ap biochemistry 11
TRANSCRIPT
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How Matter is Organized
Chemistry is the science of thestructure and interactions ofmatter. all living things consist of matter.
Matter is anything thatoccupies space. mass is the amount of matter in
any object. weight is the force of gravityacting on matter
Does air have matter?
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Chemical Elements
Elements are substances that can not be splitinto simpler substances by ordinary means. 112 elements ( 92 occur naturally )
26 of naturally occurring elements are in the body
represented by chemical symbols ( first 1-2 lettersof name )
4 elements form 96 % of the bodys mass hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen
Trace elements are present in tiny amounts such as copper, tin, selenium & zinc
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Structure of Atoms Atoms are the smallest units of
matter that retain theproperties of an element
Atoms consist of 3 types ofsubatomic particles
protons, neutrons andelectrons
Nucleus contains protons (p+) &
neutrons (neutral charge) Electrons (e-) surround the
nucleus as a cloud (electronshells are designated regions of
the cloud)
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Atomic Number & Mass Number Atomic number is number of protons in the nucleus. .
Mass number is the sum of its protons and neutrons.
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Isotopes
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Molecule, Element, compound
Molecule= more than one atom existing in union Element= Molecule contains identical atoms
Compound: Molecule contains different atoms
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IONS: Charged particles
When an atom gains or loses electrons ions areformed
Positively charged= cation
Negatively charged = anion
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Chemical Bonds Bonds hold together the
atoms in molecules andcompounds An atom with a full outer
electron shell is stable andunlikely to form a bond with
another atom Octet rule states thatbiologically importantelements interact toproduce chemically stablearrangements of 8electrons in the valenceshell.
Whether electrons areshared, donated or acquireddetermines the types of
bonds formed
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Covalent Bonds Atoms share electrons
to form covalent bonds Electrons spend most of
the time between the 2
atomic nuclei single bond = share 1pair double bond = share 2 pair triple bond = share 3 pair
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Polar Covalent Bonds Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms.
In a water molecule, oxygen attracts thehydrogen electrons more strongly Oxygen has greater electronegativity as
indicated by the negative Greek delta sign.
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Ionic Bonds
Positively and negativelycharged ions attract eachother to form an ionic bond
In the body, ionic bondsare found mainly in teethand bones
An ionic compound that
dissociates in water into +and - ions is called anelectrolyte
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The Ionic Bond in Sodium Chloride
Sodium loses an electronto become Na+ (cation)
Chlorine gains an electron
to become Cl- (anion) Na+ and Cl- are attracted
to each other to form thecompound sodium chloride(NaCl) -- table salt
Ionic compounds generallyexist as solids
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Hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonds are the most important inter
molecular force of attraction . Formed by the attraction between slightly positive
Hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom ofanother element.
Too weak to create molecules but creates shapesand stabilizes large molecules like proteins ornucleic acids
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Chemical Reactions
When new bonds form or old bonds are broken
Metabolism is all the chemical reactions in the body
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Energy and Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions involve energy changes
Law of conservation of energy energy can neither be created nor destroyed--just
converted from one form to another
Reactions that yield energy = Exergonic reactions(Larger to smaller molecules)
ABA + B
Reactions that require energy to occur= Endergonicreactions (smaller to larger molecules )
A + B AB
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Energy Transfer in ChemicalReactions
Chemical reactions usually involveboth
Human metabolism couplesexergonic and endergonicreactions, so that the energyreleased from one reaction will
drive the other. Glucose breakdown releases energy
used to build ATP molecules thatstore that energy for later use in
other reactions
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Activation Energy Atoms, ions & molecules
are continuously moving& colliding
Activation energy is thecollision energy needed
to break bonds & begin areaction
Increases in concentration & temperature, increase the
probability of 2 particles colliding more particles in a given space as concentration is raised
particles move more rapidly when temperature is raised
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Catalysts/Enzymes Normal body temperatures
and concentrations are too
low to cause chemicalreactions to occur
Catalysts speed up chemicalreactions by lowering the
activation energy needed toget it started Catalysts orient the
colliding particles properlyso that they touch at the
spots that make thereaction happen Catalyst molecules are
unchanged and can be usedrepeatedly to speed upsimilar reactions.
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Free Energy andActivation
Energy Tutorial
S th i R ti D iti R ti
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Synthesis Reactions--Anabolism
Two or more atoms, ions or
molecules combine to formnew & larger molecules
All the synthesis reactionsin the body together are
called anabolism Usually are endergonic
because they absorb moreenergy than they release
Example combining amino acids to
form a protein molecule
Large molecules are split into
smaller atoms, ions ormoleculesAll decomposition reactionsoccurring together in the bodyare known as catabolismUsually are exergonic sincethey release more energy thanthey absorb
Decomposition Reactions--Catabolism
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Inorganic Compounds & Solvents
Most of the chemicals in the body arecompounds Inorganic compounds
usually lack carbon & are structurally simple water, salts, acids and bases
Organic compounds contain carbon & usually hydrogen
always have covalent bonds
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DissociationpH - measure or acidity/alkalinity pH = - log [H+]
acidic < 7 < basicAcids-raise H+ contentBases-lower H+ content:
release OH- or accepts H+
1pH unit = 10x difference1000 as many H+ in a pH of 5 as there are in 8
Buffer-takes up or releases H+ or OH- to preventchanges in pH. In the bicarbonate system, H2CO3H+base acceptor, HCO3- acid acceptor
What happens to shells in carbonated drinks?
Does Sea Ice Speed Up Ocean Acidification?How does the bicarbonate s stem work in a blood lasma? In the ocean?
O A idifi ti : 2 3
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Ocean Acidification: 2, 3
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Carbon dioxide
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Carbon dioxideconcentration inmetabolically active cells ismuch greater than incapillaries, so carbon
dioxide diffuses from thecells into the capillaries.About 7% of the CO2directly dissolves in theplasma. Another 23% bindsto the amino groups in
hemoglobin. The remaining70% is transported in theblood as bicarbonate ion.
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Concept of pH
pH scale runs from 0 to14 (concentration of H+in soln.)
pH of 7 is neutral(distilled water)
pH below 7 is acidic andabove 7 is alkaline
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What is more acid than lemon?
In a test of pH levels, a glass of milk was found to have a pH of 6.0. Aglass of grape juice had a pH of 3.0. What is the relationship betweenthe pH levels of the milk and grape juice?
A The milk is 100 times more acidic than the grape juiceB The grape juice is 3 times more acidic than the milk
C The milk is 3 times more acidic than the grape juice
D The grape juice is 1000 times more acidic than the milk
How many more H+s do tomatoes have than bananas? Lemons than milk?Bleach than soap?
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Inorganic Acids, Bases & Salts Acids, bases and salts always dissociate into ions
if they are dissolved in water acids dissociate into H+
and one or more anions
bases dissociate into OH-and one or more cations
salts dissociate into anionsand cations, none of whichare either H+ or OH-
Acid & bases react in the body to form salts Electrolytes are important salts in the body that
carry electric current (in nerve or muscle)
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Water & Its Properties Most important inorganic compound in living
systems, Medium of nearly all chemical reactions Polarity
uneven sharing of electrons makes it an excellent solvent for ionic or polar substances gives water molecules cohesion
allows water to moderate temperature changes Participates as a product or reactant in certainreactions in the body hydrolysis reactions
water is added to a large molecule to separate it intotwo smaller molecules
digestion of food dehydration synthesis reaction
two small molecules are joined to form a larger
molecule releasing a water molecule
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Water as a Solvent Most versatile solvent known
polar covalent bonds (hydrophilic vs hydrophobic) its shape allows each water molecule to interactwith neighboring ions/molecules
Water dissolves many substances
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Water has a high surface tension Water is wet
Water is attracted to itself, and this attraction,due to H bonds is stronger than the attraction tothe air above
Adhesion and cohesion allow for capillary actionwater transport in plants
Occurs as solid, liquid and gas within normaltemperature ranges on Earth
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Water = good evaporative coolant Heat of vaporization is also high
amount of heat needed to change from liquid to gas evaporation of water from the skin removes large amount of
heat
B/c it takes a lot of energy to change water from a liquid to
a gas, it takes energy with it Heat capacity is high
can absorb a large amount of heat with only a small increase inits own temperature
large number of hydrogen bonds in water bonds are broken as heat is absorbed instead of
increasing temperature of water
large amount of water in body helps lessen the impact of
environmental changes in temperature
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Chemical Reactions energy causes rearrangement of e-'s and new bonds, new
compounds are formed, E can be force of collision, heat,electricity etc.
reactants yield product(s) Balanced equations (energy cannot be created or
destroyed). Balance the following equations:CH4+ O2CO2+ H2OCuO + NH3Cu + H2O + N2NH3+ O2NO + H2O
CH4+ 2O2= CO2+ 2H2O3CuO + 2NH3= 3Cu + 3H2O + N24NH3+ 5O2= 4NO + 6H2O
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Mixtures-- combination of substances inwhich the individual components retaintheir own properties
solutions-- or more substances isdistributed evenly in another substance
solution=solvent(H2O)+solute(dissolvedparticles)
suspension-- particles of materials are
temporarily mixed together (blood)
colloid-- particles larger than solution,smaller than suspension (cytosol)
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Chemistry Tutorial
The Biology Project:http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemistry/main.html
Carbon & Its Functional Groups
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Properties of carbon atoms
forms bonds with other carbon atoms produce large,
stable molecules with many different shapes (rings, straight or
branched chains)
Many functional groups can attach to carbon skeleton
esters, amino, carboxyl, phosphate groups (Table 2.5) Very large molecules called macromolecules (polymers if all
monomer subunits are similar)
Carbon & Its Functional Groups
The properties of different biological molecules
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The properties of different biological moleculesdepend on certain characteristic groupings ofatoms called functional groups.
If you know the properties of some of thefunctional groups, you will be able to quickly lookat many simple biological molecules and get someidea of their solubility and possible identity. The
names of the six most important functional groupsare:
Hydroxyl
Carbonyl Carboxyl Amino Sulfhydryl
Phosphate
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Hydroxyl Two functional groups containing oxygen, the
hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, contribute towater solubility.
Hydroxyl groups have one hydrogen paired
with one oxygen atom (symbolized as -OH).Hydroxyl groups are not highly reactive, butthey readily form hydrogen bonds and
contribute to making molecules soluble inwater.Alcohols and sugars are "loaded" withhydroxyl groups.
Genistein and daidzein, two phytoestrogens from legumes
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p y g g
Notice that the only difference between these two moleculesis the additional hydroxyl (-OH) group on genistein. Bothare typical isoflavones. Genistein, however, is considerablymore estrogenic than daidzein; chemists attribute this tothe influence of the additional hydroxyl group. The hydroxylgroups are important for binding to estrogen receptors.
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Carbonyl Carbonyl groups have one oxygen atom double-
bonded to a carbon atom (symbolized as -C=O).Like hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups contributeto making molecules water-soluble.All sugarmolecules have one carbonyl group, in addition tohydroxyl groups on the other carbon atoms. Aldehyde groups, where the C=O group is at the end of
an organic molecule. A hydrogen atom is also located onthe same carbon atom.
Keto groups, where the C=O group is located within anorganic molecule. All sugars have either a keto or analdehyde group.
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Carbonyl -COH C3H6Oaldehyde = end (propanol)
ketone = inside (acetone)
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C b li A id
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Carboxylic Acids Carboxyl groups are weak acids, dissociating
partially to release hydrogen ions.The carboxylgroup (symbolized as COOH) has both a carbonyland a hydroxyl group attached to the same carbonatom, resulting in new properties.
Carboxyl groups frequently ionize, releasing the H from thehydroxyl group as a free proton (H+), with the remaining Ocarrying a negative charge. Molecules containing carboxyl
groups are called carboxylic acids and dissociate partiallyinto H+and COO.
Carboxyl groups are common in many biological molecules,
including amino acids and fatty acids.
A i G
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Amino Group Nitrogen in biological molecules usually occurs in
the form of basic amino groups.Nitrogen isanother abundant element in biological molecules.Having a valence of 3, nitrogen normally formsthree covalent bonds, either single, double, or
triple bonds.
Amino groups (-NH2) are common functional groupscontaining nitrogen. Amino groups are basic, andoften become ionized by the addition of a hydrogenion (H+), forming positively charged amino groups (-NH3
+).
S lfh d l
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Sulfhydryl Sulfur is found mainly in proteins in the form of
sulfhydryl groups or disulfide groups.Like oxygen,sulfur typically has a valence of 2, although it canalso have a valence of 6, as in sulfuric acid.
Sulfur is found in certain amino acids and proteinsin the form of sulfhydryl groups (symbolized as -SH). Two sulfhydryl groups can interact to form adisulfide group (symbolized as -S-S-).
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Importance of Functional Groups in
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Importance of Functional Groups inBiology
Function Groups Practice
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Function Groups PracticeMatch the columns
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Types of Organic compounds
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Four major groups of organiccompounds, necessary for life are:
polymers monomers____
Carbohydrates monosacchrides Lipids fatty acids
Proteins amino acids
Nucleic acids nucleotides
Types of Organic compounds
Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates
Diverse group of substances from C, H, and O
ratio of one carbon atom for each water molecule(carbohydrates means watered carbon)
glucose is 6 carbon atoms and 6 water molecules (H20)
Main function is to produce energy
3 sizes of carbohydrate molecules
monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides
Mono saccharides
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Mono saccharidesone sugar
Called simple sugars Contain 3 to 7 carbon atoms
(CH2O)n
We can absorb only 3 simple sugarswithout further digestion in our smallintestine
glucose found in syrup or honey fructose found in fruit
galactose found in dairy products
Disaccharides (two)
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Disaccharides ( two )
Formed by combining 2 monosaccharides bydehydration synthesis (releases a water molecule)
Name of bond= Glycosidic bond sucrose = glucose & fructose
Condensation Rxn & Dehydration
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Condensation Rxn & DehydrationSynthesis
2 Condensation & Hydrolysis QT Mov
Dis h id s f distin ti n
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Disacchrides of distinction
glucose + fructose = sucrose
glucose + glucose = maltose
glucose + galactose = lactose
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Polysaccharide
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Polysaccharide
Lipids = fats oils steroids waxes
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Lipids = fats, oils, steroids, waxes Formed from C, H and O 18-25% of body weight
Hydrophobic fewer polar bonds because of fewer oxygen atoms insoluble in water
Combines with proteins for transport in blood
Lipoproteins Three functional classes:Storage lipid:-Triglycerides: Common body fat.Regulatory lipid:
- Steroids: act as hormone- Eicosanoids: hormonesStructural lipid: Phospholipids: Cell membrane
Glycolipids: Cell membrane
Triglycerides
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Triglycerides Fats composed of a single glycerol molecule and 3
fatty acid molecules three-carbon glycerol molecule is the backbone
Very concentrated form of energy 9 calories/gram compared to 4 for proteins &
carbohydrates
our bodies store triglycerides in fat cells if we eat
extra food
Triglyceride Formation
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Triglycerides =three fatty
acids attachedby dehydrationsynthesis to
one molecule ofglycerol by anester bond
Triglyceride Formation
Figure 2.15
Saturation of Triglycerides
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Saturation of Triglycerides Determined by the
number of single or
double covalent bondsin fatty acid
Saturated fats containsingle covalent bonds
and are covered withhydrogen atoms----lard Unsaturated are not
completely coveredwith hydrogen----
safflower oil, corn oil Polyunsaturated fats
contain even lesshydrogen atoms----oliveand peanut oil
Regulatory lipids: Steroids
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Regulatory lipids: Steroids Formed from 4 rings of
carbon atoms joinedtogether
Common steroids
sex hormones, bile salts,
vitamins & cholesterol Cholesterol found in animal
cell membranes
starting material for
synthesis of othersteroids
Which is most soluble inwater?
Eicosanoids
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Eicosanoids Lipid type derived from a fatty
acid called arachidonic acid prostaglandins = wide variety of
functions modify responses to hormones
contribute to inflammatory response prevent stomach ulcers
dilate airways
regulate body temperature
influence formation of blood clots leukotrienes = allergy &
inflammatory responses
Structural lipids
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Structural lipidsPhospholipids: Glycerol+ fatty acids + phosphate
Part of cell membrane. Ex. Lecithin.
Glycolipid: Glycerol+ fatty acid+ sugar chain.
Part of cell membrane surface.
Chemical Nature of Phospholipids
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Chemical Nature of Phospholipidsamphi pathic
head tails
Lipid Behavior in Various
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Lipid Behavior in VariousEnvironments
How do phospholipids behave
In an oil spill?
Submerged in water? In a living cell?
Lipoproteins
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Lipoproteins
Whatdeterminesthe densityof
lipoproteins?
Nucleic acids are chains of nucleotides
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Three types: DNA, RNA, ATP
Function: Storage of geneticinformation and energy
Nucleotides are composed of:
sugar, phosphate,nitrogenous base Sugar = deoxyribose (DNA) or ribose (RNA & ATP)
DNA Bases = adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
RNA bases = adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine
Base Pairing: A-T, G-C or A-U. Held together byhydrogen bonds
Nucleic acids are chains of nucleotides
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DNA Structure
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DNA Structure
Huge molecules containing
C, H, O, N and phosphorus Each gene of our genetic
material is a piece of DNAthat controls the synthesis
of a specific protein A molecule of DNA is a
chain of nucleotides
Nucleotide = nitrogenous
base (A-G-T-C) + pentosesugar + phosphate group
RNA Structure
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RNA Structure
Differs from DNA single stranded ribose sugar not
deoxyribose sugar
uracil nitrogenous basereplaces thymine Types of RNA within the
cell, each with a specific
function messenger RNA ribosomal RNA transfer RNA
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Temporary molecular storage of energy as it is
being transferred from exergonic catabolicreactions to cellular activities muscle contraction, transport of substances across cell
membranes, movement of structures within cells andmovement of organelles
Consists of 3 phosphategroups attached toadenine & 5-carbon
sugar (ribose)
Formation & Usage of ATP
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Formation & Usage of ATP Hydrolysis of ATP (removal of terminal phosphate
group by enzyme -- ATPase) releases energy
leaves ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
Synthesis of ATP enzyme ATP synthase catalyzes the addition of
the terminal phosphate group to ADP
energy from 1 glucose molecule is used duringaerobic respiration to create 36 to 38 moleculesof ATP
Amino Acid Structure
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Amino Acid Structure
Central carbon atom
Amino group (NH2)
Carboxyl group (COOH)
Hydrogen
Side chains (R groups) vary between amino acids
Proteins
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Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, andnitrogen
Constructed from combinations of 20amino acids.
Levels of structural organization primary, secondary and tertiary
shape of the protein influences its ability to form
bonds
Which Amino Acidsare hydrophobic?
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are hydrophobic?How do you know?
Which AminoAcids arealkaline?Why?
Formation of a peptide Bond
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Formation of a peptide Bond
Dipeptides formed from 2 amino acids joined by acovalent bond called a peptide bond dehydration synthesis
Polypeptides chains formed from 10 to 2000 aminoacids.
Levels of Structural Organization
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Primary is unique sequence of amino acids Secondary is alpha helix or pleated sheet folding
Tertiary is 3-dimensional shape of polypeptide chain
Quaternary is relationship of multiple polypeptide chains
L f g
The four levels of protein
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Primary is uniquesequence of amino acids
Secondary is alpha helixor pleated sheet folding
Tertiary is 3-dimensionalshape of polypeptidechain
Quaternary isrelationship of multiplepolypeptide chains
Protein Folding Tutorial:
Protein folding in Water
f f pconfiguration
Bonds of protein Structure
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Bonds of protein Structure
Hydrogen bond formsthe secondary structure
Disulfide bonds stabilizethe tertiary structure of
protein molecules Disulfide bond between
2 polypeptide chains
create quaternarystructure
Protein Denaturation
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Function of a protein dependson its ability to recognize andbind to some other molecule
Hostile environments such as
heat, acid or salts will changea proteins 3-D shape anddestroy its ability to function
raw egg white when cooked isvastly different
Protein Denaturation
Glycoprotein and Proteoglycan
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Glycoprotein and Proteoglycan
Proteins exist in combination with sugar.
Glycoprotein: Protein + sugar chain. Found in cellmembrane. Serve as surface proteins.
Proteoglycan: Protein + sugar chain. Also present in
cell membrane. Can have enzymatic activity.
Enzymes
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y Enzymes are protein molecules that act as
catalysts by lowering Activation Energy Enzyme = apoenzyme + cofactor Apoenzymes are the protein portion Cofactors are nonprotein portion
may be metal ion (iron, zinc, magnesium or calcium) may be organic molecule derived from a vitamin
Enzymes usually end in suffix -ase and are namedfor the types of chemical reactions they catalyze
How Enzymes Work Enzyme Tutorial Enzyme Catalysis
http://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_campbell_concepts_6/activities/eb1Lib/activities/03/3I/st01/frame.htmlhttp://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemistry/flash/activa2.swfhttp://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemistry/flash/activa2.swfhttp://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.htmlhttp://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/enzyme.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/enzyme.htmlhttp://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.htmlhttp://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemistry/flash/activa2.swfhttp://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_campbell_concepts_6/activities/eb1Lib/activities/03/3I/st01/frame.html -
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Enzyme Structure Interactions
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yLock and Key: shape and active
site of enz is only compatiblew/ substrate, formingsubstrate enzyme complex
-enz reused but are eventually
decomposed=constant synthesis-usually end in "ase" and takename of substrate
Factors Affecting Enzyme Action
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g y
Temperature:
40oC, denaturationEnzyme Saturation
Concentration of substrate
pH pepsin ( gastric protease) pH2
trypsin (pancreatic protease)
pH 8
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Saturation
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Saturation
Cofactors
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Cofactors can aid how enzymeworks. If they are organic, thenthey are coenzymes these areenzyme activators
Allosteric & Competitive
Cofactorsinhibitorsactivators
Pharmacological EnzymeInhibitorsAllosteric RegulationBiochemical PathwayCompetitive vs Noncompetitive
Inhibitors
Competitive vs Noncompetitive Inhibitors
http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/enzyme_inhibition/index.htmlhttp://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/enzyme_inhibition/index.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602002.htmlhttp://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120070/bio09.swfhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120070/bio09.swfhttp://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120070/bio09.swfhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602002.htmlhttp://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/enzyme_inhibition/index.htmlhttp://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/enzyme_inhibition/index.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.htmlhttp://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp06/0602001.html -
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p p
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In this animation, the enzyme is olive, the substrate is green,the competitive inhibitor is red and the products A & B are
yellow and blue. The enzyme has binding site into which eitherthe substrate or the competitive inhibitor may fit.
Which product, A or B, would most likely be a competitiveinhibitor?
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The enzyme has 2 binding sites, one for thesubstrate (the active site) and the other for theallosteric activator (the regulatory site). Allosteric
Activation Nerve gas permanently blocks pathways involved in nervemessage transmission, resulting in death.
Penicillin, the first of the "wonder drug" antibiotics,permanently blocks the pathways certain bacteria use to
assemble their cell wall components.
Examples of Enzyme function
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p y
Ethylene levels cause changes in the production of differentenzymes, allowing fruits to ripen.
In eukaryotic cells the mRNA transcript undergoes a seriesof enzyme regulated modifications.
The enzyme RNA-polymerase reads the DNA molecule in the3' to 5' direction and synthesizes complementary mRNAmolecules that determine the order of amino acids in thepolypeptide.
ATP Synthase
DNA polymerase, ligase, RNA polymerase, helicase andtopoisomerase,
Positive Feedback
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Amplification occurs when the stimulus is furtheractivated, which in turn initiates an additional
response that produces system change
Lactation in mammals
Onset of labor in childbirth
Ripening of fruit Blood clotting
Estrogen & Progesterone in Female System
Negative Feedback/ FeedbackInhibition
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Inhibition
When the product is in abundance,it binds competitively with itsenzyme's active site; as theproduct is used up, inhibition isreduced and more product can beproduced. In this way theconcentration of the product isalways controlled within a certainrange.
Operons in gene regulation
Temperature regulation in animals
Plants response to water
limitations
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Resources Animations:
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n mat ons Microbiology: BioTopics Contents:
What is an Enzyme: Lipid Behavior in Various Environments Organic Molecules Interactive Animations for Biochemical Processes Biology Project Chemistry Tutorial Chemistry Target Practice
Importance of Functional Groups Functional groups Matching Identify the Biomolecules Matching "Hot Potatoes" Practice matching exercises Factors that affect the rate of Chemical Reactions with Alka Seltzer
Properties of Water Properties of Water & Transpiration Enzyme Specificity Tutorial Enzyme Kinetics Animation
http://africangreyparrott.com/bio.winona.edu/berg/ANIMTNS/c-inhban.htmhttp://student.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/http://www.biotopics.co.uk/conten.htmlhttp://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/biology1111/animations/enzyme.swfhttp://www.johnkyrk.com/cellmembrane.htmlhttp://www.biology.lsu.edu/introbio/tutorial/spotted/BioStudio/2ORGANICMOLE/1OrMo.htmlhttp://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/animations.htmhttp://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemistry/main.htmlhttp://www.zerobio.com/target_practice_quiz/target_practice_quiz_chemistry.swfhttp://www.clickandlearn.org/Bio/Gr12Bio/lesson2Functional%20Groups%20Presentation_files/frame.htmhttp://www.tvcc.edu/depts/biology/HotPot/Biol%201406/functional_groups.htmhttp://www.tvcc.edu/depts/biology/HotPot/Biol%201406/biomolecule_structure.htmhttp://www.tvcc.edu/depts/biology/Study%20Resources/lecture/Hot%20Potatoes.htmhttp://www.alkaseltzerplus.com/asp/student_experiments_1.htmlhttp://www.health-benefit-of-water.com/properties-of-water.htmlhttp://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/64900.aspxhttp://www.learnerstv.com/animation/animation.php?ani=171&cat=biologyhttp://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/enzyme_model.htmhttp://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/enzyme_model.htmhttp://www.learnerstv.com/animation/animation.php?ani=171&cat=biologyhttp://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/64900.aspxhttp://www.health-benefit-of-water.com/properties-of-water.htmlhttp://www.alkaseltzerplus.com/asp/student_experiments_1.htmlhttp://www.tvcc.edu/depts/biology/Study%20Resources/lecture/Hot%20Potatoes.htmhttp://www.tvcc.edu/depts/biology/HotPot/Biol%201406/biomolecule_structure.htmhttp://www.tvcc.edu/depts/biology/HotPot/Biol%201406/functional_groups.htmhttp://www.clickandlearn.org/Bio/Gr12Bio/lesson2Functional%20Groups%20Presentation_files/frame.htmhttp://www.zerobio.com/target_practice_quiz/target_practice_quiz_chemistry.swfhttp://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemistry/main.htmlhttp://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/animations.htmhttp://www.biology.lsu.edu/introbio/tutorial/spotted/BioStudio/2ORGANICMOLE/1OrMo.htmlhttp://www.johnkyrk.com/cellmembrane.htmlhttp://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/biology1111/animations/enzyme.swfhttp://www.biotopics.co.uk/conten.htmlhttp://student.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/http://africangreyparrott.com/bio.winona.edu/berg/ANIMTNS/c-inhban.htm