“using questions to - kappa delta pi€¦ · • respect for others’ ways of thinking is...

“Using Questions to

Engage, Teach, and

Manage Your Students”

Dr. Nathan Bond

Texas State University

[email protected]

Dr. Nathan Bond • Taught Russian in a middle school and high school in Austin, Texas for eight years

• Taught undergraduate and graduate education classes at Texas State University for the past twelve years

• Teaches these courses in a professional development school

• Serves as KDP chapter counselor at Texas State University

• Serves as President of Kappa Delta Pi

Overview of Today’s Webinar

Part 1: Overview

Part 2: Highlights from my first article and some additional management ideas

Part 3: Instructional strategies that involve questions

Part 4: Audience questions

Part 5: Reference list for the citations

Objectives of Today’s Webinar

Participants will:

• Explain why questioning is important in today’s

teaching

• Evaluate their role as a teacher in questioning

• Create questions that correspond to the new Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Apply questioning techniques to their own teaching and classroom management

• Create a simple activity that involves a questioning strategy

What do you already know

about questioning?

Part 1 Overview

Why is questioning important for teachers?

A. Research about questioning during the last 30 years

1. Postman (1979) “All of our knowledge results from questions, which is another way of saying that question-asking is our most important intellectual tool.”

2. Levin and Long (1981) reported that teachers ask as many as 300-400 questions each day.

3. Borich (1992) found that questions account for 80% of classroom talk and that some teachers ask more than 100 questions per hour.

4. Morgan and Saxton (1994) “The classic concept of learning is that it occurs when the teacher asks the questions and the students can answer them, but the reality is that learning does not occur until the learner needs to know and can formulate the question for himself / herself.”

5. Chuska (1995) “All learning begins with questions.”

6. Walberg (1999) found that student achievement increased when teachers asked questions.

7. Elder and Paul (2003) state that thinking is not driven by answers but by asking questions.

8. Tienken, Goldberg and DiRocco (2009) Teachers ask approximately 18,000 each year.

I. Overview A. Research


Summary of Key Research Findings in 2010 Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan and Brown

1. Questioning tends to be a universal teaching strategy.

2. A broad range of questioning strategies is open to you.

3. Being systematic in the use and development of questioning tends to improve student learning.

4. By classifying questions according to a particular system, you may determine the cognitive level at which your class is working and make adjustments as needed.

5. Questions should be developed logically and sequentially.

6. Students should be encouraged to ask questions.

7. A written plan with key questions provides lesson structure and direction.

8. Questions should be adapted to students’ level of ability.

9. Questioning techniques that encourage the widest spectrum of student participation should be used.

10. No single questioning strategy is applicable to all teaching situations.

I. Overview A. Research


B. Current definitions of effective teaching, as stated in teacher appraisal systems, want teachers to ask lots of questions.

In Texas, the Professional Development and Appraisal System

(PDAS) is the state-adopted framework to evaluate practicing teachers:

• “The teacher uses appropriate questioning and inquiry techniques to challenge students”

• “Student behaviors indicate learning at a high cognitive level (e.g., critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, etc.”

• “Students are self-directed / self-initiated as appropriate to the lesson objectives.”

• “Students are actively engaged in learning.”

I. Overview B. Definitions of Effective Teaching


C. Standards for teachers want teachers to ask lots of questions

(New Teachers) The Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC)

• Principle 4: Instructional strategies/problem solving – The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’

development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills.

• Principle 6: Communication/knowledge – The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal and media communication

techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.

(Accomplished Teachers) National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS)

• Proposition 3: Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning – NBCTs deliver effective instruction. They move fluently through a range of instructional

techniques, keeping students motivated, engaged and focused. They know how to engage students to ensure a disciplined learning environment and how to organize instruction to meet instructional goals.

– NBCTs know how to assess the progress of individual students as well as the class as a whole. They use multiple methods for measuring student growth and understanding, and they can clearly explain student performance to parents.

• Proposition 4: Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from experience

– NBCTs model what it means to be an educated person. They read, they question, they create and they are willing to try new things. They critically examine their practice on a regular basis to deepen knowledge, expand their repertoire of skills, and incorporate new findings into their practice.

I. Overview C. Standards for Teachers


D. Future goals for students and teachers want teachers to ask lots of questions

• Twenty-First Century Thinking Skills

• Self-Direction and Self-Assessing

• www.p21.org

I. Overview D. Future Goals for Education

What about myself do I need to be aware of?

• Your own beliefs or teaching philosophy (Walsh & Sattes, 2005) – Do I see myself as a a content expert to whom

students turn for all knowledge?

– Do I see myself as a facilitator of student learning?

• Your own skills at questioning (Morgan & Saxton, 1994) – Patience to wait for answers to be formulated

– Skill of listening so that you will know how to respond

– Finesse to “send the ball back” in such a way that learning is perceived by your students as a dialogue in which everyone’s thoughts, feelings and actions are important for collective and individual understanding

I. Overview E. About Myself as a Teacher

Your own worries about questioning (Morgan & Saxton, 1994)

1. The questions present opportunities for expressing divergent views.

2. They offer opportunities for the class, or one or two students, to ‘take over.’

3. The class can be split into factions and argue amongst themselves.

4. You can lose the focus of the lesson.

5. It’s hard to know whether students are being ‘smart-alecks’ or if they are working at a serious level of thinking.

6. Students can introduce things about which you know little or nothing.

7. Discussion can move to a topic or aspect of a topic with which you are not comfortable.

8. There are students who are left behind or left out.

9. Sometimes the discussion will be unproductive, repetitive or seen as an opportunity for personal monologues which are irrelevant.

10. It is difficult to wrap up, bring to a conclusion or even just stop.

11. You are intimidated by the idea of higher order thinking.

12. Teacher not seen as in control.

13. Perception that the teacher doesn’t know the answers, incompetent.

I. Overview E. About Myself as a Teacher

What are some purposes for questioning?

• Questions can stimulate deeper thinking, provoke interest and inquiry, and spark additional questions, allowing for greater intellectual focus (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005)

• “Effective use of questioning arouses curiosity, stimulates interest and motivates students to seek new information. Students engaged in the questioning process benefit from clarification of concepts, emergence of key points, and enhancement of problem-solving skills. Using questions, teachers assess students’ knowledge, determine needs for focused reteaching, and encourage students to think at higher cognitive levels.” (Caram & Davis, 2005)

• Summary: Motivate students, teach information, assess learning, and manage behavior

I. Overview F. Purposes

Wiggins

McTighe

What are some ways to classify questions?

Classification Systems or Typologies

1. Herber (1978) - Literal, Interpretative, Applied

2. Gallagher and Ascher (1963) - Memory, Convergent, Divergent, Evaluative

3. Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) – Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation

4. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) – Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised

I. Overview G. Taxonomies

Bloom

Old and New Bloom’s Taxonomy

Evaluation Higher Order Thinking

Create

6.3 Produce

6.2 Plan

6.1 Generate

Synthesis

Evaluate

5.2 Critique

5.1 Check

Analysis

Analyze

4.3 Attribute

4.2 Organize

4.1 Differentiate

Application

Apply

3.2 Implement

3.1 Execute

Comprehension

Understand

2.7 Explain

2.6 Compare

2.5 Infer

2.4 Summarize

2.3 Classify

2.2 Exemplify

2.1 Interpret

Knowledge :Lower Order Thinking

Remember

1.2 Recall

1.1 Recognize

Website with questions at each level (Google advanced keyword search: “Bloom’s Taxonomy” and “Questions”)

http://www.uni.edu/stdteach/TWS/BloomRevisedTaxonomy_KeyWords-1-1.pdf

Part 2

Management

Questioning Strategies that Minimize

Classroom Management Problems

II. Highlights from my first article

Point # 2 in Bond Article: Establish your expectations

for behavior before beginning the questioning period.

• Bond Article – Remind students to raise their hands, listen to others’ comments, and respect all

comments.

– Students learn real-world social skills.

• New Information (Walsh & Sattes, 2005) – Norms to teach your students

• Respect for others’ ways of thinking is desirable.

• Patience with oneself and others can and should be cultivated.

• The process of thinking and answering is as important as the answer itself.

• Thinking takes time.

• It is okay to ask for help.

• Incorrect answers will be treated with respect; there are no “stupid answers” in this class.

• Every student can think and answer every question.

• It is my responsibility as a student to come up with correct and complete answers. I am accountable, and no one is letting me “off the hook.”

– Sizer (1984) found that low-achieving students who do not arrive to school with these skills become more frustrated in their attempts to communicate.

• Teach these skills explicitly through modeling and practicing.

• Teach active listening skills (expressions and choice of words invite more talk; scan the room with our eyes).


Point # 3 in Bond Article:

Call on a variety of students.

• Bond Article

– Randomly call on students to keep them attentive.

– Interact with as many students as possible.

• New Information

– Non-participants (Walsh & Sattes, 2005)

– Let students, especially non-participants, know that their participation is important.

• Call on all students in an equitable manner, allow wait time for all students, and provide prompts and cues for all students.

• Talk to students about your beliefs that you want to nurture, such as good questions help students to learn, all students can respond to all questions, and all students deserve respect.

• Don’t allow students to say “I don’t know.” Give them other responses, such as “I need to think more about that” or “I need to ask a friend.”

• Work with students to make these the norms in your class.


Reasons Students Won’t Participate (Chuska, 1995)

Reasons Students

Do Not Participate

Strategies Teachers

Can Use

The student is afraid to fail. Let the students know that not knowing something simply indicates an area where something can be

learned.

The student lacks confidence because of past

failures.

Help students succeed by asking questions you think they can answer, by rephrasing, by including

information in the question, or by asking students to respond from their own experiences.

The student is afraid of ridicule. Do not allow students to put down others’ answers.

The student is unsure of the expected response. Provide study guides or a list of questions for the week.

The student is afraid to speak in class. Allow time for students to discuss the material in a small group before you address questions to the

entire class.

The student is uninterested in the topic or is

apathetic.

Make connections between the material and students’ lives. Ask for students’ feelings, beliefs and

experiences, rather than just the facts.

The student is unwilling to be labeled a “brain”

by other students.

Create a classroom in which knowledge is shared, not exhibited. Ask questions that call for personal

reactions instead of facts.

The question is too complex or unclear. Rephrase the question or encourage students to ask clarifying questions. An alternative strategy is to

provide questions ahead of time.

The question is above the student’s level of

experience or is intimidating to the student.

Break the question into parts. Ask one questions at a time, with one focus.

The answer is expected too quickly. Allow three to five seconds for a student to answer.

The student does not know the answer. Rephrase and simplify the question. Accept simple answers that contribute to the broader answer.

The student finds the answer difficult to express. Help students interpret their answers by restating them. Ask other students how they interpret the

response.

Point # 5 in Bond Article: Ask questions that are the

appropriate level for each student.

• Bond Article

– Tactfully ask questions at the ability level of the student.

– Students will misbehave to divert attention from their not knowing.

• New Information

– Error Correction (Walsh & Sattes, 2005)

1. Clue students with symbols, words or phrases to help them respond. Start with overt reminders such as “starts with …”.

2. Rephrase or pose the same question in different words.

3. Probe to look for reasoning behind an incorrect response or ask for clarity when the response is incomplete.

4. Redirect or pose the same question to another student.

5. Hold the student accountable later in the lesson by checking back or making sure he/she has the correct answer.


Point # 7 in Bond Article: Provide students

with sufficient wait time after asking a

question and before responding to their

comments. • Bond Article

– Teachers wait a mere 0.9 seconds for students to respond (Rowe, 1974).

– Students hear the question, recall the answer from their memory, consider if their response will be accepted (Jones & Jones, 2004).

• New Information

– Power of Wait Time (Dillon, 1988) Silence is a deliberate act by the teacher that encourages thought and response.

– Power of Wait Time (Walsh & Sattes, 2005) When teachers wait, the following will occur:

1. Discipline improves.

2. Students speculate, hypothesize, and give evidence for their ideas.

3. Students will ask more questions and talk more to other students.

4. Students answer with more confidence, and there are fewer “I don’t knows.”

5. More students participate in responding.

6. Achievement improves on cognitively complex test items.

7. The teacher’s responses are more thoughtful.

8. Teachers ask fewer questions and more questions at higher cognitive levels.

9. Teachers expect more from previously non-participating students.


Point # 10 in Bond Article: Respond to every answer

and correct answers.

• Bond Article

– Respond to every answer and offer specific

praise.

• New Information

– Praise (Walsh & Sattes, 2005)

1. Frequency

– More with younger students

– More with low-achieving students

2. Distribution

– High achieving students get

disproportionally more praise.

3. Quality:

– contingent on the performance

– credible / based on evidence

– specific

– sincere II. Highlights from my first article

• Ways the teacher can respond to a student’s response (Chuska, 1995) – Accept the answer.

– Ask for elaboration.

– Ask for justification or support

– Ask for clarification.

– Ask for consequences of the response.

– Use active listening.

– Give own views and experiences.

– Give a counter-example.

– Set up a “what if?” situation.

– Play devil’s advocate.

– Use deliberate silence (wait time).

– Show interest in the response.

– Turn to other students for reaction.

– Ask another question.


Point # 11 in Bond Article: Ask follow-up questions.

• Bond Article:

– Ask students additional questions to get them to talk more.

• New Information

– Probing (Dantonio, 1990)

1. Seeking further clarification

• Seeks more information and meaning from the student.

• “What do you mean?”

2. Increasing student critical awareness

• Elicits a rationale for the answer.

• “Why do you think that is so?”

3. Refocusing the student’s response

• Directs the student’s attention to a related issue if given an incorrect answer.

• “How does this relate to ….?”

4. Prompting

• Gives a hint when the initial response is poor

• “What is …..?”


Room Arrangement

• Bond Article

– Not mentioned in the article

• New Information

– Room Arrangement (Walsh & Sattes, 2005)

• Does it optimize all students’ view of the teacher and one another?

• U-shaped room with chairs three deep.

• Move chairs when you have a recitation or discussion, then move back.

– Teacher Arrangement (Chuska, 1995)

• Teacher moves around while questioning.

• Teacher stands far enough away from students so that others can hear.

• When standing too close to responders, they often lower their voices

and direct their answers solely to the teacher.

II. Additional Management Ideas

Affective Issues

• Bond Article

– Not mentioned in the article

• New Information

– Affective Dimension (Walsh & Sattes, 2005)

1. There is a social cost for asking a question.

• Teacher and students think questioner is dumb.

• Teacher thinks student is challenging authority.

2. More academically able students will ask questions while struggling students tend not to.

• This is more pronounced as students get older.

3. The value of asking questions in a class.

• Do the teacher and other students value asking questions?

4. Connection with the teacher

• Students will ask questions if they have rapport with teacher.


Active Listening

• Bond Article – Not mentioned in the article

• New Information – Active Listening (Walsh & Sattes, 2005)

1. Eye contact – Look directly at the speaker and maintain eye contact.

2. Facial expressions – Use a variety of facial expressions, such as smiling and demonstrating surprise or excitement.

3. Body posture – Use gestures, such as hand signals, to keep the body open.

4. Physical distance – Move closer or farther away.

5. Silence – Be quiet while the students are speaking as a way to honor them without interrupting.

6. Verbal acknowledgement – Use brief verbal acknowledgements, such as “go ahead,” “yes,” and “I understand.”

7. Sub-summaries – Restate or rephrase the main ideas presented by students during lengthy discussions.


Part 3 Strategies

Strategies that Involve Questioning

Number of People Teacher-Led Student-Led

1

2

3 or 4

5 or more


Number of People Teacher-led Student-led

1 Recitation

2

3 or 4

5 or more

Instructional Strategies That Involve Questioning:

Teacher-Led Questioning with One Student

• Recitation

• Purpose (Walsh & Sattes, 2005) – Review before a test

– Verify if students have understood the information

– Assess what students know about a topic – either before, during or after instruction

– Focus students on important content

– Encourage students to talk

– Provide opportunities for practice

– Model good questioning for students.

• Steps – Step 1: Initiation: Teacher asks a question to a student.

– Step 2: Response: Student answers question.

– Step 3: Evaluation: Teacher evaluates response and may ask follow-up question.

• Response Formats – Thumbs Up / Thumbs Down

– Dry-Erase Boards or Sheets of Paper

III. Instructional Strategies



1 Recitation

2 Think-Pair-Share

Write-Pair-Share

3 or 4

5 or more


Teacher-Led Discussion with Two Students

• Think-Pair-Share (Lyman, 1981)

– Step 1: Think: Ask a question

to the whole class and allow students a short time to think about the response.

– Step 2: Pair: Designate partners to pair up and discuss the best answer.

– Step 3: Share: Call on the pairs to share their thinking with the class and record responses can on the board.

• Write-Pair-Share III. Instructional Strategies


Number of People Teacher-led Student-led

1 Recitation

2 Think-Pair-Share

Write-Pair-Share

3 or 4 Team Huddle

5 or more


Teacher-Led Discussion with Three or Four Students

• Team Huddle (Rogers, Ludington &

Graham, 1999)

– Step 1: Group: Arrange students in teams of three to four.

– Step 2: Think: Ask a question to the whole class and allow students a short time to think about the response.

– Step 3: Huddle: Ask students to discuss the best answer with their team. Call out, “Team huddle!”

– Step 4: Share: Call on students to share their thinking with the class and record responses on the board.




1 Recitation

2 Think-Pair-Share

Write-Pair-Share

3 or 4 Team Huddle

5 or more Discussion


Teacher-Led Questioning with Five or More Students

• Discussion – Only occurs 4 to 8% of the time (Dillon, 1988)

• Purpose (Walsh & Sattes, 2005) – Review before a test

– Verify if students have understood the information

– Assess what students know about a topic – either before, during or after instruction

– Focus students on important content

– Encourage students to talk

– Provide opportunities for practice

– Model good questioning for students.

• Steps – Step 1: Initiation: Teacher asks provocative, open-ended

question.

– Step 2: Response: Student(s) answer question.

– Step 3: Evaluation: Teacher evaluates the response and may ask a follow-up question. Teacher makes sure all students stay on topic. Students don’t wait for the teacher’s permission to speak and they don’t look to the teacher for assessment of responses. They engage in dialogue with one another, listen respectfully and make their own evaluations.


• Ways for the teacher to keep a discussion going:

1. Make a simple declarative statement (“Not everything you read is true.”)

2. Paraphrase what you heard the student say (“So you think that ….”)

3. Describe your state of mind (“I’m confused about what you’re saying….”)

4. Invite the student to elaborate (“Maybe you could give some examples to help us better understand.”)

5. Invite the student to ask a question (“Do you need to ask a question to clarify your thinking?”)

6. Invite the class to ask the student a question (“Does anyone have a question about Student X’s statement?”)

7. Be deliberately silent.




1 Recitation

2 Think-Pair-Share

Write-Pair-Share

3 or 4 Team Huddle

5 or more Discussion Socratic

Seminar


Student-Led Discussion with Five or More Students

• Socratic Seminar (Copeland, 2005) – In Plato’s work The Republic, Socrates asked a series of questions

to help his student Glaucon come to an understanding of justice (Tienken, Goldberg & DiRocco, 2009)

– Other names • Literature Circles

• Inner-Outer Circles with assigned roles

– Step 1: Read: Assign the class to read a text (usually for homework the previous night) and create an admit slip to document their reading.

– Step 2: Group: Arrange students in a circle and verify completion of their admit slips.

– Step 3: Think: Ask the whole class a question that is based on the homework reading and allow students a short time to think about the response.

– Step 4: Share: Ask students to discuss the best answer with the class.

– Step 5: Question: Encourage students to ask questions and share their thinking with the class.




1 Recitation Self-questioning

2 Think-Pair-Share

Write-Pair-Share

3 or 4 Team Huddle


Seminar


Student-Led with One Student

• Self-questioning (Metacognition / Reflection) – Self-questioning is a research-based practice that helps students to

monitor and regulate their thinking on their own (Duke & Pearson, 2002).

– Step 1: Explore: Students explore the topic.

– Step 2: Evaluate: Students ask themselves questions: • Does that make sense?

• What is my learning goal?

• How can I relate this information to what I already know?

• What do I need to do to remember the ideas presented?




1 Recitation Self-questioning

Inquiry

2 Think-Pair-Share

Write-Pair-Share Inquiry

3 or 4 Team Huddle Inquiry


Seminar


Student-Led Inquiry with One or More Students

• Inquiry Lesson – Students investigate, gather evidence and

formulate answers to the guiding question.

– “An inquiry learning-based project allows students to use a question as a starting point in explorations that will build their conceptual knowledge” (McCollister & Sayler, 2010)

– Step 1: Engage: Teacher (or student) engages students in the topic.

– Step 2: Explore: Students explore the topic.

– Step 3: Explain: Students explain their understanding.

– Step 4: Evaluate: Teacher (or students) evaluates the learning.


Webinar

Summary

• Part 1: Overview – Rationale for Questions

• Research

• Teacher evaluation instruments

• Teacher standards

– Purposes for Questions

– Classification Schemes for Questions

• Part 2: Questioning Techniques – Norms / expectations

– Non-participants

– Error correction

– Wait time

– Praise

– Probing

– Room and teacher arrangement

– Affective dimensions

– Active listening

• Part 3: Instructional Strategies – Teacher-led

– Student-led

Part 4 Questions from

the Audience

"Using Questions to

Engage, Teach, and

Manage Your Students"

Dr. Nathan Bond

Texas State University

[email protected]

Part 5 References

References • Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A

revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.

• Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: Longmans, Green.

• Bond, N. (2007). 12 questioning strategies that minimize classroom management problems. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 44(1), 18-21.

• Borich, G.D. (1992). Effective teaching methods. New York: Merrill.

• Caram, C.A. & Davis, P.B. (2005). Inviting student engagement with questioning. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 42(1), 19-23.

• Chuska, K.R. (1995). Improving classroom questions. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

• Copelan, M. (2005). Socratic circles: Fostering critical and creative thinking in middle and high school. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

• Dantonio, M. (1990). How we create thinkers? Questioning strategies that work for teachers. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.

• Dillon, J.T. (1984). Questioning and teaching: A manual of practice. New York: Teachers College Press.

• Duke, N. & Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. Farstrup & S.J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction. (3rd ed.) (pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

• Elder, L. & Paul, R. (2003). Critical thinking: Teaching students how to study and learn. Journal of Developmental Education, 27(2), 36-38.

• Gallagher, J.J. & Ascher, M.J. (1963). A preliminary report on analyses of classroom interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 9(1), 183-194.

• Hamaker, C. (1986). The effects of adjunct questions on prose learning. Review of Educational Research, 56(2), 212-242.

• Herber, H.L. & Herber, J.N (1993). Teaching in content areas with reading, writing and reasoning. Old Tappan, NJ: Allyn and Bacon.

• Hunkins, F.P. (1989). Teaching thinking through effective questioning. Boston: Christopher Gordon Publishers.

• Jones, V. & Jones, L. (2004). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems. Boston: Pearson.

• Levin, T. & Long, R. (1981). Effective instruction. Washington, DC: ASCD.

• Lyman, F.T. (1981). The responsive classroom discussion: The inclusion of all students. In A. Anderson (Ed.), Mainstreaming digest (pp. 109-113). College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press.

• McCollister, K. & Sayer, M.F. (2010). Lift the ceiling: Increase rigor with critical thinking skills. Gifted Child Today, 33(1), 41-47.

• Morgan, N. & Saxton, J. (1994). Asking better questions: Models, techniques and classroom activities for engaging students in learning. Markham, Ontario: Pembroke Publishers.

• Orlich, D.C., Harder, R.J., Callahan, R.C., Trevisan, M.S. & Brown, A.H. (2010). Teaching strategies: A guide to effective instruction. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

• Postman, N. (1979). Teaching as a conserving activity. New York: Dell, Laurel Press.

• Rogers, S., Ludington, J. & Graham, S. (1999). Motivation and learning. Evergreen, CO: Peak Learning Systems.

• Rowe, M.B. (1974). Reflections on wait time: Some methodological questions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1(3), 263-279.

• Sizer, T.R. (1984). Horace’s compromise: The dilemma of the American high school. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

• Tienken, C.H., Goldberg, S. & DiRocco, D. (2009). Questioning the questions. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 46(1), 39-43.

• Trilling, B. & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

• Walberg, H.I. (1999). Productive teaching. In H.C. Waxman and H.J. Walberg (Eds.), New directions for teaching practice and research (pp. 75-104). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publications.

• Walsh, J.A. & Sattes, B.D. (2005). Quality questioning: Research-based practice to engage every learner. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

• Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

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