inorganic carbon into organic carbon compounds in a process called chemosynthesis, defined by the following equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O + 3 H2S → C6H12O6 (sugar) + 3H2SO4 4. Chemosynthesis closely resembles the photosynthesis reaction.

IV. Geology: The Physical Basis for Environmental Science 1. A good way to understand how our planet functions is to examine

the rocks, soil, and sediments beneath our feet. 2. Understanding the physical nature of our planet also benefits our

society. 3. Our planet is dynamic and this dynamism is what motivates

geology, the study of Earth’s physical features, processes, and history. We can begin to grasp this long-term dynamism as we consider two processes of fundamental importance—plate tectonics and the rock cycle.

A. Earth consists of layers. 1. Our planet consists of multiple layers.

a. Earth’s center is a dense core consisting mostly of iron, solid in the inner core and molten in the outer core.

b. Surrounding the core is a thick layer of less dense, elastic rock called the mantle.

c. A portion of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere contains especially soft rock, melted in some areas.

d. Above that is the harder rock we know as the lithosphere. e. The lithosphere includes Earth’s crust, the thin, brittle, low-

density layer of rock that covers the surface. f. The heat from the inner layers of Earth also drives convection

currents that move mantle material. As this material moves, it drags lithospheric plates along the surface. This movement is known as plate tectonics.

B. Plate tectonics shapes Earth’s geography. 1. Our planet’s surface consists of about 15 major tectonic plates that

move at rates of roughly 2–15 cm per year. The plates’ movement has influenced Earth’s climate and life’s evolution.


C. There are three types of plate boundaries. 1. The processes that occur at each type of plate boundary all have

major consequences. 2. At divergent plate boundaries, tectonic plates push apart from one

another as magma rises upward to the surface, creating new lithosphere as it cools.

3. Where two plates meet, they may slip and grind alongside one another, forming a transform plate boundary. Faults are fractures in Earth’s crust.

4. Convergent plate boundaries, where two plates come together, can give rise to different outcomes. a. One plate may slide beneath the other in a process called

subduction. b. When two plates of continental lithosphere meet, the

continental crust on both sides resists subduction and instead crushes together, bending, buckling, and deforming layers of rock from both plates in a continental collision.

D. Tectonics produces Earth’s landforms. 1. Tectonic movements build mountains; shape the geography of

oceans, islands, and continents; and give rise to earthquakes and volcanoes.

2. The topography created by tectonic processes, in turn, shapes climate by altering patterns of rainfall, wind, ocean currents, and heating and cooling—all of which affect rates of weathering and erosion and the ability of plants and animals to inhabit different regions.

E. The rock cycle alters rock. 1. Over geological time, rocks and the minerals that make them up are

heated, melted, cooled, broken down, and reassembled in a very slow process called the rock cycle.

2. A rock is any solid aggregation of minerals. A mineral is any naturally occurring solid element or inorganic compound with a crystal structure, a specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties.

Igneous rock 1. If magma is released through the lithosphere, it may flow or splatter

across Earth’s surface as lava. Rock that forms when lava cools is called igneous rock.


2. Igneous rock comes in two main classes because magma can solidify in different ways.

Sedimentary rock 1. Through weathering and erosion, particles of rock blown by wind

or washed away by water come to rest downhill, downstream, or downwind from their sources, eventually forming sediments.

2. Sedimentary rock is formed as sediments are physically pressed together and as dissolved minerals seep through sediments and act as a kind of glue, binding sediment particles together. The formation of rock through these processes is termed lithification.

3. These processes also create the fossils of organisms and the fossil fuels we use for energy.

Metamorphic rock

1. When any type of rock is subjected to great heat or pressure, it may alter its form, becoming metamorphic rock.

F. Geological processes occur across “deep time.” V. Geological and Natural Hazards

1. Although plate tectonics have shaped our planet, some tectonic movement can also pose hazards to us.

A. Earthquakes result from movement at plate boundaries and faults. 1. Along tectonic plate boundaries, Earth may relieve built-up

pressure in fits and starts. Each release of energy causes what we know as an earthquake.

2. To minimize damage from earthquakes, engineers have developed ways to protect buildings from shaking.

3. Such quake-resistant designs are more expensive to build than conventional designs, so many buildings in poorer nations do not have such protections.

B. Volcanoes arise from rifts, subduction zones, or hotspots. 1. Where molten rock, hot gas, or ash erupts through Earth’s surface,

a volcano is formed, often creating a mountain over time as cooled lava accumulates.

2. Lava may also be emitted at hotspots, localized areas where plugs of molten rock from the mantle erupt through the crust.

3. Volcanic eruptions affect people as well as the environment. 4. One of the world’s largest volcanoes—so large it is called a

supervolcano—lies in the United States.


C. Landslides are a form of mass wasting. 1. A landslide occurs when large amounts of rock or soil collapse and

flow downhill. Landslides are a severe and sudden manifestation of mass wasting, the downslope movement of soil and rock due to gravity.

D. Tsunamis can follow earthquakes, volcanoes, or landslides. 1. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and large coastal landslides can all

displace huge volumes of ocean water instantaneously and trigger a tsunami.

2. Residents of the United States and Canada are vulnerable to tsunamis as well.

3. One of the best protections against tsunamis is advance warning. E. We can worsen or lessen the impacts of natural hazards.

1. Flooding, coastal erosion, wildfire, tornadoes, and hurricanes are “natural hazards” whose impacts can be worsened by the choices that we make. a. We live in areas that are prone to hazards, such as the

floodplains of rivers or in coastal areas susceptible to flooding. b. People also use and engineer landscapes around us in ways that

can increase the frequency or severity of natural hazards. c. Damming and diking rivers to control floods can sometimes

lead to catastrophic flooding, and the clearcutting of forests on slopes can induce mass wasting and increase water runoff.

d. Human-induced climate change can cause sea levels to rise and promote coastal flooding and can increase the risks of drought, fire, flooding, and mudslides by altering precipitation patterns.

2. We can reduce or lessen the impacts of hazards through the thoughtful use of technology, engineering, and policy, informed by a solid understanding of geology and ecology.

VI. Closing the Loop A. Knowledge of matter, energy, and geological forces is vital to

understanding environmental impacts on our complex, modern world. B. Our understanding of matter and the need for energy can also inform

our debate about nuclear energy. C. One common thread we can take away is that our world contains

natural geological hazards, such as earthquakes and tsunamis, as well


as hazards posed by human activities, such as nuclear power. Although we cannot ever fully eliminate hazards, we can certainly lessen their potential impacts by thinking carefully about what we build, where we build it, and what we will do should a disaster strike.

CHAPTER 02: EARTH’S PHYSICAL SYSTEMS: Key Vocabulary Terms:

acidic asthenosphere atoms autotrophs basic carbohydrates carbon carbon dioxide cellular respiration chemistry chemosynthesis compound continental collision convergent plate boundaries core covalent bond crust deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) divergent plate boundaries earthquake electrons element energy energy conversion efficiency first law of thermodynamics genes geology half-life heterotrophs hydrocarbons hydrogen hydrogen bond hydrothermal vents igneous rock ionic bonds ionizing radiation ions

isotopes kinetic energy landslide lava law of conservation of matter lipids lithosphere macromolecules magma mantle mass wasting matter metamorphic rock mineral molecules neutrons nitrogen nucleic acids organic compounds oxygen pH photosynthesis plastics plate tectonics polymers potential energy proteins protons radioactive radioisotope ribonucleic acid (RNA) rock rock cycle second law of thermodynamics sedimentary rock sediments silicon subduction transform plate boundary tsunami uranium volcano water work

Formulas and Math Concepts Needed for The AP Exam and the Final Exam

MUST be memorized! You cannot have this page as reference during the exam.

Percent Change

Ending amount - star�ng amount X 100 Star�ng amount Productivity

Gross Primary Produc�on - Cellular Respira�on = Net Primary Produc�vity Or GPP - Resp = NPP Some�mes NPP is just called “produc�vity”

Trophic Levels

90% loss of energy/biomass as you go up a trophic level OR 10% of energy/biomass passed onto the next trophic level

Population Density

Popula�on = Popula�on Density Area Birth and Death Rates

Births ____ = Birth Rate _____Deaths_____ = Death Rate Total Popula�on Total Popula�on Population Growth Rate

Births - Deaths = Crude Growth Rate (r) Total Popula�on (Births + Immigra�on) – (Deaths + Emigra�on) = Growth Rate (r) with migra�on factored Total Popula�on Finding Doubling Time of a Population (Called the Rule of 70)

70% (r is growth rate in a percentage) r

Scientific Notation

Make sure you can add, subtract, mul�ply and divide using scien�fic nota�on. You can watch this video to review: h�ps://youtu.be/BMqNoOfZqow The review worksheet can be found here: https://goo.gl/r5588C

Density: Mass/volume

Metric System Conversions: Memorize these conversions To convert to a larger unit, move To convert to a smaller unit, move the decimal point to the le� or divide the decimal point to the right or mul�ply

<------------------------------- ------------------------------>

Giga

(G) 10 9

Mega

(M)

10 6

Kilo

(k)

10 3

Basic Unit

(gram g, liter

l, meter m,

Joule J, Watt

W)

Centi (c)

10 -2

milli

(m)

10 -3

micro

or

micro

n (µ)

10 -6

nano

(n)

10 -9

pico (p)

10 -12

When you convert to a SMALLER unit, the answer must be a LARGER number When you convert to a LARGER unit, the answer must be a SMALLER number Video help can be found here: h�ps://youtu.be/0LfR_yms49w pH Scale

1 # decrease on scale = 10x H + (acidity) Its exponen�al and logarithmic. Example: A solu�on with pH of 2 has 1000 �mes more H + ions than a solu�on with a pH of 5. This is because 5-2 = 3. So three tens mul�plied = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 Energy

Wa�s and hours combine in energy math. Usually, we combine kW and h to get kWh. Your electricity bill is in kWh. Example: A TV uses 200 wa�s and runs for 6 hours. This is 1200Wh OR 1.2kWh. We also use Therms (for natural gas) or Joules or BTU (for total energy use), but you do not need to memorize any special conversions for these units.

https://youtu.be/BMqNoOfZqow

https://youtu.be/BMqNoOfZqow

https://goo.gl/r5588C

https://goo.gl/r5588C

https://youtu.be/0LfR_yms49w

https://youtu.be/0LfR_yms49w

Half Life: Review how to sketch out and solve:

AP Environmental Science Math Prep

This year in APES you will hear the two words most dreaded by high school students…NO CALCULATORS! That’s

right, you cannot use a calculator on the AP Environmental Science exam. Since the regular tests you will take are

meant to help prepare you for the APES exam, you will not be able to use calculators on regular tests all year

either. The good news is that most calculations on the tests and exams are written to be fairly easy calculations

and to come out in whole numbers or to only a few decimal places. The challenge is in setting up the problems

correctly and knowing enough basic math to solve the problems. With practice, you will be a math expert by the

time the exam rolls around. So bid your calculator a fond farewell, tuck it away so you won’t be tempted, and

start sharpening your math skills!

Contents of this packet

Decimals

Averages

Percentages

Metric Units

Scientific Notation

Dimensional Analysis

Reminders

1. Write out all your work, even if it’s something really simple. This is required on the APES exam so it will be

required on all your assignments, labs, quizzes, and tests as well.

2. Include units in each step. You have likely been lazy with this in past science classes. Not so now…Your

answers always need units and it’s easier to keep track of them if you write them in every step.

3. Check your work. Go back through each step to make sure you didn’t make any mistakes in your calculations.

Also check to see if your answer makes sense. For example, a person probably will not eat 13 million pounds

of meat in a year. If you get an answer that seems unlikely, it probably is. Go back and check your work.

Directions

Read each section below for review. Look over the examples and use them for help on the practice problems.

When you get to the practice problems, write out all your work and be sure to include units on each step. Check

your work.

Decimals Part I: The basics

Decimals are used to show fractional numbers. The first number behind the decimal is the tenths place, the next

is the hundredths place, the next is the thousandths place. Anything beyond that should be changed into

scientific notation (which is addressed in another section.)

Part II: Adding or Subtracting Decimals

To add or subtract decimals, make sure you line up the decimals and then fill in any extra spots with zeros. Add or

subtract just like usual. Be sure to put a decimal in the answer that is lined up with the ones in the problem.

Part III: Multiplying Decimals

Line up the numbers just as you would if there were no decimals. DO NOT line up the decimals. Write the

decimals in the numbers but then ignore them while you are solving the multiplication problem just as you would

if there were no decimals at all. After you have your answer, count up all the numbers behind the decimal

point(s). Count the same number of places over in your answer and write in the decimal.

Part IV: Dividing Decimals

Scenario One: If the divisor (the number after the / or before the ) does not have a decimal, set up the

problems just like a regular division problem. Solve the problem just like a regular division problem. When you

have your answer, put a decimal in the same place as the decimal in the dividend (the number before the / or

under the ).

Scenario Two: If the divisor does have a decimal, make it a whole number before you start. Move the decimal to

the end of the number, then move the decimal in the dividend the same number of places.

Then solve the problem just like a regular division problem. Put the decimal above the decimal in the dividend.

(See Scenario One problem).

Practice: Remember to show all your work, include units if given, and NO CALCULATORS! All work and answers

go on your answer sheet.

1. 1.678 + 2.456 =

2. 344.598 + 276.9 =

3. 1229.078 + .0567 =

4. 45.937 – 13.43 =

5. 199.007 – 124.553 =

6. 90.3 – 32.679 =

7. 28.4 x 9.78 =

8. 324.45 x 98.4 =

9. 1256.93 x 12.38 =

10. 64.5 / 5 =

11. 114.54 / 34.5 =

12. 3300.584 / 34.67 =

Averages To find an average, add all the quantities given and divide the total by the number of quantities.

Example: Find the average of 10, 20, 35, 45, and 105.

Step 1: Add all the quantities. 10 + 20 + 35 + 45 + 105 = 215

Step 2: Divide the total by the number of given quantities. 215 / 5 = 43



13. Find the average of the following numbers: 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, and 29

14. Find the average of the following numbers: 124, 456, 788, and 343

15. Find the average of the following numbers: 4.56, .0078, 23.45, and .9872

Percentages Introduction:

Percents show fractions or decimals with a denominator of 100. Always move the decimal TWO places to the

right go from a decimal to a percentage or TWO places to the left to go from a percent to a decimal.

Examples: .85 = 85%. .008 = .8%

Part I: Finding the Percent of a Given Number

To find the percent of a given number, change the percent to a decimal and MULTIPLY.

Example: 30% of 400

Step 1: 30% = .30

Step 2: 400

x .30

12000 Step 3: Count the digits behind the decimal in the problem and add decimal to the answer.

12000 120.00 120

Part II: Finding the Percentage of a Number

To find what percentage one number is of another, divide the first number by the second, then convert the

decimal answer to a percentage.

Example: What percentage is 12 of 25?

Step 1: 12/25 = .48

Step 2: .48 = 48% (12 is 48% of 25)

Part III: Finding Percentage Increase or Decrease

To find a percentage increase or decrease, first find the percent change, then add or subtract the change to the

original number.

Example: Kindles have dropped in price 18% from $139. What is the new price of a Kindle?

Step 1: $139 x .18 = $25

Step 2: $139 - $25 = $114

Part IV: Finding a Total Value

To find a total value, given a percentage of the value, DIVIDE the given number by the given percentage.

Example: If taxes on a new car are 8% and the taxes add up to $1600, how much is the new car?

Step 1: 8% = .08

Step 2: $1600 / .08 = $160,000 / 8 = $20,000 (Remember when the divisor has a decimal,

move it to the end to make it a whole number and move the decimal in the dividend the same

number of places. .08 becomes 8, 1600 becomes 160000.)



16. What is 45% of 900?

17. Thirteen percent of a 12,000 acre forest is being logged. How many acres will be logged?

18. A water heater tank holds 280 gallons. Two percent of the water is lost as steam. How many gallons

remain to be used?

19. What percentage is 25 of 162.5?

20. 35 is what percentage of 2800?

21. 14,000 acres of a 40,000 acre forest burned in a forest fire. What percentage of the forest was damaged?

22. You have driven the first 150 miles of a 2000 mile trip. What percentage of the trip have you traveled?

23. Home prices have dropped 5% in the past three years. An average home in Indianapolis three years ago

was $130,000. What’s the average home price now?

24. The Greenland Ice Sheet contains 2,850,000 cubic kilometers of ice. It is melting at a rate of .006% per

year. How many cubic kilometers are lost each year?

25. 235 acres, or 15%, of a forest is being logged. How large is the forest?

26. A teenager consumes 20% of her calories each day in the form of protein. If she is getting 700 calories a

day from protein, how many calories is she consuming per day?

27. In a small oak tree, the biomass of insects makes up 3000 kilograms. This is 4% of the total biomass of the

tree. What is the total biomass of the tree?

Metric Units

Kilo-, centi-, and milli- are the most frequently used prefixes of the metric system. You need to be able to go from

one to another without a calculator. You can remember the order of the prefixes by using the following sentence:

King Henry Died By Drinking Chocolate Milk. Since the multiples and divisions of the base units are all factors of

ten, you just need to move the decimal to convert from one to another.

Example: 55 centimeters = ? kilometers

Step 1: Figure out how many places to move the decimal. King Henry Died By Drinking… – that’s six

places. (Count the one you are going to, but not the one you are on.)

Step 2: Move the decimal five places to the left since you are going from smaller to larger.

55 centimeters = .00055 kilometers

Example: 19.5 kilograms = ? milligrams

Step 1: Figure out how many places to move the decimal. … Henry Died By Drinking Chocolate Milk –

that’s six places. (Remember to count the one you are going to, but not the one you are on.)

Step 2: Move the decimal six places to the right since you are going from larger to smaller. In this case

you need to add zeros.

19.5 kilograms = 19,500,000 milligrams



28. 1200 kilograms = ? milligrams

29. 14000 millimeters = ? meters

30. 670 hectometers = ? centimeters

31. 6544 liters = ? milliliters

32. .078 kilometers = ? meters

33. 17 grams = ? kilograms

Scientific Notation Introduction:

Scientific notation is a shorthand way to express large or tiny numbers. Since you will need to do calculations

throughout the year WITHOUT A CALCULATOR, we will consider anything over 1000 to be a large number.

Writing these numbers in scientific notation will help you do your calculations much quicker and easier and will

help prevent mistakes in conversions from one unit to another. Like the metric system, scientific notation is

based on factors of 10. A large number written in scientific notation looks like this:

1.23 x 1011

The number before the x (1.23) is called the coefficient. The coefficient must be greater than 1 and less than 10.

The number after the x is the base number and is always 10. The number in superscript (11) is the exponent.

Part I: Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation

To write a large number in scientific notation, put a decimal after the first digit. Count the number of digits after

the decimal you just wrote in. This will be the exponent. Drop any zeros so that the coefficient contains as few

digits as possible.

Example: 123,000,000,000

Step 1: Place a decimal after the first digit. 1.23000000000

Step 2: Count the digits after the decimal…there are 11.

Step 3: Drop the zeros and write in the exponent. 1.23 x 1011

Writing tiny numbers in scientific notation is similar. The only difference is the decimal is moved to the left and

the exponent is a negative. A tiny number written in scientific notation looks like this:

4.26 x 10-8

To write a tiny number in scientific notation, move the decimal after the first digit that is not a zero. Count the

number of digits before the decimal you just wrote in. This will be the exponent as a negative. Drop any zeros

before or after the decimal.

Example: .0000000426

Step 1: 00000004.26

Step 2: Count the digits before the decimal…there are 8.

Step 3: Drop the zeros and write in the exponent as a negative. 4.26 x 10-8

Part II: Adding and Subtracting Numbers in Scientific Notation

To add or subtract two numbers with exponents, the exponents must be the same. You can do this by moving the

decimal one way or another to get the exponents the same. Once the exponents are the same, add (if it’s an

addition problem) or subtract (if it’s a subtraction problem) the coefficients just as you would any regular addition

problem (review the previous section about decimals if you need to). The exponent will stay the same. Make

sure your answer has only one digit before the decimal – you may need to change the exponent of the answer.

Example: 1.35 x 106 + 3.72 x 105 = ?

Step 1: Make sure both exponents are the same. It’s usually easier to go with the larger exponent so

you don’t have to change the exponent in your answer, so let’s make both exponents 6 for this

problem.

3.72 x 105 .372 x 106

Step 2: Add the coefficients just as you would regular decimals. Remember to line up the decimals.

1.35

+ .372

1.722 Step 3: Write your answer including the exponent, which is the same as what you started with.

1.722 x 106

Part III: Multiplying and Dividing Numbers in Scientific Notation

To multiply exponents, multiply the coefficients just as you would regular decimals. Then add the exponents to

each other. The exponents DO NOT have to be the same.

Example: 1.35 x 106 X 3.72 x 105 = ? Step 1: Multiply the coefficients.

1.35

x 3.72

270

9450

40500

50220 5.022 Step 2: Add the exponents.

5 + 6 = 11 Step 3: Write your final answer.

5.022 x 1011

To divide exponents, divide the coefficients just as you would regular decimals, then subtract the exponents. In

some cases, you may end up with a negative exponent.

Example: 5.635 x 103 / 2.45 x 106 = ?

Step 1: Divide the coefficients.

5.635 / 3.45 = 2.3

Step 2: Subtract the exponents.

3 – 6 = -3 Step 3: Write your final answer.

2.3 x 10-3



Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

34. 145,000,000,000

35. 13 million

36. 435 billion

37. .000348

38. 135 trillion

39. 24 thousand

Complete the following calculations:

40. 3 x 103 + 4 x 103

41. 4.67 x 104 + 323 x 103

42. 7.89 x 10-6 + 2.35 x 10-8

43. 9.85 x 104 – 6.35 x 104

44. 2.9 x 1011 – 3.7 x 1013

45. 1.278 x 10-13 – 1.021 x 10-10

46. three hundred thousand plus forty-seven thousand

47. 13 million minus 11 thousand

48. 1.32 x 108 X 2.34 x 104

49. 3.78 x 103 X 2.9 x 102

50. three million times eighteen thousand

51. one thousandth of seven thousand

52. eight ten-thousandths of thirty-five million

53. 3.45 x 109 / 2.6 x 103

54. 1.98 x 10-4 / 1.72 x 10-6

55. twelve thousand divided by four thousand

Dimensional Analysis Introduction

Dimensional analysis is a way to convert a quantity given in one unit to an equal quantity of another unit by lining

up all the known values and multiplying. It is sometimes called factor-labeling. The best way to start a factor-

labeling problem is by using what you already know. In some cases you may use more steps than a classmate to

find the same answer, but it doesn’t matter. Use what you know, even if the problem goes all the way across the

page!

In a dimensional analysis problem, start with your given value and unit and then work toward your desired unit by

writing equal values side by side. Remember you want to cancel each of the intermediate units. To cancel a unit

on the top part of the problem, you have to get the unit on the bottom. Likewise, to cancel a unit that appears on

the bottom part of the problem, you have to write it in on the top.

Once you have the problem written out, multiply across the top and bottom and then divide the top by the

bottom.

Example: 3 years = ? seconds Step 1: Start with the value and unit you are given. There may or may not be a number on the bottom.

3 years

Step 2: Start writing in all the values you know, making sure you can cancel top and bottom. Since you

have years on top right now, you need to put years on the bottom in the next segment. Keep

going, canceling units as you go, until you end up with the unit you want (in this case seconds)

on the top.

3 years 365 days 24 hours 60 minutes 60 seconds

1 year 1 day 1 hour 1 minute

Step 3: Multiply all the values across the top. Write in scientific notation if it’s a large number. Write

units on your answer.

3 x 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 9.46 x 107 seconds

Step 4: Multiply all the values across the bottom. Write in scientific notation if it’s a large number.

Write units on your answer if there are any. In this case everything was cancelled so there are

no units.

1 x 1 x 1 x 1 = 1

Step 5: Divide the top number by the bottom number. Remember to include units.

9.46 x 107 seconds / 1 = 9.46 x 107 seconds

Step 6: Review your answer to see if it makes sense. 9.46 x 107 is a really big number. Does it make

sense for there to be a lot of seconds in three years? YES! If you had gotten a tiny number, then

you would need to go back and check for mistakes.

In lots of APES problems, you will need to convert both the top and bottom unit. Don’t panic! Just convert the

top one first and then the bottom.

Example: 50 miles per hour = ? feet per second

Step 1: Start with the value and units you are given. In this case there is a unit on top and on bottom.

50 miles

1 hour Step 2: Convert miles to feet first.

50 miles 5280 feet

1 hour 1 mile

Step 3: Continue the problem by converting hours to seconds.

50 miles 5280 feet 1 hour 1 minute

1 hour 1 mile 60 minutes 60 seconds

Step 4: Multiply across the top and bottom. Divide the top by the bottom. Be sure to include units on

each step. Use scientific notation for large numbers.

50 x 5280 feet x 1 x 1 = 264000 feet

1 x 1 x 60 x 60 seconds = 3600 seconds

264000 feet / 3600 seconds = 73.33 feet/second


go on your answer sheet. Use scientific notation when appropriate.

Conversions that you may not be familiar with:

1 square mile (mi2 ) = 640 acres

1 hectare (Ha) = 2.47 acres

1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3,413 BTUs

1 barrel of oil = 160 liters

1 metric ton = 1000 kg

1 ton = 2000 lb.

1 lb. = 16 oz.

1 Km = .62 mi.

56. 134 miles = ? inches

57. 8.9 x 105 tons = ? ounces

58. 1.35 kilometers per second = ? miles per hour

59. A city that uses ten billion BTUs of energy each month is using how many kilowatt-hours of energy?

60. A 340 million square mile forest is how many hectares?

61. If one barrel of crude oil provides six million BTUs of energy, how many BTUs of energy will one liter of crude oil provide?

62. Fifty eight thousand kilograms of solid waste is equivalent to how many metric tons?

BIOLOGY REVIEW

Biology is a big part of environmental science. In order to review some of the basic biology and earth science concepts, you will need complete the following on a clean sheet of paper.

DEFINE/DESCRIBE THE FOLLOWING TERMS/CONCEPTS:

1. Organic vs. Inorganic

2. Natural vs. Synthetic

3. Kinetic vs. Potential Energy

4. Radioactive Decay

5. Half life

6. Law of Conservation of Matter

7. First Law of Thermodynamics

8. Second Law of Thermodynamics

9. Entropy

10. Organism

11. Species

12. Population

13. Community

14. Ecosystem

15. Producers aka Autotrophs

16. Consumers aka Heterotrophs

17. Decomposers

18. Photosynthesis (definition, reactants and products)

19. Cellular Respiration (definition, reactants and products)

20. Aerobic vs. Anaerobic

21. Adaptation

22. Mutation

23. Gene

24. Trait

25. Chromosome

26. Gene Pool

27. Natural Selection

28. Biodiversity

29. Extinction

30. Plate Tectonics

31. Weathering

32. Climate Change

33. Rocks vs. Minerals

34. Climate vs. Weather

35. Erosion

36. Compounds

37. Ecological Footprint

38. Insecticide

39. Pesticide

40. Fossil Fuels

CHEMISTRY REVIEW

Chemistry is a big part of environmental science. In order to review some of the basic chemistry concepts you will need complete the following on a clean sheet of paper.

PART 1:

For each of the following, write out the chemical name that goes with the symbol:

CO2 CO N2 NO2

-

O2 O3 SO2 SO3

U Rn C6H12O6 CH4

H2 NO3- NH3 NH4

P PO43- S H2SO4

NaCl Pb Hg Cl

NOx K H2O HCl

PART 2:

Answer the following questions regarding the pH scale:

a. What is the pH scale? What does it measure? What is the range of the pH scale? What color denotes an acidic substance? What color denotes a base or alkaline substance?

b. How do the numbers on the pH scale compare? Example – is a pH of 4 twice as strong as a pH of 2? Hint- the pH scale is not linear!

ADVANCED PLACEMENT ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

The goal of the AP Environmental Science course is to provide students with the scientific principles, concepts, and methodologies required to understand the interrelationships of the natural world, to identify and analyze environmental problems both natural and human-‐made, to evaluate the relative risks associated with these problems, and to examine alternative solutions for resolving or preventing them. Environmental science is interdisciplinary; it embraces a wide variety of topics from different areas of study. Yet there are several major unifying constructs, or themes, that cut across the many topics included in the study of environmental science.

GENERAL TOPICS OF STUDY:

1. Introduction to Environmental Issues, Causes, and Sustainability 2. Earth Systems and Resources 3. Ecosystem Structures, Energy Flow, Diversity, and Biogeochemical Cycles 4. Population Dynamics 5. Land and Water Use – Agriculture, Forestry, Rangeland, Mining, Fishing 6. Energy Resources and Consumption – Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources 7. Pollution 8. Global Changes and Their Impacts

EXPECTATIONS:

Advanced Placement Environmental Science students should be self-‐motivated to read required textbook assignments and additional articles on their own. There is also a heavy component to this course, which requires students to have a strong understanding of math, and be able to accomplish calculations with and without the use of a calculator.

Unit exams may cover from two to four chapters. Unit Exams consist of multiple choice questions that require higher-‐level thinking skills, analysis, interpretation, and mathematical calculations. In addition, there are essay-‐formatted free response questions, which are similar to those found on the AP College Exam.

Experimental labs will be conducted throughout the course to reinforce the concepts taught in class. Being present for lab is essential for the optimum learning environment.

Math and terminology practice during the Summer, and throughout the course, will be part of the requirements for this class. Students will be required to pick up a Summer Assignment Packet prior to the beginning of the course in the Fall. AP Environmental Science requires extensive reading, writing, and math computation skills throughout the year.

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