anderson (1991)-increasing teacher effectiveness

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I ncr easi ng t eacheref f ect i veness

Lor i n W nde r s on

Pari s 1991UNESCO: nt er nat i onal I nst i tute for Educat i onal Pl anni ng


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I ncl uded in t he seri es:*2 The rel ati onof educati onal pl ans to economc and soci al pl anni ngR Poi gnant4 Pl anni ng and the edrccati onal admnistratorC.E.Beeby5. The soci al context of educati onal pl anni ngC.A.Anderson6. The costi ng of educati onal pl ansJ . Vaizey. J .DChesswasI . The pr obl emof rural educati onV.L.Giffiths8. Educat i onal pl anni ng; the advi ser' s rol eA. Curle9. Demographi c aspects of educati onal pl anni ngTaNgoc C.10. The anal ysi s of educati onal costs and expendi t beJ . Halak11. Theprofessi onal identi ty of the educati onal pl annerA. Curle12. The condi ti ons or success in educati onal pl anni ngGC.Ruscoe13. Cost-benef i tanal ysi s in educati onal pl anni ngM Wmdhal l18. Pl anni ng educaf i onaI assi stance or the second devel opment decadeH. M hilips20. Real i sti c educati onal pl anni ngK. R. McKinnon21. Pl anni ng educati on in rel ati onto rural devel opmentG. MCoverdae22. A ternati ves and deci si omin educati obl pl anni ngJ .DMontgomery23. Pl anni ng the school curr i cul umA. Lewy24. Cost factors inpl anni ng educati onal technol ogi cal syst emDT. amson25. The pl anni ng and l i fel ong edubati onP. Furter26. Educati on and empl oyment : a cri ti cal apprai salM Camoy21. Pl anni ng teacher demand and suppl yP. Wll iam28. Pl anni ng earl y chi l dhood care and educati on in devel opi ng countri esA Heron29. Communi cat i on medi a in educati onfor l ow- i ncome countri esE.GMcAnany, .K.Mayo30. The pl anni ng of nonf ormal educati onDR.Evans3 . Educati on, rai ni ng and the tradi ti onal sectorJ . Halak,F. Callods32. Hi gher educati on and empl oyment : theI I EP experi ence inf i ve l ess-devel opedcountri esG Psacharopoul os,B.C. anyal33. Educat i onal pl anni ng as a social processT. Mal an34. Hi gher educati on and social strati fi cati on: an i nternati onal comparati ve studyT.H u s h

A. Vl adi sl avl evK. Lewn

35. A concept ual f i amework or the devel opment of l i felong educati on in the USSR36. Educati on in austeri ty: opti onsfor pl anners31. Educat i onal pl anni ng in Asi a38. Educati on proj ects: el aborat i on, mnci ng and management* Al so publ i shed i n French. Ot her ti tlestoappear .

R. Roy-SinghA. Magnen


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The Swedi sh I nternati onal Devel opment Author i ty ( SI DA) has provi dedf i nanci al assi stance for the publ i cat i on of thi s bookl et .

Publ i shed in 1991 by t he Uni t ed Nat i onsEducat i onal , Sci enti f i c and Cul tural Organi zat i on7pl ace de Font enoy, 75700, Pari sPri nted in France by I mpr i mer i eGauthi er-Vi l l as,75018ParisCover desi gn by Br uno Hi f f l i@UNESCO 1991I SBN92- 803- 1140-9


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Foreword

The bookl et s i n thi s seri es are wr i t t en pr i mar i l y f or t wo t ypes ofcl i ent de: t hose engaged i n educat i onal pl anni ng andadm ni st r at i on, i n devel opi ng as wel l as devel oped count r i es; andot hers, l ess speci al i zed, such as seni or gover nment of f i ci al s andpol i cy- maker s who seek a mor e gener al under st andi ng ofeducat i onal pl anni ng and of h o w i t i s rel ated to overal l nat i onaldevel opment . They are i nt ended to be of use ei ther f or pr i vatest udy or i n f or mal t rai ni ng pr ogr ammes .Si nce this seri es was l aunched in 1967 practi ces and concept sof educat i onal pl anni ng have under gone substant i al change. Ma n yof t he assumpt i ons whi ch under l ay earl i er at t empt s to rat i onal i zethe pr ocess of educat i onal devel opment have been cri t i ci zed orabandoned. I f ri gi d mandat or y cent ral i sed pl anni ng has n o wcl earl y pr oven to be i nappr opr i at e however , al f or ms of pl anni nghave not been bani shed. On the cont rary the need for col l ect i ngdata, eval uat i ng t he ef f i ci ency of exi sti ng pr ogr ammes ,

under t aki ng a wi de r ange of studi es, expl or i ng t he f ut ure andf oster i ng br oad debate on these bases t o gui de educat i onal pol i cy-and deci s i on- maki ng has bec ome even mor e acute t han bef ore.The scope of educat i onal pl anni ng has been br oadened. I naddi t i on to t he f or mal syst emof educat i on, i t i s n o w appl i ed to al lot her i mpor t ant educat i onal ef f ort s i n non- f or mal sett i ngs.At t ent i on to t he gr owt h and expansi on of educat i onal syst ems i sbei ng compl ement ed and s omet i mes even repl aced by a gr owi ngconcer n f or the qual i ty of the enti re educat i onal pr ocess and fort he cont rol of i ts resul ts. Fi nal l y, pl anner s and adm ni st r at or s havebec ome mor e and mor e aware of t he i mpor t ance ofi mpl ement at i on strategi es and of t he rol e of di f f erent regul atorymechani s ms i n this respect: t he choi ce of f i nanci ng met hods , t heexam nat i on and cert i f i cat i on pr ocedur es or var i ous ot her

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Foreword

regul at i on and i ncent i ve structures. T he concer n of pl anner s i st wof ol d: to reach a better underst andi ng of t he val i di ty ofeducat i on in i ts own empi r i cal l y obser ved speci f i c di mensi ons andto hel p i n def i ni ng appr opr i at e strategi es f or change.T he pur poses of t hese bookl et s i ncl ude moni t or i ng t heevol ut i on and change i n educat i onal pol i ci es and thei r ef f ect uponeducat i onal pl anni ng r equi r ement s; hi ghl i ght i ng cur rent i ssues ofeducat i onal pl anni ng and anal yzi ng t hem i n t he cont ext of thei rhi stori cal and soci etal sett i ng; and di ssem nat i ng met hodol ogi esof pl anni ng whi ch can be appl i ed i n t he cont ext of both thedevel oped and the devel opi ng count r i es.I n or der t o hel p t he I nsti tute i dent i f y the real up- t o- dat e ssuesi n educat i onal pl anni ng and pol i cy- maki ng i n di f f erent part s of t hewor l d, an Edi torial Boar d has been appoi nt ed compos ed of t wogener al edi tors and f i ve associ ate edi tors fromdi f f erent r egi ons,al l pr of essi onal s of hi gh reput e in thei r f i el d. At t he first meet i ngof this n e w Edi t ori al Boar d i n J anuar y 1990, i ts member si dent i f i ed key topi cs to be cover ed i n t he com ng i ssues, under t hef ol l owi ng headi ngs:

1. Educat i on and devel opment .2. Equi t y.3. Qual i t y of educat i on.4. St ruct ure, adm ni st r at i on and management of educat i on.5. cur r i cul um6. Cost and f i nanci ng of educat i on.7. Pl anni ng t echni ques and appr oaches.8. I nf or mat i on syst ems, moni t or i ng and eval uat i on,On e or t wo associ ate edi tors cor r espond t o each headi ng.T he seri es has been caref ul l y pl anned but no at t empt has beenma de to avoi d di f f erences or even cont radi ct i ons i n t he vi ewsexpr essed by t he aut hor s. The I nst i tute i tsel f does not wi sh toi mpos e any off i ci al doct r i ne. Thus , whi l e t he vi ews are t heresponsi bi l i ty of t he aut hor s and may not al ways be shar ed byUNESCOor the I I EP, t hey warr ant at tent i on i n t he i nternat i onalf or um of i deas. I ndeed, one of t he pur poses of this seri es i s toref l ect a di versi ty of exper i ence and opi ni ons by gi vi ng di f f erent

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Foreword

aut hor s f r om a wi de r ange of backgr ounds and di sci pl i nes t heoppor t uni t y to expr ess thei r vi ews o n changi ng theor i es andpracti ces i n educat i onal pl anni ng.Awar e of the concer n of ma ny pl anner s and pol i cy- maker s a lover t he wor l d f or a better qual i t y of educat i on, as wel l as of t hecent ral , i f not uni que, rol e of t eacher s in t he t r ansm ssi on ofknowl edge, t he Edi t or i al Boar d r equest ed Pr of essorLor i n Ander s on of t he Uni ver si t y of Sout h Car ol i na, t o preparethis bookl et on "I ncreasi ng Teacher Ef f ect i veness". H esynt hesi zes a mas s of exi sti ng r esear ch resul ts o n t eacheref f ect i veness i n a part i cul arl y easy and cl ear way . H e al sosuggest s h o w this knowl edge coul d be used to i ncrease t heef f ecti veness. Thi s bookl et i s t hus val uabl e r eadi ng f or al thosepl anner s, r esear cher s and t eacher s concer ned wi t h i ncreasi ng t hequal i t y of educat i on.T h e I nsti tute woul d l i ke to t hank Pr of essorT. Nevi l l e Post l et hwai t e, co- gener al edi tor and speci al edi tor ofthis i ssue, f or t he act i ve rol e he pl ayed in i ts preparat i on.

J acques HalakDi rector , I I EP

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Composi t i on of t heEdi tori al Boar d

Chai r man:

Gener al Edi tors:

Associ ate Edi tors:

J acques HalakDi rector , IIEPFranpi se CallodsI I EPT. Nevlle Postlethwate

Unversity of HamburgGermanyArfah A. Azi zLanguage I nsti tuteMal aysi aAl et t a GisayUnversity of Li&geBelgumCaudo de Mour a CastroI nternati onal Labour OficeSwtzerlandKenneth N. RossDeaki n UnversityAustral i aDougl as M WndhamStateUnversity of NewYork at Al bany, USA


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Pr ef ace

Thi s bookl et in the Fundamental sof Educati onal Pl anni ng seri esi s somewhat di fferent f romany of the others; i t summar i zes whati s known f rom publ i shed research about I ncr easi ng r eacheref f ect i veness.Teacher sal ari es account for 70to90per cent of the recurrenteducati onal budget. It i s through teachers and teachi ng that, to al arge extent, the l earni ng process i s organi zed. I n many countri esa great deal of money has been i nvested in tryi ng to di scover thecharacteri sti cs and acti vi ti es of a good or ef fecti ve teacher.However , eachers wor k wthi n school s w th certai n structures andcurri cul a. The teacher pl ans the envi ronment of the cl assroomorgani zes and manages the cl ass, determnes the detai l ed content,and i ts sequenci ng and paci ng, the overal l structure of the l essons,the homewor k, the feedback mechani sms to know how each pupi li s getti ng on and the correcti ves to be taken. Some teacherspl an and execute al l of these thi ngs better than others. But, what i si t - - inparti cul ar - - that makes an effecti ve teacher?I n pl anni ng the qual i ty of educati on, t is cl ear that teachersare probabl y the most i mportant component of the educati veprocess. As Anderson poi nts out in Chapter I there are, of course,other i nputs to school i ng whi ch affect l earni ng outcomes. I n thisbookl et the i mpl i cati ons are for those responsi bl e for pl anni ng thepre-servi ce and i n-servi ce trai ni ng of teachers in the nati onal andprovi nci al countri es or departments of educati on. Wher e systemsof educati on al so have nati onal , provi nci al or dstrict i nspectorsthere are i mpl i cati ons for what they can do to hel p to i mproveteachers effecti veness. There are al so i mpl i cati ons for curri cul umpl anners, educati onal admni strators, and for pl anners responsi bl efor equi ppi ng school s and cl assrooms.The author has al so provi ded, i n the Appendi ces, a set ofshort i nstruments whi ch can be used by those responsi bl e for the

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pl anni ng of t eachi ng, as wel l as for teachers, to hel p t hemi n thei rwor k.For near l y t hree decades, Dr. Lor i n Ander son of t heUni ver si t y of Sout h Car ol i na in t he Uni t ed Stat es of Amer i ca hasbeen deepl y i nvol ved in r esear ch on t eachi ng i n t he USA and ot hercount r i es, i ncl udi ng several devel opi ng count r i es. The Edi tor i alBoar d of t he I I EP Fundament al s i n Educat i on seri es wasdel i ght ed whe n Dr. Ander s on agr eed t o prepare this bookl et onI ncr easi ng t eacher ef f ect i veness.A s educat i onal pl anni ng begi ns to al ter i ts emphasi s f r ompl anni ng t he quant i t y of educat i on to pl anni ng the quaZi t y ofeducat i on, i t i s t hemes such as I ncr easi ng t eacher ef f ecti venesswhi ch emer ge as a ne w f ocus f or educat i onal pl anni ng. I t is wththis in m nd, I am sure, that al l readers wll benef i t f r om t heexcel l ent s ummar y that i s pr esent ed about t he cur rent state ofknowl edge concer ni ng t eacher ef f ect i veness.

T. Nevi l l e Post l et hwai t eCO- gener al Edi t or

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ContentsFor ewor dPr ef aceI .11.111.

I V.V.VI .VI I .V I I .Appendi ces

A f r amewor k f or i nvest i gat i ng andunder st andi ng t eacher ef f ect i venessOppor t uni t y to l earn and academ c workCl assr oom envi r onment and cl i mat eCl ass r oomorgani zat i on and managementThe st ructure of l essonsCommuni cat i on bet ween t eacher s and st udent sSt udent i nvol vement and successH o w to i ncrease t eacher ef f ect i veness

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I. A f r amewor k for i nvesti gati ng andunderstandi ng teacher effecti veness

Over the past th rty years, devel opi ng countri es have made greatstrides in achi evi ng the goal of uni versal pri mary educati on. In1985, mor e than three-fourths of pri mary age chi l dren attendedschool in the vast maj ori ty of these countri es, an average i ncreasein enrol ment of approxi matel y 10 to 15 per cent si nce 1970( Lockheed and Verspoor 1991). At the same t i me, however , onl ya relatively smal l proporti on of those chi l dren who begi n pri maryschool compl ete i t. Dropout rates of mor e than 50 per centbetween first and sixth grade (the typi cal endi ng point of pri maryeducati on) are not uncommon (Lockheed and Verspoor 1991).The chal l enge faci ng educators in these countri es in the nextdecade and beyond, then, i s how to i mprove the qual i ty of theeducati on these chi l dren recei ve.There are several ways in whi ch the qual i ty of an educati onsystemcan be i mproved (Ful l er 1986). School expendi tures canbe i ncreased. School and cl assroomorgani zati on can be changed.Mor e and better i nstructi onal materi al s can be provi ded tostudents. The qual i ty of teacher preparati on and intia trai ni ngcan be i mproved. There is i ncreasi ng evi dence that changes inmany of these so-cal l ed school i ng factors have prof ound effectson the l earni ng of chi l dren in devel opi ng countri es (Aval os andHaddad 1981; Cohn and Rossml l er 1987). In fact, these effectsare l ikely to be stronger in these countri es than they are indevel oped or i ndustri al i zed countri es (Farrel l 1989).Duri ng the past decade,however , educators i ncreasi ngl y havecome to real i ze that any meani ngf ul i mprovement in the qual i ty of

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educat i on that st udent s r ecei ve is hi ghl y dependent on t he qual i t yof t he i nstruct i on that t eacher s pr ovi de. I n sl i ghtl y di f f erent t er ms,educat i onal ef f ect i veness depends to a great extent on t eacheref f ect i veness. At l east t wo r easons c an be gi ven for thi s emphasi son the teacher. First, t eacher sal ari es r epresent a substant i alpor t i on of t he total f unds al l ocated to educat i on i n mos t count r i es;in devel opi ng count r i es, t eacher sal ari es account f or bet ween 75and 95 per cent of t he total educat i on budget . Second, there is ani ncreasi ng awar eness that t eacher s have absol ut e vet o power overi nnovat i on and change even i n t he mos t hi ghl y cent ral i zed syst emsof educat i on. For exampl e, t eacher s must endor se and actual l y usen e w i nstruct i onal mat er i al s bef or e the mat er i al s t hemsel ves canhave any i mpact on student s. W t hout t eacher endor sement , t hebest desi gned mat er i al s can end up on shel ves or i n cl osets.In or der to substant i al l y i mpr ove the qual i t y of educat i on thatst udent s recei ve, t hen, we mus t st udy what happens i n thecl assr ooms in whi ch t hey recei ve thei r educat i on. W e need tok n o w what port i ons of t he cur r i cul um actual l y fi nd thei r way i ntot he cl assr oom We need to k n o w what t eacher s say when t heyexpl ai n a di f f i cul t concept t o student s. W e need to k no w theact i vi t i es that t eacher s use to i nvol ve thei r st udent s i n l earni ng. I nBl oom s (1972) t er ms, we must begi n to exam ne what t eacher sdo, not what t eacher s are. Aval os and Haddad ( 1981) , at t he endof t he resear ch r evi ew, el aborat e o n thi s i mpor t ant poi nt :

" The obvi ous concl usi on ... i s that to s ome extent atl east, a di f f erent t ype of r esear ch is needed. Mac r o studi esof t he ef f ects of t he educat i onal sys t em that f ol l ow t hepat tern of t he i nput - out put pr obabl y are not adequat e andcannot yi el d mor e i nf or mat i on t han what al r eady exi sts.I nsi ght s i nto the t eachi ng pr ocess and t he i nteracti on of i tsvar i abl es can pr obabl y best be gai ned by ... observat i onalt echni ques. O n the basi s of thi s i nf or mat i on gat her ed i n avar i ety of cont ext s i t m ght be possi bl e to suggest acti ons(in t eachi ng and t rai ni ng) to be exper i ment ed w t h andeval uat ed". (p. 61)

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A f r amewor k or i nvesti gat i ng andunder st andi ng t eacher ef f ecti venessSi nce the publ i cati on of the Aval os and Haddad vol ume,

numer ous observati onal studi es of cl assrooms have beenconduct ed in the Uni ted States (see Brophy and Good 1986;Doyl e, 1986; and Rosenshi ne and Stevens 1986 f or revi ews) andthe Uni ted Ki ngdom (Gal ton 1987), and some devel opi ngcountri es ( Namuddu 1989). Inaddi ti on, in the md- 1980s a maj ori nternati onal study of cl assrooms was conducted in ni ne countri esl ocated on fi ve conti nents (Anderson, Ryan, and Shapi ro 1989).The resul ts of these studi es suggest that cl assroomteachi ng isl argel y the same throughout the worl d. Anderson (1987a)summar i zes the resul ts of the i nternati onal study in the f ol l ow ngmanner :

" .. three pri mary types of activi ti es occurred to agreater or l esser extent in the cl assrooms in alparti ci pating countri es. Teachers tak "at" or "wth" hei rstudents ...; students work on assi gnments at the desks orat l aboratory tabl es ... and teachers engage in a set ofgeneral cl assroommanagement activi ties such as taki ngattendanceor di stri buti ng and col l ecti ng papers". (p. 82)The resul ts of these studi es al so suggest that certai ncl assroomvari abl es are moderatel y, yet consi stentl y, associatedwth student cl assroombehavi our and student achi evement. Forexampl e, eachers who provi de structure for thei r students (e.g., by

i nf ormng students of what they are to l earn and how they are tol earn i t) are l i kel y to have students who spend mor e t i me i nvol vedin l earni ng and who, ul ti matel y, l earn more. Si ml arl y, teacherswho regul arl ymoni tor and supervi se thei r students' l earni ng (e.g.,by checki ng student work and hel pi ng i ndi vi dual studentsover come errors and l earni ng d fficu ti es) are l i kel y to havestudents who exhi bi t hi gher l evel sof achi evement .Whi l e these studi es are promsi ng, they do not provi de (and,in fact, cannot provi de) cl ear cut prescri pti ons for i ncreasi ngteacher effecti veness, parti cularl y in devel opi ng countri es.Unfortunatel y, the vast amount of research on teachereffecti veness has been conducted in West ern countri es whereteachers tend to hol d col l ege and uni versi ty degrees. However ,


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t hese studi es can pr ovi de educat or s w t h i mportant concept s t hatcan be used to i nvest i gat e and underst and t eacher ef f ect i veness;concept s such as st ructur i ng and moni t or i ng. As shown in theDail and Ander son ( 1989) and Ni t sai sook and Ander s on ( 1989)studi es, many of the concept s der i ved fromr esear ch conduct ed i nWes t er n count r i es are cl earl y appl i cabl e to underst andi ng andul t i matel y i mpr ovi ng t he ef f ect i veness of t eacher s i n devel opi ngcount r i es.T he mat er i al cont ai ned i n thi s bookl et is consi stent w t h t woi mpor t ant out comes of recent cl assr oom research: key concept sthat hel p us underst and t eacher ef f ect i veness and exper i ment alact i ons t hat gui de our at t empt s to i mpr ove i t . I n each chapt er ,maj or concept s and rel ated pr i nci pl es associ at ed w t h t eacheref f ect i veness are pr esent ed and di scussed. Thes e concept s andpr i nci pl es are i nt ended to enabl e pol i cy- maker s and pract i t i onersto devel op a c o mmo n wa y of vi ewi ng pr obl ems and i ssuesassoci at ed wth i mpr ovi ng t he qual i t y of educat i on pr ovi ded tost udent s and a c o mmo n l anguage f or tal ki ng about and wor ki ngt owar d the sol ut i on of t hese pr obl ems and i ssues.I n addi t i on, i nst r ument s that can be used to moni t or andeval uat e at t empt s to syst emat i cal l y change and i mpr ove t hequal i ty of i nst ructi on pr ovi ded to st udent s are i ncl uded asAppendi ces. Dat a obt ai ned f r omt hese i nst r ument s can be used bypol i cy- maker s and pract i t i oners to mak e deci si ons as to t heef f ect i veness of part i cul ar exper i ment al act i ons and to suggestaddi t i onal changes that ma y be needed f or i mpr ovement i nt eachi ng and l ear ni ng to occur and be sust ai ned.1. Wh a t is a n ef f ect i ve t eacher ?Ef f ect i ve t eacher s are t hose who achi eve t he goal s t hey set f ort hemsel ves or have set f or t hem by ot hers (e. g. , schooladmni str at or s, mni str i es of educat i on) . As a consequence, t hosewh o st udy and at t empt to i mpr ove the ef f ect i veness of t eacher smus t be cogni zant of t he goal s i mposed o n t eacher s, the goal s thatt eacher s establ i sh f or t hemsel ves, or both.A corol l ary of thi s def i ni t i on is that ef f ect i ve t eacher s mustpossess t he knowl edge and ski l ls needed to attai n the goal s and16


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A f r amewor k or i nvesti gat i ng andunderst andi ng t eacher ef f ecti venessmust be abl e to use that know edge and those ski l ls appropri atel yif the goal s are to be achi eved. In Medl ey' s (1982) terms, thepossessi on of know edge and ski l ls fal ls under the rubri c oft eacher compet ence. I n contrast, the use of know edge and ski l lsin the cl assroomis referred to as t eacher per f or mance. Thus,those who i nvesti gate and attempt to understand teachereffecti veness must be abl e to l ink teacher compet ence and teacherperf ormance w th the accompl i shment of teacher goal s (that i s,teacher effecti veness).

Several assumpt i ons are i mpl i ci t in th s defi ni ti on of teachereffecti veness. An intia assumpt i on is that effecti ve teachers tendto be aware of and acti vel y pursue goal s. These goal s gui de thei rpl anni ng as wel l as thei r behavi ours and i nteracti ons in thecl assroom Thi s assumpt i on does not mean that effecti ve teachersare al ways aware of goal s; in fact, awareness is parti cul arl y l i kelyto be l acki ng when goal s have been establ i shed for teachers byothers. Nor does th s assumpt i on mean that everythi ng teachersthink about or do is related to the attai nment of some goal .Teachers, l i ke the rest of us, often do thi ngs j ust to do t hemRather, the assumpt i on means that effecti ve teachers tend to bepurposeful and goal -ori ented.A second assumpt i on is that the vast maj ori ty of teachers'goal s are or shoul d be concerned ei ther di rectl y or i ndi rectl y w ththe l earni ng of their students. An exampl e of di rect teacherconcern wth l earni ng is a teacher who states that he or she i ntendsto hel p students devel op the ab l i ty to di fferenti ate facts f r omopi ni ons. I ncontrast, an exampl e of i ndi rect teacher concern w thl earni ng is a teacher who sets out to decrease the l evel ofdi srupti ve behavi our in the cl assroombecause the teacher bel i evesthat mni mzi ng or el i mnati ng di srupti ve behavi our is necessarybefore l earni ng can occur. I t shoul d be obvi ous that if teachers'goal s are stated in terms of thei r students' l earni ng, then, asMedl ey (1982)asserts, "teacher ef fecti venessmust be def i ned, andcan onl y be assessed, in terms of behavi ours and l earni ng ofstudents, not behavi ours of teachers" (p. 1894). Al so, in thisregard, the Wor l d Bank (1990) suggests that "countri es mustemphasi ze students' l ear ni ng as the key pol i cy obj ecti ve" (p. 54).

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I ncreasi ng t eacher f l ecti veness

A th i rd assumpt i on i s that no t eacher is ef f ect i ve al l t he t i me.An el ement ar y school t eacher ma y be hi ghl y successf ul t eachi ngr eadi ng compr ehens i on to hi s or her student s, whi l e st ruggl i ng tot each t hem t he el ement s of r udi ment ar y pr obl em sol vi ng inmat hemat i cs . A secondar y school t eacher of l i terature ma y bequi t e abl e to t each st udent s an appreci at i on of poet ry, but haves ome di f f i cul ty t eachi ng t hemh o w to i nterpret t he s ymbol i s m i n aseri es of novel s. Thus , the degr ee to whi ch a gi ven t eacher i sef f ecti ve depends to a cer tai n ext ent on the goal s bei ng pur sued bythat t eacher por t er and Br ophy 1988).Si m l ar l y, an el ement ar y school t eacher ma y be trulyexcel l ent wi t h st udent s wi t h l ower academ c apt i t udes, whi l e at t hes ame t i me f eel i ng qui te f rustrated wth hi s or her i nabi l i ty to r each t hose st udent s w t h hi gher academ c apt i t udes. Asecondar y school mat hemat i cs t eacher ma y be part i cul arl y adeptwi t h st udent s wh o are wel l mot i vat ed to l earn mat hemat i cs , buthave great di f f i cul ty w t h those wh o wonder wh y t hey have tol earn mat hemat i cs in the f i r s t pl ace. Thus , t he degr ee to whi ch at eacher i s ef f ecti ve al so depends to a l arge ext ent on t he student sbei ng t aught by t he t eacher .Despi t e the appar ent val i di ty of t hese exampl es, i t s eemsr easonabl e to as s ume t hat t hose we t er m ef f ect i ve t eacher s areef f ect i ve mor e of t en t han not . In ot her wor ds, t here i s s o medegr ee of consi st ency i n t hese t eacher s ef f ect i veness overcl assr oom condi t i ons and over t i me. As we shal l see t hr oughoutthi s bookl et , however , this ef f ect i veness does not st em f r om t heri gi d adher ence to a st andar d set of behavi our s and strategi es i n al lsi tuat i ons. Rat her , t eacher s wh o are consi stent l y ef f ect i ve arethose who are abl e to adapt thei r knowl edge and ski l l s to t hedemands of a var i ety of si tuat i ons so as to achi eve thei r goal s.Doi ng what ever i s necessary i n order to achi eve t hese goal s, rathert han behavi ng i n certai n ways or usi ng cer tai n t echni ques ormet hods, is t he hal l mar k of ef f ect i ve t eachers.I n summary, t hen, a n ef f ect i ve t eacher is one wh o qui t econsi stent l y achi eves goal s whi c h ei ther di rectl y or i ndi rectl yf ocus o n the l ear ni ng of thei r st udent s. N o w that t eacheref f ecti veness has been def i ned, we can mo v e to a di scussi on of a

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A f r amewor k or i nvesti gat i ng andunderst andi ng teacher ef f ecti venessrel ated questi on, " What factors contri bute to teachereffecti veness?"2. Wh a t act or s cont r i but e to t eacher ef l ect i veness?Whi l e defi ni ng an effecti ve teacher is reasonabl y strai ghtforward,i denti fyi ng those factors whi ch are rel ated or contri buteto teachereffecti veness is far mor e d fficu t. There are at least t wo maj orreasons for this di ffi cul ty.Frst, teachers and the instructi on they provi de students areonl y t wo of a compl ex of factors that i mpact on student l earni ng.One of the f undamental truths in educati on i s that the knowl edge,skills, apti tudes, atti tudes, and val ues wth whi ch students l eaveschool or a parti cul ar teacher' s cl assroomare i nf l uenced to a greatdegree by the know edge, skills, apti tudes, atti tudes, and val uesthe students possess when they enter the school or the cl assroomIn addi ti on, the know edge, skills, apti tudes, atti tudes, and val uesstudents possess upon entry are the resul t of some intri cate andcompl ex combi nati on of thei r geneti c composi t i on and thei r homebackground. To compl i cate matters further, earl y di f ferencesamong chi l dren are of ten magni f i ed by thei r parents' deci si onsconcerni ng the school s the chi l drenwll attend and teachers' andparents' deci si ons as to the programmes wthi n these school s inwhi ch they wll be pl aced. As we i nvesti gate and attempt tounderstand teacher effecti veness, then, we must take i ntoconsi derati on not onl y where the students are goi ng (asdetermned, in part, by the goal s of the teacher), but also wher ethey have been (as determned in part by thei r geneti ccomposi t i on, thei r home backgrounds, and thei r pri or school i ngexperi ences).Second, not onl y does the effecti veness of a parti cul ar teacherdepend to a greater or l esser extent on the goal s bei ng pursued andthe students bei ng taught, but teachers themsel ves di ffer. Li kethei r students, teachers di ffer in terms of the know edge, ski l l s,apti tudes, atti tudes, and val ues they bri ng to thei r cl assrooms.They al so di ffer in thei r teachi ng experi ence. There is i ncreasi ngevi dence, for exampl e, that novi ce Amer i can teachers di ffergreatl y frommor e experi enced Amer i can teachers on a w de

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I ncreasi ng t eacher efSecti veness

var i ety of character i sti cs (e.g. , thei r emphasi s on sel f pr eser vat i onand cl assr oommanagement , t he i nf l exi bi l i ty of thei r behavi our i nt he cl assr oom ( Ander son and Burns 1989). A s a consequence oft hese di f f erences bot h w t hi n t eacher s and acr oss t eacher s,devel opi ng a gener al l ist of f actors that are guar ant eed to berel ated to teacher ef f ect i veness f or al or even mos t t eacher s i sdi f f i cul t, if not i mpossi bl e.At this poi nt in t he di scussi on, s o me educat or s andpol i cy- maker s ma y t hr ow up thei r hands and suggest that at t empt sto i mpr ove t eacher ef f ect i veness are theref ore futi l e. Af t er a l l , i ft he genet i c composi t i on, h o me backgr ound, and pr i or schoolexper i ences of st udent s account f or mor e t han t he school s st udent sat t end and t he t eacher s t hey encount er , and i f a st andard set ofbehavi our s, t echni ques, and practi ces associ at ed wth ef f ect i vet eachi ng f or al l t eachers cannot be i dent i f i ed, t hen wh y bot her toi nqui re about i ncreasi ng t eacher ef f ect i veness? The count erar gument ( and t he ar gument under l yi ng thi s bookl et ) is t hreef ol d.First, whe n l ooked at over ext ended per i ods of t i me (that i s,t i me per i ods l onger than a si ngl e mont h, t er m or year) , school sand teachers can and do have a t r emendous i mpact on t he l earni ngof thei r student s. One of t he most obvi ous i mpact s of school i ngo n st udent l earni ng over t he l ong haul i s t he dr amat i c i ncrease i ndi f f erences i n st udent l earni ng as evi denced by st andar di zed testscores. W e need to under st and what i t i s about di f f erences i nschool and t eacher ef f ect i veness that pr oduces such r emar kabl edi f l er ences i n st udent l earni ng.Second, t here i s ampl e anecdotal evi dence that i ndi vi dualt eacher s have pr of ound i nf l uences on i ndi vi dual student s. Mos tpeopl e can thi nk back to thei r school days and recal l one or mor et eacher s who made a real di f f erence i n thei r l i ves. Becaus e of thisone teacher, a compl ex i dea was under st ood, a speci al i nterest i n apart i cul ar subj ect mat t er was devel oped, or a desi re to pur sue acertai n career was cul t i vat ed. To t he ext ent that t hese l ear ni ngsrepresent goal s of t he teacher , an ext ernal agency, or the st udent ,there can be no doubt that t hese t eacher s wer e ef f ect i ve. W e needto under st and what i t i s about such teacher s that mak e t hemef f ect i ve.

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A f r amewor k or i nvesti gati ng andunder st andi ng teacher ef f ect i venessThi rd, whether school s and teachers do have an i mpact on

student l earni ng depends not onl y on teachers possessi ng theknow edge and ski l l s needed to faci l i tate student l earni ng, but alsoon thei r knowi ng when to use that know edge and those ski l l s toachi eve thei r student-ori ented goal s. In this regard, the cards maybe stacked agai nst effecti veness. That is, there may be far mor eways for teachers to be i neffecti ve thanto be effecti ve. The pointto be made here, however , s si mpl e. The fact that some teachersdo not possess the necessary know edge and ski l l s, do not knowwhen to use that know edge and those ski l l s, or are notstudent-ori ented does not undermne the concept of teachereffecti veness. Rather, these defi ci enci es si mpl y make the j ob ofi ncreasi ng teacher ef fecti veness mor e di fficul t. We need tounderstand howteachers and the school s in whi ch they work canbe made i ncreasi ngl y effecti ve.3. A concept ual r amewor k for st udyi ng a ndi mpr ovi ng t eacher ef f ect i veness a nd t heor gani zat i on of thi s bookl etI n order to understand the organi zati on of and the i nformati onpresented in the f ol l ow ng chapters, one must understand theconceptual f r amework used inprepari ng ths bookl et.As shown in Fi gur e I , he conceptual f r amework i ncl udes sixcomponent s as wel l as the interrel ati onshi ps among thesecomponents. Two of these component s, teacher characteri sti csand student characteri sti cs, are gi vens inmost school s. Studentsenrol in school s based on establ i shed attendance zones or enrol l edin the school s by thei r parents. Teachers are empl oyed in school s,typi cal l y for fairl y extended peri ods of ti me. As a consequence,nei ther of these components are amenabl e to great change inrelati vely short peri ods of t i me. In Bl oom s (1981) terms, nei theris an al terabl e vari abl e. Neverthel ess, as ment i oned earl i er, thecharacteri sti cs of both teachers and students are i mportant toconsi der as we examne and seek to understand teachereffecti veness.

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A f r amewor k or i nvesti gati ng a.ndunderst andi ng t eacher ef f ecti venessThe three component s inthe mddl e col umn of Fi gur e I , on the

other hand, are cl earl y al terable. As a consequence, changes inthese component s can be expected to resul t in changes andi mprovements in student l earni ng. As a further consequence,pol i ci es Concerni ng these component s are qui te l i kel y to resul t ini ncreasesor decreases in teacher effecti veness.The top component , curri cul um i ncl udes two vari abl esconsi stentl y l i nkedwth student l earni ng: opportuni ty to l earn andacademc work. Even in the most central i zed syst ems of educati on,l arge vari ati on in these two vari abl es has been document ed(Anderson, Ryan, and Shapi ro1989). As a consequence,aswll beseen in Chapter 11, pol i ci es concerni ng opportuni ty to l earn andstudent tasks l ay the groundwor k for i ncreased teachereffecti veness.The bottomcomponent in the mddl e col umn, cl assrooms, scl earl y mani pul abl e. Teachers set the tone for thei r cl assrooms.The rul es and routi nes that are establ i shed and enforced incl assrooms i mpact on student behavi our. As wll be seen inChapters 111 and I V,effecti ve teachers di ffer f romother teachers inthe ways inwhi ch they set up thei r cl assrooms.The mddl e component in the mddl e col umn, teachi ng,consi sts of the ways in whi ch teachers structure the l essons and theways inwhi ch teachers communi cat ewth thei r students. As wll bedi scussed in Chapters V and VI , mor e and l ess effecti ve teacherscan be di fferenti ated in terms of both thei r l esson structure and thei rcommuni cat i on w th students.The final component i ncl uded in Fi gur e I i s student l earni ng.Thi s component i ncl udes student l earni ng as both a process and asan out come. As a process, student l earni ng i s the degree ofi nvol vement of students in thei r own l earni ng (Chapter VI). As anout come, student l earni ng is the students successful achi evement ofspeci f i ed goal s and obj ecti ves. Thi s out come can be referred tosi mpl y as studentsuccess. In Fi gur e I , he arrows i ndi cate the di recti on of the expectedi nf l uences among the components i ncl uded in the model . Twotypes of i nf l uence are evi dent: di rect and i ndi rect. Ar r owsconnect i ng adj acent components i ndi cate hypothesi zed di recti nf l uences of one component on the, other. For exampl e, student

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I ncreasi ng t eacher ef Secti veness

l earni ng i s bel i eved to be di rectl y i nf l uenced by c umc ul um,t eachi ng, c l assr ooms, and st udent character i sti cs. Thes e are the f ourcomponent s wth ar r ows di rect l y l i nked to st udent l earni ng. Not ethat t he r emai ni ng component , t eacher character i sti cs, is notbel i eved to di rect l y i nf l uence st udent l earni ng si nce t here is noar r ow di rect l y l i nki ng t hese t wo component s of t he model . O n t heot her hand, t eacher character i sti cs are bel i eved to di rect l y i nf l uencecur r i cul um t eachi ng, and cl assr ooms, whi ch i n t u r n are expect ed todi rect l y i nf l uence st udent l earni ng. Thus , t eacher character i sti cscan be expect ed to have an i ndi r ect i nf l uence on student l earni ng.The model di spl ayed i n Fi gur e I i s i nt ended to be heur i st i crather t han compr ehensi ve. Ther e are several component s thatcoul d be i ncl uded i n a mor e compr ehens i ve model . Exampl esment i oned earl i er in this chapt er coul d i ncl ude school or gani zat i onand adm ni st r at i on, pol i ci es gover ni ng student pl acement andeval uat i on, and i nstr uct i onal suppor t mat er i al s (e.g. , t ext books,audi o- vi sual materi al s) . The emphasi s i n thi s bookl et , however , i son t eacher ef f ect i veness and whi l e s uch component s ma y const rai nteachers, thus maki ng i t mor e di ff i cul t f or t hemto be ef f ect i ve, t heydo not by t hemsel ves guar ant ee t eacher ef f ect i veness. I n thisr egar d, t hey are si ml ar to the component s of t eachercharacter i sti cs and st udent character i sti cs. T he heart of anyconcept ual f r amewor k t hat i s devel oped f or t he pur pose ofunder st andi ng and i mpr ovi ng t eacher ef f ect i veness consi sts of t hef our pr i mar y c omponent s that are the f ocal poi nt of this bookl et :cur r i cul um cl assr ooms, t eachi ng, and l earni ng.4. A cl osi ng c o mme nt or pol i cy- maker s andeducat i onal pl anner sThe chapters of this bookl et are rel ated to t he component s of t heconcept ual f r amewor k descr i bed in t he pr evi ous sect i on. T hepreci se r el at i onshi p of each chapt er to one of the component s of t hef r amewor k i s i ndi cat ed i n Fi gur e I by a bracket.In each chapt er the basi c concept s and pr i nci pl es associ at edwi t h t eacher ef f ect i veness are descr i bed and i l l ustrated. Eachchapt er al so i ncl udes an i ni ti al set of r ecommendat i ons fori ncreasi ng t eacher ef f ect i veness. These r ecommendat i ons concer n

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Af r amavor k or i nvesti gat i ng andunderst andi ng t eacher ef f ecti veness

what teachers shoul d knowand be abl e to do if they are to beeffecti vein thei r cl assrooms. Each chapter concl udeswth a secondset of recommendat i ons. Thi s second set of recommendat i ons isaddressed to pol i cy-makers and educati onal pl anners at the l ocaland nati onal l evel s and concerns what these two groups can do toestabl i sh the condi ti ons and provi de the resources needed forteachers to be i ncreasi ngl y effecti ve. I nst ruments that can be usedto col l ect data on curri cul um i mpl ementat i on, cl assroomorgani zati on and management , teachi ng, and student i nvol vement inl earni ng are i ncl uded as appendi xes. By understandi ng the basi cconcept and pri nci pl es, and col l ecti ng data on current teachi ngpracti ces, pol i cy-makers, educati onal pl anners, and teachersthemsel ves are in a much stronger positi on to make deci si ons thatwll ul ti matel y i ncrease teacher effecti veness.

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I I . Opportuni ty to l ear n and academ c wor k

Al t hough t he t er m c umc ul um an be def i ned in ma nydi f f erent way s ( Zumwal t 1989) , t here are several el ement s whi chare c o mmo n to vi rtual l y all def i ni t i ons. T he cur r i cul um cont ai nsgoal s and obj ect i ves, subj ect mat t er and cont ent , and mat er i al s( such as t ext books, film and f i l mstr i ps, and comput er sof t ware) .The cur r i cul um al so i ncl udes pl anned l earni ng exper i encest hr ough whi ch st udent s are expect ed to achi eve t he goal s andobj ect i ves i n and across subj ect mat t er s usi ng t he avai l abl emat er i al s.In s ome count r i es, t eacher s have li ttle if any cont rol overgoal s and obj ect i ves, subj ect mat t er and cont ent , and mat er i al s. Inmost count r i es, however , t eacher s have mu c h greater cont rol overt he l earni ng exper i ences t hey pl an f or thei r st udent s ( Ander son,Ryan, and Shapi r o 1989) . Thus, di f f erences i n t he l earni ngexper i ences pl anned by t eacher s, gi ven the goal s, rel ated cont ent ,avai l abl e mat er i al s, and t hei r st udent s, ma y cont r i but e todi f f erences i n thei r ef f ect i veness ( Cl ar k and Pet erson 1986) .Whi l e the consi der at i on of di f f erences i n t eacher pl anni ngare essent i al as we sear ch f or f actors cont r i but i ng to t eacheref f ect i veness, pl ans, as we al l k no w, ma y not be actual i zed. As( Ber l i ner 1988) suggest ed, an ef f ect i ve t eacher is not onl ys omeone wh o pl ans wel l , but s omeone wh o del i vers a curri cul umto chi l dren that is l i nked l ogi cal l y or empi r i cal l y to the out comesthat are val ued.Thi s di f f erence bet ween pl ans and actual i ty wasrei nf orced by t he researchers i nvol ved in t he I EA SecondI nt ernat i onal Mat hemat i cal St udy (SI MS) . Thes e researchers made26


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Oppor t uni t y to Learn and academ c wor k

a di sti ncti on between what they termed the i nt ended (or pl anned)and i mpl emented (or actual ) curri cul um "The i ntendedcurri cul um was def i ned as the f ormal prescri bed curri cul umcontai ned in nati onal courses of study. The i mpl ement edcurri cul umwas the curri cul um actual l y taught in the school s"(Westbury 1989, p. 20). The resul ts of SI MS i ndi cated qui tecl earl y that esti mates of the i mpl ement ed curri cul umwer e mor estrongl y related to measures of student achi evement than wer eesti mates of the i ntended curri cul um

As we attempt to understand the i mpact of curri cul umonteacher effecti veness, t hen, we are w se to seek factors related tothe i mpl emented, rather than i ntended, cumcul um Two suchfactors, supported by both theory and research, wll be di scussedin th s chapter. The f i rst factor has been label l ed opportuni ty tol earn; the second,academc work.These two factors di ffer in several ways, most of whi chwll be descri bed later. One criti cal di f ference, however , wll bedi scussed at th s ti me. Opportuni ty to l earn permts anexamnat i on of student l earni ng opportuni ti es over the l ong haul .That is, esti mates of opportuni ty to l earn are typi cal l y made at theend of a school termor year; these esti mates are then exam ned inrel ati on to endof - termor endof - year student achi evement. Incontrast, academc work provi des ongoi ng i nf ormati on aboutstudent opportuni ti es to l earn. The work assi gned to students canbe examnedon a dai l y or weekl y basi s. Together, then, academcwork and opportuni ty to l earn provi de us w th a rather compl eteperspecti veon the i mpl emented curri cul umI . Opportuni ty to l ear nOpportuni ty to l earn(OTL) an be def i ned as the extent to whi chstudents are gi ven i nstructi onon the know edge and ski l l s that are(1 rel ated to the pri mary curri cul ar goal s and obj ecti ves, or(2) i mportant enough to be i ncl uded on out come measures ofstudent l earni ng. Somet i mes both of these defi ni ti ons arecombi ned into a si ngl e comprehensi ve defi ni ti on.Accordi ng to the f i r s t defi ni ti on,OTL is the emphasi s gi venor the amount of t i me devoted to teachi ng and l earni ng parti cul ar

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subj ect mat t er s (e. g. , mat hemat i cs ) or speci f i c aspects of part i cul arsubj ect mat t er s (e. g. , mat hemat i cal concept s, mat hemat i calal gor i t hms, pr obl em sol vi ng). Usi ng thi s f i r s t def i ni t i on, i tbec omes fai rl y obvi ous that pr i mary school st udent s i n mos tcount r i es have great er oppor t uni t y to l earn l anguage arts( i ncl udi ng r eadi ng) t han t hey do to l earn mat hemat i cs .Appr oxi mat el y one- t hi r d of t hei r total i nstr uct i onal t i me i s spenton l anguage arts, wher eas appr oxi mat el y one- f i f t h i s spent onmat hemat i cs . St udent s have far l ess oppor t uni t y to l earn ot heracadem c subj ect s ( Wor l d Ban k 1990). W t hi n l anguage arts,st udent s ma y have qui t e di f f erent oppor t uni t i es to l earnvocabul ar y, gr ammar , r eadi ng compr ehensi on, and wr i t tencomposi t i on. These di f f erent i al oppor t uni t i es can be est i mat edonce agai n by t he total t i me or numbe r of l essons spent o n each, orby t he number of pages i n the t ext book devot ed to each area.I n t he mor e compr ehensi ve def i ni t i on of OTL, he cri ti cali ssue is t he rel at i onshi p amo ng the goal s and obj ect i ves, t hei nst ruct i on pr ovi ded to t he student s, and the out come measur es oft he goal s and obj ect i ves. Wh e n a st rong rel at i onshi p exi sts, t hegoal s and obj ect i ves, i nst ructi on, and out come measur es are sai dto be i n al i gnment . Mi sal i gnment , t hen, resul t s i n r educed OTL.Ths compr ehensi ve def i ni t i on has been used f or over aquar t er of a cent ur y i n st udi es conduct ed by t he I nt ernat i onalAssoci at i on f or t he Eval uat i on of Educat i onal Achi evement (EA).As a resul t I EA researchers have devel oped a rather s i mpl et echni que f or est i mat i ng OTL. At the end of a part i cul ar t er m oryear , t eacher s are asked to exam ne each i t emi ncl uded on a gi venmeas ur e of st udent l earni ng and r espond to a seri es of quest i ons.T he f ol l owi ng are exampl es of t hree qui t e c o mmo n quest i ons:

1. Dur i ng t he past t erm (or year) , di d you t each or r evi ewt he knowl edge or skill needed to answer t he i t em2. I f your answer to t he fi rst quest i on was yes, h o w muc hemphas i s di d you gi ve to t he knowl edge or ski l l ?3. I f your answer to t he first quest i on was no, why wast he knowl edge or skill nei t her t aught nor r evi ewed?

correct l y?

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Typi cal response opti ons for each of these questi ons as wel las a f orm for respondi ng to the questi ons are i ncl uded inAppendi x A. Al so in Appendi x A, he di fferent ways are di scussedin whi ch the responses gi ven to these quest i ons by a teacher canbe scored and summedto arri ve at a tota score for that teacher.However i t is cal cul ated, th s tota score represents areasonabl e esti mate of the opportuni ty that students in thisteacher s cl assroomhave had to l earn the goal s and obj ecti vesi ncl uded on a measure of student l earni ng gi ven at the end of aterm or year. The i nterpretati on of this total score isstrai ghtforward: the l arger the tota score, the greater the studentsopportuni tyto l earn.In vi ew of the previ ous di scussi on, the i mportance ofopportuni ty to l earn in our study of teacher effecti veness is fairl yobvi ous. As the number of i tems testing know edge and ski l l s nott aught to students or not emphas i zed by the teacher i ncreases, theval idi ty of the measure of student l earni ng relati ve to thei nstructi on actual l y provi ded to the students decreases. Wthoutval id measures of student l earni ng, the i nf l uence of cl assroomi nstructi onal ,or teachi ng factors on student l earni ng i s likely to bemni mzed or, perhaps, go undetected even when i t does exist.Thi s fact is parti cularl y imortant to consi der in desi gni ng ori nterpreti ng the resul ts of studi es in whi ch rel ati onshi ps betweencl assroomacti vi ti es or teacher-student i nteracti ons and studentachi evement are bei ng i nvesti gated.2. Academ c workIn most cl assrooms, students are routi nel y gi ven work they areexpected to compl ete. Thi s work may consi st of stones or bookchapters to read, essays or reports to wri te, mathemati cal or l ogi calprobl ems to sol ve, or scienti fi c experi ments to perform As theycompl ete ths work, students are expected to acqui re someknow edge or skill or engage in practi ce usi ng the know edge orskill. As a consequence, Doyl e (1983) has referred to i t as academcwork.Qui te obvi ousl y, academc work canor at home. Equal l y obvi ous is the fact be compl eted in schoolthat work compl eted at

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h o me is t er med ' homewor k. ' Home wo r k is one of t he f ewvar i abl es in i nt ernat i onal r esear ch that has been consi stent l yassoci at ed wth student l ear ni ng ( Ander son and Post l et hwai t e1989).S o me educat or s have ar gued that t he academ c wor k assi gnedto student s def i nes t he c umc ul um f or t hem( Zumwal t 1989). Thati s, i nher ent i n mos t wel l pl anned and wel l organi zed pi eces ofacadem c wor k are rather expl i ci t cl ues as to t he goal s andobj ecti ves (e. g. , pr obl em sol vi ng) , cont ent (e. g. , l i near equat i ons) ,met hods used to compl et e t he wor k (e. g. , " wor k i n pai rs and rai seyour hand i f you need assi stance") and the nat ure of accept abl eanswer s (e.g. , " s how your wor k and be accur at e to the f i r s tdeci mal poi nt"). I f st udent s can gl ean such potent i al l y usef uli nf or mat i on f r om thei r assi gned wor k, educat or s and researcherscan do l i kew se. I n th is r egar d, ( Ander son1987) pr epared a seri esof quest i ons that can be rai sed as educat or s and researchers r evi ewt he wor k assi gned to st udent s. A checkl i st, der i ved f r om t hesequest i ons, that can be used to exam ne t he wor k assi gned tost udent s is di spl ayed i n Appendi xB.I nher ent i n thi s checkl i st are a seri es of i ssues t o whi cht eacher s shoul d at tend as t hey prepare ass i gnment s f or thei rstudent s. Whi l e mos t of t hese i ssues are c o mmo n sense, t heyunf or t unat el y are not c ommonpl ac e. A s a consequence, t hey bearrepeat i ng. T he pur pose of t he assi gned wor k i n t er ms of st udentl earni ng shoul d be cl ear t o t he student and the compl et i on of t heassi gned wor k shoul d l ead the st udent to or t owar d theaccompl i shment of that pur pose ( checkl i st i t ems 1, 2, and 3.St udent s shoul d be made awar e of what t hey need to do tocompl et e t he wor k and t he wa y i n whi ch thei r wor k i s to beeval uat ed (checkl i st i t ems 4 and 5). Fi nal l y, t he amount of wor kassi gned to st udent s shoul d be appr opr i at e in vi ew of i ts pur pose,t he amount of t i me al l ocat ed to t he wor k, and the credi t thatstudents wll ear n f or compl et i ng i t (e. g. , t he mar ks t hey wll beassi gned) ( checkl i st i t em6).I f t he wor k assi gned to student s communi cat es thecur r i cul um to t hem t hen t he st udy of assi gned wor k ma ycont r i but e one mor e pi ece to our t eacher ef f ect i veness puzzl e.Fur t her mor e, f or ma ny student s, compl et i ng t he wor k assi gned to

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t hem rather than l i stening to thei r teachers, may be the realvehi cl e for thei r l earni ng.3. Rec ommendat i ons for t eacher ef f ect i venessBased on what i s currentl y known about opportuni ty to l earn andacademc work, a seri es of recommendat i ons can be offered tothose i nterested in i mprovi ng teacher effecti veness. Theserecommendat i ons (and a brief di scussi on of each) are contai ned inthe fol l ow ng secti ons.Oppor t uni t y to l earn(i ) Peri odi c esti mates of opportuni ty to l earn shoul d be made,parti cul arl y i n those subj ect matters whi ch are l earnedwhol l y or substanti al l y i n school .

The deni al of opportuni ty to l earn i s parti cularl y acute insubj ect matters such as forei gn l anguages, mathemati cs, andsci ence. In many other subj ect matters, students have mul ti pl eopportuni ti es to l earn (i ncludi ng, most i mportantl y, hose provi dedby the home and communi ty). For these subj ect matters, a regul armoni tori ngof opportuni ty to l earn may nonethel ess be useful .(i i) If students have l itt le opportuni ty to l earn what they areexpected to l earn and what i s i mportant for themto l earn,then @ar t s shoul d be made to i ncrease thei r l earni ngopportuni ti es.

Thi s recommendat i on is perhaps best di scussed in terms ofthe concept of al i gnment ment i oned earl ier. If goal s andobj ecti ves, measures of student l earni ng, and the i nstructi onprovi ded to students are msal i gned, then adj ustments must bemade. Qui te cl earl y, thi s adj ustment can start at any of threepoi nts: goal s and obj ecti ves, measures of student l earni ng, ori nstructi on. The most reasonabl e starting point of al i gnment i sgoal s and obj ecti ves. Once goal s and obj ecti ves have beenestabl i shed, measures of student l earni ng can be al i gned wth31


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t hose goal s and obj ect i ves, and the i nst ruct i on pr ovi ded to st udent scan be al i gned wi t h t he goal s and obj ect i ves as measur ed.Academ c wor k( i ) Th e academ c wor k assi gned to st udent s shoul d be c hosenbased not onl y o n t he r el evance of t he wo r k t o t he goal s andobj ecti ves, but t he appr opr i at eness of t he wor k for t hest udent s t hemsel ves.

Wo r k assi gned to st udent s shoul d ref l ect s ome i ntr i catebal ance bet ween the goal s and obj ect i ves of the t eacher and thei rst udent s cur rent l evel of knowl edge and ski l l s. The f i r s t priorityi n assi gni ng wor k shoul d be t he goal s and obj ect i ves bei ngpur sued. Nonet hel ess, t he ef f ect i ve t eacher ensur es that t he wor ki s nei t her too di f f i cul t nor t oo easy f or t he st udent s. I f an error inj udgement is made , however , t he error shoul d f avour t he mor edi ff i cul t end of t he cont i nuum Thi s t ype of er ror is consi stentwi t h t he resear ch f i ndi ngs that suggest that st udent s needchal l enge ( and var i ety) i n or der to persever e and succeed. I f t hedi f f i cul ty er r or s made, however , t eacher s must be w l l i ng andabl e to pr ovi de f or t he needs of st udent s wh o i ni ti al l y cannot meett he demands .( i i ) Wo r k , ncl udi ng homewor k, shoul d be assi gned to st udent s o na r egul ar and f r equent basi s.

Ho me wo r k ext ends t he amount of t i me avai l abl e to student sf or l earni ng. Thus, st udent s i n mos t need of addi t i onal t i me i nor der to l earn or pract i ce what t hey have l ear ned shoul d be gi venhomewor k. T he par adox i n this si tuat i on, however , i s that manyof t he student s assi gned homewor k are l east l i kel y to benef i t f r omt he ho mewor k bei ng assi gned. These st udent s of t en c o me f r omho mes i n whi ch parent s do not as s ume t he responsi bi l i ty f orseei ng that thei r chi l dren compl et e t he homewor k or are unabl e topr ovi de the suppor t and assi stance to thei r chi l dren when t hey arehavi ng di f f i cul ty w t h thei r homewor k . As a consequence,t eacher s shoul d mak e certai n that st udent s k n o w what t hey are to32


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do for the homewor k and howthey are to do i t before they send i thome.(i i i ) Students shoul d be hel d accountabl e for both the compl et i onand qual i ty of t hei r work. I n turn, teachers shoul d ensurethat thei r students possess the know edge and skil ls needed tocompl ete wor k of t he qual i ty expectedof thembefore they areal l owed to wor k on thei r own.

The i mportance of student accountabi l i ty for both thei rcl asswork ( Kouni n 1970) and thei r homewor k (Wal berg 1984) hasbeen wel l documented. At the same t i me, however , t is di fficul tto hol d students accountabl e for the qual i ty of thei r work if theyhave not been taught or hel ped to devel op the know edge andski l ls they need to perform at the l evel of qual i ty expected oft hem As a consequence, acti vi ti es such as gui ded practi ce , inwhi ch teachers work wth students to ensure thei r success onintia acti vi ti es, experi ences, exerci ses, and probl ems beforeal l ow ng t hemto work i ndependentl y, have been advocated byboth educators and researchers (Rosenshi ne and Stevens 1986).(i v) Whi l e students are worki ng i n t hei r cl assrooms, teachersshoul d actively super vi se t he wor k and provi de assi stance toi ndi vi dual students or smal l groups of students i n such a way

that other st udent s are not di sturbed.When students are gi ven work fol l ow ng a peri od of di recti nstructi on, teachers shoul dnot assume that these students are abl eto compl ete the work on thei r own. Rather, teachers shoul d beacti vel y engaged in moni tori ng and supervi si ng students as theywork. As probl ems ari se, teachers shoul d be avai l abl e to provi deassi stance to these students. I n th s way, student work becomes

another l earni ng experi ence for the students.

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( v) Teacher s shoul d use t he knowl edge t hey gai n from thei rstudents' wor k not onl y to eval uat e st udent s, but al so topr ovi de t hem wi t h addi ti onal i nstr uct i on t ar get ed t owar dthei r er r or s and m sunder st andi ngs.Ther e is a t endency on the part of s ome t eacher s to assi gnwor k to st udent s f or t he sol e pur pose of eval uat i ng thei r l earni ng.Teacher s shoul d r emember that the qual i ty of student s' wor k c analso pr ovi de t hem i nsi ght s concer ni ng pr obl ems and def i ci enci es

i n thei r l earni ng. Wh e n t hese pr obl ems and def i ci enci es have beeni dent i f i ed, addi t i onal i nstruct i on can be ar r anged or pr ovi ded t ohel p st udent s over c ome t hem rather t han si mpl y al l owi ng t hem toaccumul at e.4. Rec ommendat i ons f or pol i cy- maker sandeduca iona1pl anner sOppor t uni t y to l earn and academ c wor k pr ovi de t wo i mpor t anti ndi cators of t he extent to whi ch the cur r i cul um i s bei ng del i veredto t he student s. Knowl edge concer ni ng t hese t wo i ndi cators i s af i r s t step t owar d meani ngf ul and successf ul cur r i cul um r ef or mAs a recent Wor l d Bank (1990) ocument s poi nt s out :

" Mos t cur r i cul um r ef or ms have concent rat ed onr edef i ni ng the cour ses to be t aught and the number ofhour s of f i ci al l y al l ocated to each. Gener al l y t hesechanges have been i nef f ect i ve. Successf ul cur r i cul umr ef or m ef fort s must t ackl e the mor e di f f i cul t i ssue ofpr epar i ng a coher ent , appropr i at el y paced and sequencedi nst ruct i onal pr ogr am and devel opi ng i nst ruct i onalmat er i al s". (p. 17)Pol i cy- maker s and educat i onal pl anner s wi shi ng to i ncreaseoppor t uni t y to l earn and t he meani ngf ul ness and appr opr i at enessof student wor k woul d be wel l advi sed to:

1. Devel op endof - year compr ehens i ve assessment batteri es i nal l academ c subj ects, part i cul arl y l anguage arts and

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2.

3.

mathemati cs si nce, in combi nat i on, these two subj ect mattersaccount for over one- hal f of the tota i nstructi onal t i me inpri mary school cl assrooms. The wei ghti ng of quest i ons andi tems on these assessment batteries shoul d reflect thei mportance and emphasi s of the underl yi ng know edge andskills.Peri odi cal l y use i nstruments such as the one i ncl uded inAppendi x A to esti mate the opportuni ty students in vari ouscl assrooms have had to l earn the know edge and ski l l si ncl udedon the comprehensi ve assessment batteri es.I ncl ude in teachers gui des careful l y prepared assi gnmentsthat provi de the basis for meani ngf ul and appropri ate studentwork. Use an i nstrument such as the one i ncl uded inAppendi x B to gui de the preparati on of such assi gnments.The f i r s t WO i mpl i cati ons are i ntended pri mari l y fordepartments of teacher educati on in nati onal or state mni stri es ofeducati on. Wher e the opportuni ty to l earn is mnimal , as is thecase when what i s actual l y taught in school reflects poorl y thei ntended curri cul um i t is for these agenci es to take steps toi ncrease the opportuni ty to l earn. Both pre-servi ce and i n-servi cepr ogr ammes can be used to hel p teachers understand the negati vei mpl i cati ons of msal i gnment. The th i rd i mpl i cati on concerns thenati onal curri cul umdevel opment centres. I n cases where suchcentres do not exi st, th s i mpl i cati on pertai ns to those groupsresponsi bl e for the curri cul umand wri ti ng of the textbooks.

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I I I . Cl assroomenvi ronment and cl i mat e

Thr oughout t he wor l d, most t eachi ng t akes pl ace incl assr ooms. Thes e cl assr ooms are typi cal l y i nhabi t ed by 20 ormor e st udent s and a si ngl e adul t , t he t eacher ( Ander son et al .1989). The rati o of one t eacher t o 20or mor e st udent s resul ts in anat ural i mbal ance bet ween t eachi ng and l ear ni ng. Wh e n t eacher steach in cl assr ooms, t hey must , by necessi t y, di rect a great deal ofthei r t eachi ng to gr oups o students. Even when they work wthi ndi vi dual st udent s, t hey mus t be awar e of what ot her st udent s int he gr oup or cl ass are doi ng. What st udent s l earn f r om thispr edom nant l y gr oup- or i ent ed t eachi ng, on the other hand,depends t o a l arge ext ent on t he uni que character i st i cs brought tot he c l assroom by the i ndi vi dual students. A s ment i oned inChapt er I , t he best predi ctor of what st udent s knowand can do atthe end of s ome per i od of school i ng i s t he knowl edge and skillswi t h whi ch t hey ent er ed that per i od of school i ng.Si nce t eacher s t each in cl assr ooms, t he physi cal aspects oft hese cl assr ooms, t he t ype and di versi ty of st udent s who i nhabi tt hem and the per cept i ons of t hese cl assr ooms by t hese student s al lconst r ai n t eacher s as t hey stri ve to i ncrease thei r ef f ecti veness. I nt er m nol ogy i nt r oduced by Dahl l of (1971), t hese f actors are a partof a l arger set of ' f r ame f actors' wthn whi ch t eacher s mus toperate as t hey pract i ce thei r craft. As organi zat i onal f r ames,t hese var i abl es " mer el y del i mt what i s possi bl e but do notdet er m ne t he actual t eachi ng pr ocess nor t he out come"( Lundgr en, 1987, p. 528) ( emphasi s mne) . Ef f ect i ve t eacher s,t hen, are abl e t o oper at e successf i l l y wthn t hese const rai nt s ordel i mt at i ons.36


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I f they are to reduce the i mbal ance between teachi ng andl earni ng, teachers must create cl assroom that are conduci ve toef f ect i ve teachi ng and l earni ng. In creati ng such cl assroom,teachers can al ter or mani pul ate the physi cal envi ronment, thepsychol ogi cal envi ronment, or both. Mani pul ati ng the physi calfeatures of cl assroom is general l y a far easier task. Desks, chai rs,and tables can be arranged in a variety of ways. Light andtemperature can be i ncreased or decreased. Pai nt,wal coveri ngs,artwork, and plants can be used to enhance or detract f romtheattracti veness of thephysi cal cl assroomenvi ronment.Whi l e somewhat more d fficut, teachers also cani nfl uence the psychol ogi cal envi ronment of the cl assroom Theycan create cl assroom in whi ch work is the normor ones in whi chplay i s the norm They canset themel ves up as authori ty fi guresin the cl assroom or attempt to establ ish a mor e democrati ccl assroom organi zati on. They can work to establ ish posi t i verelati onships among students or i gnore or even di scourage theserelati onships. Each of these choi ces quite l ikely i mpacts on thecl assroomenvi ronment as percei ved by the students, that is, thepsychol ogi cal cl assroomenvi ronment or cl assroomcl i mate.In ths chapter,we shal l consi der the di fferences betweenthe physi cal and psychol ogi cal envi ronment of the cl assroomexamne what is known about the relati onshipof each of these t wotypes of envi ronments wth effective teachi ng and l earni ng, andoffer a set of recommendat i ons for the i mprovement of cl assroomenvi ronment and cl assroomcl i mate.1. Physi cal a nd psychol ogi cal envi r onment s

The distinction between physi cal and psychol ogi calcl assroomenvi ronments shoul d be qui te obvi ous in l ight of theprevi ous di scussi on. Physi cal envi ronments exist i ndependent ofthe peopl e who i nhabi t them Consequentl y, most , f not al l , of thei nhabi tants of these envi ronments woul d descri be them in thes ame way. Psychol ogi cal envi ronments, on the other hand, existonl y in the mnds of those who l ive in these envi ronments. Incontrast to the consensual descri pti on of physi cal envi ronments,

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di f f erences i n descr i pt i ons of psychol ogi cal envi r onment s shoul dbe expect ed.Phys i cal envi r onment s , t eachi ng, and l ear ni ngT he physi cal envi r onment of t he cl assr oom i ncl udes var i abl essuch as cl assr oom ar r angement ( Bennet t 1987), equi pment andmat er i al s ( Ai nl ey 1987). the number of i nhabi tant s ( Gl ass 1987),and seat i ng pat terns ( Wei nst ei n 1987). Per haps t he bestdescr i pt i on of t he rel at i onshi p among physi cal envi r onment s,t eachi ng, and l earni ng i s that of f ered by Ai nl ey (1987):

"I n t he cur rent r esear ch l i terature t here is l i ttle consi stentevi dence of a st rong ef f ect of t he mat er i al s and equi pmentin school s o n achi evement . ... There i s, however ,avai l abl e a substant i al amount of evi dence that t hephysi cal envi r onment of a school or cl assr oom can ef fectt he behavi our of peopl e and thei r att i tudes t owar d schooland l earni ng". (p. 539-540)A s ment i oned in Chapt er I , t hen, c l assr oomenvi r onment andcl i mat e are i ndi rect l y, rather t han di rect l y, associ at ed wi t h studentl earni ng. That i s, cl assr oom envi r onment and cl i mat e i nf l uencethose wh o i nhabi t t he cl assr oom (that i s, bot h teacher s and

students) who, in t urn, i nf l uence what and h o w muc h st udent sactual l y l earn.Ma n y of t he el ement s of t he physi cal envi r onment ment i onedin t he l i terature as i nf l uenci ng t hose who i nhabi t cl assr oomsbor der o n c o mmo n sense. Wh e n the t eacher i s pr esent i ngi nf ormat i on to an enti re cl ass of st udent s, each student shoul dhave an unobst r uct ed vi ew of t he t eacher or t he i nf or mat i onpr esent ed by t he teacher . Wh e n st udent s are expect ed to engage i na di scussi on wth ot her st udent s, t he physi cal ar r angement of t hecl assr oom shoul d faci l i tate (e.g. , ci rcul ar ar r angement s) ratherthan i nhi bi t (e.g. , stati c r ow and c ol umn ar r angement s) thisdi scussi on. Wh e n equi pment and mat er i al s are needed, thisequi pment and t hese mat er i al s shoul d be readi l y avai l abl e to thestudents.

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Despi te the common sense noti ons of these components,there is ampl e evi dence that di f ferences among cl assrooms doexi st, parti cul arl y in devel opi ng countri es. Furthermore, therel ati onshi p between these di fferences in the physi cal envi ronmentand di f ferences in student l earni ng i s especial l y cl ear in thesecountri es. For exampl e, Ful l er (1986) presents evi dence tosuggest that the avai labi l i ty of student desks is associated wthi ncreased student l earni ng. Si ml arl y, Farrel l (1989,p.63) wasabl e to concl ude that "chi l dren in these countri es who have accessto textbooks and other readi ng materi al l earn mor e than those whodo not and ... the mor e books they have the mor e they l earn".Psychol ogi cal envi r onment s, teachi ng, and l earni ngThe di rect i nf l uence of the psychol ogi cal envi ronment on studentl earni ng has a great deal of empi ri cal support. Wal berg (1987,p. 553) defi nes the cl assroompsychol ogi cal envi ronment as the"cl i mate or atmosphere of the cl ass as a soci al group thatpotenti al l y i nf l uences what students l earn". Wal berg furthersuggests that the psychol ogi cal envi ronment accounts forapproxi matel y 30per cent of the vari ance in cogni ti ve, affecti ve,and behavi oural outcomes, beyond that accounted for by i nputmeasures such as the enteri ng ab l i tyor achi evement of students.Three components of this psychol ogi cal envi ronment havebeen f ound to be consi stentl y associated wth student l earni ng:affect, task, and organi zati on (Wal berg 1987). When combi ned,these three component s suggest that effecti ve teachers are abl e tocreate cl assrooms that students percei ve to be i nvi ti ng,task-ori ented,and wel l organi zed. I nvi ti ngcl assroomare those inwhi ch students percei ve there i s mutual respect between teachersand students, posi ti ve and co-operati ve rel ati onshi ps amongstudents, and a sense of sati sfacti on experi enced by the students.Task-ori ented cl assrooms are those in whi ch students percei vethere are defi ni te goal s to pursue and bel i eve they are hel daccountabl e for achi evi ng those goal s. In addi ti on, a l argeproporti on of cl assroomti me is spent worki ng toward those goal s.Fi nal l y, wel l organi zed cl assrooms are those in whi ch studentsbel i eve that expectati ons for behavi our and l earni ng are made

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cl ear and appr opr i at e structure is pr ovi ded to gui de behavi our andl earni ng. Whi l e t he f i r s t t wo component s of ef f ect i vepsychol ogi cal envi r onment s are di scussed in this chapt er , t he thi rdcomponent , or gani zat i on, wll be descr i bed i n Chapt er I V.Assess i ng c l ass r oomenv i r onment and c l i mat eSeveral i nst r ument s have been devel oped to assess cl assr oomenvi r onment and cl i mat e. The most t echni cal l y sound andf requent l y used i nst r ument s are the Lear ni ng Envi r onmentI nvent or y ( Fraser 1978), the M y Cl ass I nvent or y ( Wal ber g 1974),t he Cl assr oom Envi r onment Scal e (Tri cket t and Mo o s 1973), andt he I ndi vi dual i zed Cl assr oom Envi r onment Quest i onnai r e( Rent oul and Fr aser 1979).Appendi x C i ncl udes a set of ei ght rat i ng scal es devel oped byE mme r and hi s col l eagues ( 1982) that are usef ul i n assessi ngcl ass r oomenvi r onment and cl i mat e. Appendi x D cont ai ns bri efwr i t t en descr i pt i ons of each of the ei ght scal es. The first threescal es are rel ated to t he physi cal envi r onment of t he cl assr oomT he second three scal es are rel ated to t he t ask or gani zat i on of t hecl assr oom Th e f i nal t wo scal es are rel ated to t he af f ect i vedi mensi on of t he cl assr oom As ment i oned earl i er, scal es rel atedto t he or gani zat i on of t he cl ass r oom are i ncl uded in t he nextchapter.

T he rat i ng scal es i ncl uded in Appendi x C are i nt ended to beused by i ndependent obser ver s i n t he cl assr oom (e.g. ,pol i cy- maker s, adm ni st r at or s, super vi sor s, researchers).However , t hey can be compl et ed by ol der st udent s or t he t eacher st hemsel ves as t hey ref l ect back on thei r l essons. Thes e scal es arenot as psychomet r i cal l y sound as t hose ment i oned earl i er. Theyare, however , l i nked to the r ecommendat i ons of f ered in thef ol l owi ng sect i on. As a consequence, r esponses to t hese scal es arel i kel y to pr ovi de usef ul i nf or mat i on to t hose i nterested i ni dent i f yi ng ar eas of cl ass r oomenvi r onment and cl i mat e i n whi chi mpr ovement i s needed and assessi ng t he ef f ect i veness of t hei mpr ovement ef f ort s of t eachers.

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2. Rec ommendat i ons f or t eacher ef f ect i venessBased on what is currentl y known abut cl assroomenvi ronmentand cl i mate, hree general recommendat i ons can be gi ven to thoseinterested in i mprovi ng teacher effecti veness in thesemas. Theserecommendat i ons (and a bri ef di scussi on of each) are contai ned inthis secti on.(i ) Teachers shoul d create attracti ve and functi onal cl assrooms.Part of the functi onal i ty of cl assrooms concerns t heavai labi l i ty of necessary equi pment and materi al s.

Stated si mpl y, unattracti ve and dysfuncti onal cl assrooms aredetri mental to teacher effecti veness. Effecti ve teachers use col our,l i ght, temperature, and di spl ays to create attractive and functi onalcl assrooms. Proper arrangement of furni ture al so contri butes tothe functi onal i ty of cl assrooms. Furni ture i s arranged so thatstudents are ori ented to the pri mary source or sources ofi nformati on (e.g., the teacher, audi o-vi sual materi als), whi l e at thesame t i me havi ng access to other sources or activi ties (e.g., wor kareas, computers) w thout di sturbi ng others in the cl assroom Thei mportance of attractive and functi onal cl assrooms has beendemonst rated qui te cl earl y in an experi mental study in Thai l and(N tsai sook and Anderson1989).(i i ) Teachers shoul d create task-ori ented cl assrooms.

Task-ori ented cl assrooms are characteri zed by manyeducators and researchers as businessl i ke . That i s, both teachersand students have j obs to do. The perf ormance of these j obs andthe accompl i shment of the goal s and obj ecti ves associ ated wthths perf ormance are paramount in the mnds of both students andteachers. It is i mportant to poi nt out that this recommendat i ondoes not mean that the life of teachers and students in cl assroomsshoul d be all wor k and no pl ay . On the contrary, n task-ori entedcl assrooms there is ampl e opportuni ty f or both wor k and pl aysi nce the emphasi s i s on what i s bei ng accompl i shed, rather than

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what i s bei ng done. T h e i mpor t ance of t ask- or i ent ed cl assr oomshas been document ed by Ander son et al . ( 1989) .( i i i ) Teacher s shoul d devel op cl assr ooms i n whi ch t her e is mutualr espect bet ween t eacher s and students and a hi gh degr ee ofcohesi veness a mo n g t he st udent s t hemsel ves.

Ther e are sever al t hi ngs teacher s can do to enhance mut ualr espect bet ween t hemsel ves and t hei r student s.First, they can engage in honest communi cat i on wi t h thei rst udent s. I f t hey do not knowt he answer to a quest i on rai sed by ast udent , t hey can s i mpl y say that t hey d o not k no w t he answer(rather than bl uf f i ng an answer ) . Wh e n thei r st udent s are t al ki ng,t hey can be genui nel y i nterested in what thei r st udent s are sayi ng( rather t han appear to be l i steni ng, whi l e thei r m nds areel sewhere) .

Second, t eacher s can creat e cl assr ooms i n whi ch st udent s areexpect ed to co- oper at ewth thei r cl assmat es in or der to l earn. I nthis way , st udent s c o me to vi ew thei r cl assmat es as val uabl el ear ni ng resour ces, rather t han as threats to thei r academ c sur vi valand success ( J ohnson and J ohnson 1989) .Thi r d, t eacher s can communi cat e to thei r st udent s that t heyexpect al l of t hem to l earn and to l earn wel l . The communi cat i onof hi gh expect at i ons has been f ound to be associ at ed wi t h hi gherl evel s of st udent l ear ni ng ( Aval os and Haddad 1981, Goo d 1987) .Fi nal l y, t eacher s mus t treat all st udent s fai rl y. I n th is regard,t eacher s shoul d def i ne academ c excel l ence by obj ect i vest andards, not by peer compar i son. I n addi t i on, al l st udent s shoul dk n o w about t he r ewar ds f or academ c success and what t hey needto do to get t hem3. Rec ommendat i ons or pol i cy- maker s andeducat i onal pl anner sEducat i onal pl anner s mus t ensure that t eacher s have t he r esour cesneeded to creat e attract i ve and f unct i onal cl assr ooms.The y must al so devel op mechani s ms f or col l ect i ngi nf or mat i on fromschool s about thei r r esour ces o n a r egul ar basi s.42


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The resul ts of several studi es conducted in devel opi ng countri eshave supported the educati onal val ue of the avai labi l i ty oftextbooks and readi ng materi al s, the size and qual i tyof the l i brary,and the qual i ty of the school bui l di ng (Ful l er 1986; Wor l d Bank1990). Equal l y i mportantl y, however, is the fact that the l ack ofthese resources severel y limt what teachers can do in thei r effortsto become more effecti ve. Farrel l (l 989) el aborates onthis poi nt:

"There is ... some i ndi cati on that the avai labi l i ty of booksal l ows teachers to assi gn homewor k, one of the' promsi ng possibi l i ties' for rai si ng student achi evement.Beyond thi s, there is some observati onal evi dence that thepresence of textbooks in the cl assroomal l ows teachers todi versi fy thei r teachi ng repertoi re and wor k wth smal lgroups and i ndi vi dual students. In a cl assroomwth nobooks, about the onl y teachi ng-l earni ng style possibl e isteacher l ecture and group reci tati on and rotememori zati on". (p. 63)Once adequate resources have been made avai l abl e,departments of teacher educati on must hel p teachers l earn to usethose resources to create cl assrooms that promot e posi ti veatti tudes, constructi ve cl assroom behavi our, and ul ti matel y,i ncreased student l earni ng.One final note about the recommendat i ons for teachereffecti veness made earl ier is inorder. These recommendat i ons arebased pri mari l y on research conducted in the USA and Austral i a.Qui te cl earl y, what consti tutes an attracti ve and functi onalcl assroomenvi ronment may di ffer f romone cul ture to the next(al though there is s ome evi dence that ' structuredand task-ori entedl earni ng envi ronments are benefi ci al to students in severalcountri es (Anderson er al . 1989). Si ml arl y, the desi red

teacher-student or student-student rel ati onshi ps qui te l i kel ydepends oncul tural val ues - - al though there is some evi dence thatin several countri es authori tari an teacher-student rel ati onshi ps aredetri mental to the l earni ng of students (Aval os and Haddad1981)). Addi ti onal research on cl assroomcl i mate in devel opi ngcountri es is, therefore, needed. I t is for the nati onal or state

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depar t ment s of t eacher educat i on, possi bl y i n conj unct i on wi t h theresearch uni t of t he mni st ry of educat i on, to ei ther under t ake suchresearch or cause i t to be under t aken. The i nst r ument cont ai ned i nAppendi x C and Appendi x D ma y pr ovi de a start i ng poi nt f or suchresearch efforts.

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N. l assroomorgani zati on and management

I n the previ ous chapter, ways in whi ch cl assrooms coul d becreated so as to be physi cal l y appeal i ng and psychol ogi cal l yi nvi ti ng and demandi ng were di scussed. Once such cl assroomshave been created, the concern of the teacher shi fts to ways inwhi ch these cl assrooms can be organi zed to promote effecti veteachi ng and l earni ng, and ways in whi ch the l arge number s ofstudents who i nhabi t these cl assrooms canbe managed.Cl assroomorgani zati on refers to the academc and socialarrangements of studentswthn cl assrooms. Cl assr ooms can becomposedof studentswho are simlar or qui te di fferent in t ermsofthei r ab l i ty or achi evement l evel s. In these cl assrooms, teacherscan teach to and work wth the enti re cl ass of students, smal l ergroups of students, or i ndi vi dual students. Al so, in thesecl assrooms, teachers can expect students to work on thei r own orwthone another.I n contrast wth cl assroom organi zati on, cl assroommanagement pertai ns to the ways in whi ch teachers promot eposi ti ve, pro-soci al student behavi our and deal wthmsbehavi ourand di srupti ve behavi our. In th s regard, t wo key aspects ofcl assroom management have been identi fi ed: preventi ngbehavi oural probl ems fromoccumng, and reacti ng to behavi ouralprobl ems that have occurred. Thi s latter aspect of cl assroommanagement is often referred to as di sci pl i ne .The i mportance of cl assroom organi zati on andmanagement in the larger context of teacher effecti veness is mostcl earl y seen by examni ng the evi dence that begi nni ng or novi ce

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t eacher s spend l arge amount s of thei r t i me on cl assr oomor gani zat i on and management ( Ryan and Phi l l i ps 1982; Ber l i ner1988) . Fur t her mor e, in ma ny count r i es, this i ncr eased amount oft i me on or gani zat i on and management appar ent l y is det r i ment al tostudent l earni ng ( Ander son et a. 1989). Thus, one ma yr easonabl y ass ume that unti l novi ce t eachemare abl e t o proper l yorgani ze thei r cl ass r ooms and manage thei r st udent s, t hey areunabl e to f ocus thei r at tent i on and ef f ort s on the t eachi ng- l ear ni ngprocess.I . Cl assr oomorgani zat i onAs ment i oned i n t he pr evi ous chapt er , t eachi ng and l earni ngt hroughout the wor l d occur i n soci al set t i ngs cal l ed cl assr ooms.Some of t hese cl assr ooms are c ompos ed of student s wh o are verysimlar to one anot her in t er ms of thei r abi l i ti es, pr i orachi evement , and a var i ety of ot her character i sti cs. Suc hcl assr ooms are l abel l ed homogeneous cl assr ooms and the pract i ceof assi gni ng st udent s to such cl assr ooms is ref erred t o by a vari etyof names : abi l i ty gr oupi ng ( Gol dber g, Pas s ow, and J ust man 1966),st r eam ng ( Bar ker - Lunn 1970). and t r acki ng ( Oakes 1985) . Ot hercl assr ooms cont ai n st udent s wh o are ver y di ssi ml ar i n t er ms ofthei r abi l i ti es, pr i or achi evement , and ot her character i st i cs. Thesecl ass r ooms are t er med het er ogeneous cl assr ooms.A great deal of r esear ch compar i ng t he rel at i ve ef f ect i venessof homogeneous and het er ogeneous cl asses on studentachi evement has been conduct ed. The resul ts of this research canbe s ummar i zed fai rl y si mpl y. Less academ cal l y- abl e student s i nhomogeneous cl asses t end t o achi eve l ess wel l t han l essacadem cal l y- abl e st udent s i n het er ogeneous cl asses ( Sl avi n1987) . O n the ot her hand, mor e academ cal l y- abl e student s i nhomogeneous cl asses t end to attai n l evel s of achi evement that areei ther simlar to ( Sl avi n 1987) or hi gher t han ( Kul i k and Kul i k1988) the l evel s achi eved by mor e academ cal l y- abl e student s i nhet er ogeneous cl asses. I n school s that practi ce homogeneousgr oupi ng, t hen, di f f erences i n the achi evement of mor e and l essacadem cal l y- abl e student s i ncrease over the years of school i ng.

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As a consequence, Oakes (1985) contends that such school s' structure i nequal i ty' .Actual l y, the resul ts of the research compari ng homogeneousand heterogeneous cl asses on student achi evement are not asobvi ous as they appear at first gl ance. As i ndi cated in Chapter I ,cl assroom organi zati on and management are onl y i ndi rectl yrel ated t o student achi evement. The di spari ti es in achi evementment i oned above are mor e l i kely attri buted to the ways in whi chl ow and hi gh ab l i ty students are treated when pl aced inhomogeneous groups than to group membershi p per se. Hal l i nan(1984), for exampl e, concl uded that l ower ab l i ty students inhomogeneous groups (1) recei ved i nstructi on at a sl ower pace, (2)had mor e ti me off -task f or admni strati ve or manageri al reasons,and (3) were taught usi ng materi al s that were less i nteresti ng thansimlar students in heterogeneous groups. In contrast, Kul i k andKul i k (1988) suggested that one of the keys to the success of hi ghab l i ty students in homogeneous cl asses was that the curri cul umwas accel erated for these students. That i s, they recei ved mor edi ffi cul t and compl ex content at a mor e rapi d pace.Whether operati ng in heterogeneous or homogeneouscl assrooms, most teachers address the vast maj ori ty of thei rteachi ng to the enti re class of students (Anderson er al . 1989).They tak to al students at the same t i me (frequentl y aski ngquest i ons and reacti ng to the students' answers) and gi ve thesestudents the same wor k to perform Thi s recurrent pattern occursw th such f requency in so many cl assrooms that the phrase' reci tati on-seatwork'has been used to descri be i t .Duri ng the seatwork porti on of the l esson, students areexpected to wor k on thei r assi gnments by themsel ves

anderson (1991)-increasing teacher effectiveness

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