Analysis and Design ofLow-Power Systems

An Engineers Field Guide

Ismail Kasikci

InnodataFile Attachment3527606467.jpg

Ismail KasikciAnalysis and Design ofLow-Voltage Power-Systems

Analysis and Design ofLow-Power Systems

An Engineers Field Guide

Ismail Kasikci

Dr. Ismail Kasikci

69469 WeinheimGermany

This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless,authors and publisher do not warrant the informationcontained therein to be free of errors. Readers areadvised to keep in mind that statements, data,illustrations, procedural details or otheritems may inadvertently be inaccurate.

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2004 Wiley-VCH Verlag-GmbH & Co. KGaA,Weinheim

All rights reserved (including those of translation inother languages). No part of this book may bereproduced in any form by photoprinting, micro-film, or any other means nor transmitted or trans-lated into a machine language without writtenpermission from the publisher. Registered names,trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when notspecifically marked as such, are not to be consideredunprotected by law.

printed in the Federal Republic of Germanyprinted on acid-free paper.

Composition Khn & Weyh, FreiburgPrinting betz-druck GmbH, DarmstadtBookbinding Litges & Dopf Buchbinderei GmbH,Heppenheim

ISBN 3-527-30483-5

Ahornstra e 55-

Foreword XIII

Symbols XV

Abbreviations XXI

1 Introduction 1

2 Planning and Project Management 32.1 Guidelines for the Remuneration of Architects and

Engineers and Regulations for Contracting System Installations 32.2 Guidelines for Project Planning of Electrical Systems 4

3 Electrical Systems 73.1 Medium-Voltage Systems 73.2 Low-Voltage Systems 9

4 Transformers 154.1 Physical Basis 154.2 Cores 204.3 Windings 214.4 Types 214.5 A.C. Transformers 214.5.1 Design 214.5.2 Principle of Operation 224.5.3 No-Load Voltage 234.5.4 Voltage and Current Transformation 234.5.5 Transformer Loading 244.6 Three-Phase Transformers 264.6.1 Design 264.6.2 Winding Connections 274.6.3 Connection Symbols 284.6.4 Parallel Connection of Transformers 29

V

Contents

4.7 Special-Purpose Transformers 304.7.1 Current Transformers 304.7.2 Voltage Transformers 314.7.3 Autotransformers 324.8 Efficiency of Transformers 334.9 Protection of Transformers 334.10 Selection of Transformers 344.11 Rules of Thumb for Calculating Short Circuit Currents on the

Low-Voltage Side 394.12 Examples for Transformers 404.12.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Initial Symmetrical Short Circuit Current

for a Transformer 404.12.2 Example 2: Calculation of Equalizing Currents 414.12.3 Example 3: Economic Efficiency of Transformers 414.12.4 Example 4: Calculation of Efficiency Over a Year 424.12.5 Example 5: Calculation of Efficiency 43

5 Asynchronous Motors (ASM) 455.1 Designs and Types 455.1.1 Principle of Operation (No-Load) 465.1.2 Typical Speed-Torque Characteristics 475.2 Properties Characterizing Asynchronous Motors 485.2.1 Rotor Frequency 485.2.2 Torque 495.2.3 Slip 495.2.4 Gear System 505.3 Startup of Asynchronous Motors 515.3.1 Direct Switch-On 515.3.2 Star Delta Startup 535.4 Speed Adjustment 575.4.1 Speed Control by the Slip 575.4.2 Speed Control by Frequency 575.4.3 Speed Control by Pole Changing 585.4.4 Soft Starters 625.4.5 Motor Operating Modes 625.5 Project Planning of Drives 725.5.1 Example 1: Calculation With SIKOSTART 725.5.2 Example 2: Calculation of Overload and Starting Conditions 755.5.3 Example 3: Calculation of Motor Data 765.5.4 Example 4: Calculation of the Belt Pulley Diameter and Motor Power 765.5.5 Example 5: Dimensioning of a Motor 77

6 Emergency Generators 816.1 Generator-Specific Limiting Operational Values 83

ContentsVI

VII

6.2 Planning a Standby Generator 846.3 Example: Calculation of Standby Generator Power 85

7 Equipment for Overcurrent Protection 877.1 Electric Arc 877.1.1 Electric Arc Characteristic 887.1.2 DC Cut-Off 897.1.3 AC Cut-Off 907.1.4 Transient Voltage 927.2 Low-Voltage Switchgear 937.2.1 Characteristic Parameters 947.2.2 Main or Load Switches 947.2.3 Motor Protective Switches 957.2.4 Contactors and Motor Starters 967.2.5 Circuit Breakers 977.2.6 RCDs (Residual Current Protective Devices) 987.2.7 Main Protective Equipment 1017.2.8 Meter mounting boards with main protective switch 1057.2.9 Fuses 1077.2.10 Power Circuit Breakers 1127.2.11 Load Interrupter Switches 1167.2.12 Disconnect Switches 1167.2.13 Fuse Links 1167.2.14 List of Components 118

8 Selectivity and Backup Protection 1198.1 Selectivity 1198.2 Backup Protection 128

9 Switchgear Combinations 1319.1 Type-Tested Switchgear Combinations (TSC) 1319.2 Partially Type-Tested Switchgear Combinations (PTSC) 1329.3 Proof of Short Circuit Strength 1329.4 Proof of Compliance With Upper Temperature Limits in

Partially Type-Tested Switchgear Combinations 1339.5 Differentiation of Power Losses 1349.6 Checklist 1359.7 Notes on Project Planning 1369.8 Example: Computer Evaluation of Temperature Rise 136

10 Protection Against Electric Shock 14510.1 Voltage Ranges 14510.2 Protection by Cut-Off or Warning Messages 14610.2.1 TN-Systems 14610.2.2 TT-Systems 148

Contents

VIII

10.2.3 IT Systems 15110.2.4 Summary of cut-off times and loop resistances 15410.2.5 Example 1: Checking Protective Measures 15510.2.6 Example 2: Determination of Rated Fuse Current 15610.2.7 Example 3: Calculation of Maximum Conductor Length 15610.2.8 Example 4: Rated current for a TT System 15610.2.9 Example 5: Cut-Off Condition for an IT System 15710.2.10 Example 6: Protective Measure for Connection Line to a House 15710.2.11 Example 7: Protective Measure for a TT System 159

11 Current Carrying Capacity of Conductors and Cables 16111.1 Terms and Definitions 16111.2 Overload Protection 16211.3 Short Circuit Protection 16311.3.1 Designation of Conductors 16711.3.2 Designation of Cables 16811.4 Current Carrying Capacity 16911.4.1 Loading Capacity Under Normal Operating Conditions 16911.4.2 Loading Capacity Under Fault Conditions 17011.4.3 Installation Types and Load Values for Lines and Cables 17611.4.4 Current Carrying Capacity of Heavy Current Cables and Correction Factors

for Underground and Overhead Installation 18411.5 Examples of Current Carrying Capacity 19511.5.1 Example 1: Checking Current Carrying Capacity 19511.5.2 Example 2: Checking Current Carrying Capacity 19611.5.3 Example 3: Protection of Cables in Parallel 19711.5.4 Example 4: Connection of a Three-Phase Cable 19811.5.5 Example 5: Apartment Building Without Electrical Water Heating 19811.6 Examples for the Calculation of Overcurrents 20311.6.1 Example 1: Determination of Overcurrents and Short Circuit Cur-

rents 20311.6.2 Example 2: Overload Protection 20511.6.3 Example 3: Short Circuit Strength of a Conductor 20611.6.4 Example 4: Checking Protective Measures for Circuit Breakers 208

12 Calculation of Short Circuit Currents in Three-Phase Networks 21312.1 The Equivalent Voltage Source Method 21612.1.1 Single-Pole Short Circuits to Ground 21712.1.2 Calculation of Loop Impedance 21812.1.3 Three-Pole Short Circuits 21912.2 Calculation of Resistance Values for Operational Equipment 22012.2.1 Network Feeders 22012.2.2 Synchronous Machines 22112.2.3 Consideration of Motors 22212.2.4 Overland Lines, Cables and Lines 224

Contents

IX

12.2.5 Transformers 22512.2.6 Impedance Corrections 22612.3 Short Circuit Currents for Three-Pole Short Circuits 22812.3.1 Peak Short Circuit Current 22812.3.2 Symmetrical Breaking Current 22912.3.3 Steady State Short Circuit Current 23112.4 Thermal and Dynamic Short Circuit Strength 23212.5 Examples for the Calculation of Short Circuit Currents 23312.5.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Short Circuit Current in a DC System 23312.5.2 Example 2: Calculation of Short Circuit Currents in a Building Electrical

System 23412.5.3 Example 3: Dimensioning of an Exit Cable 23612.5.4 Example 4: Calculation of Short Circuit Currents with Zero-Sequence

Resistances 23712.5.5 Example 5: Complex Calculation of Short Circuit Currents 23912.5.6 Example 6: Calculation With Effective Power and Reactive Power 24212.5.7 Example 7: Complete Calculation for a System 24812.5.8 Example 8: Calculation of Short Circuit Currents With Impedance

Corrections 259

13 Voltage Drop Calculations 26313.1 Voltage Regulation 26313.1.1 Permissible Voltage Drop in Accordance With the Technical Conditions

for Connection 26413.1.2 Permissible Voltage Drop in Accordance With Electrical Installations in

Buildings 26413.1.3 Voltage Drops in Load Systems 26413.1.4 Voltage Drops in Accordance With IEC 60 364 26513.1.5 Parameters for the Maximum Line Length 26613.1.6 Summary of Characteristic Parameters 26813.1.7 Lengths of Conductors With a Source Impedance 26913.2 Examples for the Calculation of Voltage Drops 27113.2.1 Example 1: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a DC System 27113.2.2 Example 2: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an AC System 27213.2.3 Voltage Drop for a Three-Phase System 27213.2.4 Example 4: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Distributor 27413.2.5 Calculation of Cross-Section According to Voltage Drop 27513.2.6 Example 6: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an industrial plant 27613.2.7 Example 7: Calculation of voltage drop for an electrical outlet 27613.2.8 Example 8: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Hot Water Storage Unit 27613.2.9 Example 9: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Pump Facility 277

14 Lighting Systems 27914.1 Interior Lighting 27914.2 Types of Lighting 280

Contents

X

14.2.1 Normal Lighting 28014.2.2 Normal Workplace-Oriented Lighting 28114.2.3 Localized Lighting 28114.2.4 Technical Requirements for Lighting 28114.2.5 Selection and Installation of Operational Equipment 28214.2.6 Lighting Circuits for Special Rooms and Systems 28214.3 Lighting Calculations 28414.4 Planning of Lighting with Data Blocks 28514.4.1 System Power 28514.4.2 Distribution of Luminous Intensity 28614.4.3 Luminous Flux Distribution 28614.4.4 Efficiencies 28714.4.5 Spacing Between Lighting Elements 28714.4.6 Number of fluorescent lamps in a Room 28814.4.7 Illuminance Distribution Curves 28914.4.8 Maximum Number of Fluorescent Lamps on Switches 28914.4.9 Maximum Number of Discharge Lamps Per Circuit Breaker 29014.4.10 Mark of Origin 29014.4.11 Standard Values for Planning Lighting Systems 29114.4.12 Economic Analysis and Costs of Lighting 29114.5 Procedure for Project Planning 29214.6 Exterior Lighting 29614.7 Low-Voltage Halogen Lamps 29614.8 Safety and Standby Lighting 29814.8.1 Terms and Definitions 29814.8.2 Circuits 29814.8.3 Structural Types for Groups of People 29914.8.4 Planning and Configuring of Emergency-Symbol and Safety

Lighting 29914.8.5 Power Supply 30314.8.6 Notes on Installation 30314.8.7 Testing During Operation 30414.9 Battery Systems 30414.9.1 Central Battery Systems 30414.9.2 Grouped Battery Systems 31014.9.3 Single Battery Systems 31114.9.4 Example: Dimensioning of Safety and Standby Lighting 315

15 Compensation for Reactive Power 31715.1 Terms and Definitions 31715.2 Effect of Reactive Power 32115.3 Compensation for Transformers 32115.4 Compensation for Asynchronous Motors 32215.5 Compensation for Discharge Lamps 32215.6 c/k Value 323

Contents

XI

15.7 Resonant Circuits 32315.8 Harmonics and Voltage QQuality 32515.8.1 Compensation With Non-Choked Capacitors 32615.8.2 Inductor-Capacitor Units 32815.8.3 Series Resonant Filter Circuits 32915.9 Static Compensation for Reactive Power 33015.10 Examples of Compensation for Reactive Power 33315.10.1 Example 1: Determination of Capacitive Power 33315.10.2 Example 2: Capacitive Power With k Factor 33415.10.3 Example 3: Determination of Cable Cross-Section 33415.10.4 Example 4: Calculation of the c/k Value 335

16 Lightning Protection Systems 33716.1 Lightning Protection Class 33916.2 Exterior Lightning Protection 34016.2.1 Air Terminal 34016.2.2 Down Conductors 34416.2.3 Grounding Systems 34716.2.4 Example 1: Calculation of Grounding Resistances 35416.2.5 Example 2: Minimum Lengths of Grounding Electrodes 35416.2.6 Exposure Distances in the Wall Area 35516.2.7 Grounding of Antenna Systems 35716.2.8 Examples of Installations 35816.3 Interior Lightning Protection 35916.3.1 The EMC Lightning Protection Zone Concept 36016.3.2 Planning Data for Lightning Protection Systems 362

17 Using the CD-ROM 36717.1 Use of CAD Systems 36717.1.1 SIKOSTART: Dimensioning and Calculation of Startup Time for a

Motor 36717.1.2 TXI: Calculations for Lighting Systems 37017.1.3 TRABTECH-Select: Planning Software for Overvoltage Protection Con-

cepts 37117.1.4 MODLCON (MODL Power Conditioning): Calculation of Compensating

Systems for Reactive Currents 37217.1.5 KUBS plus: Short Circuit Calculations 37217.1.6 NEPLAN: Planning and information system for electrical networks 37517.2 Aids for Installation 379

Bibliography 381

Index 383

Contents

XIII

With each project, the planning engineer for electrical systems confronts the follow-ing questions:

How can I design the electrical system?Which regulations must I observe?Which calculations must I perform?Which methods/CAD can I use?Which protective measures must I consider?Which requirements and conditions apply for project planning?How can persons and animals be protected against electrical shock?Which operational components shall I select?Are there special problems with regard to planning?

For calculation, dimensioning and evaluation of a system, in addition to extensiveprofessional knowledge the planning engineer requires above all CAD experienceand a knowledge of all relevant standards and regulations. Due to the great numberof standards and their revision in regular intervals and also due to their increasinginternational harmonization, maintaining this knowledge is becoming more andmore difficult.

For this reason the present book, intended as a help for the planning engineer inthe solution of problems in low voltage networks, also presents a detailed discussionof the current situation in regard to standards.

Following the theoretical part and the discussion of regulations and standards, awide range of examples taken largely from practice is worked out fully. The numer-ous tables and diagrams from which the planning values required for calculationcan be taken make this book an indispensable reference. Each topic is given its owntreatment.

For the calculations required in project planning, the CAD programs included onthe accompanying CD-ROM are certain to be of great use to the planning engineer.

The idea of developing an easy to use project planning aid for practical planningactivities arose during my many years spent in the area of power supply, above allduring my period of teaching at VDE, at the Technical Academy in Esslingen and atthe Master Trade School in Heidelberg.

Foreword

Analysis and Design of Low-Voltage Power-SystemsContentsForewordSymbolsAbbreviations1 Introduction2 Planning and Project Management2.1 Guidelines for the Remuneration of Architects and Engineers and Regulations for Contracting System Installations2.2 Guidelines for Project Planning of Electrical Systems

3 Electrical Systems3.1 Medium-Voltage Systems3.2 Low-Voltage Systems

4 Transformers4.1 Physical Basis4.2 Cores4.3 Windings4.4 Types4.5 A.C. Transformers4.5.1 Design4.5.2 Principle of Operation4.5.3 No-Load Voltage4.5.4 Voltage and Current Transformation4.5.5 Transformer Loading

4.6 Three-Phase Transformers4.6.1 Design4.6.2 Winding Connections4.6.3 Connection Symbols4.6.4 Parallel Connection of Transformers

4.7 Special-Purpose Transformers4.7.1 Current Transformers4.7.2 Voltage Transformers4.7.3 Autotransformers

4.8 Efficiency of Transformers4.9 Protection of Transformers4.10 Selection of Transformers4.11 Rules of Thumb for Calculating Short Circuit Currents on the Low-Voltage Side4.12 Examples for Transformers4.12.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Initial Symmetrical Short Circuit Current for a Transformer4.12.2 Example 2: Calculation of Equalizing Currents4.12.3 Example 3: Economic Efficiency of Transformers4.12.4 Example 4: Calculation of Efficiency Over a Year4.12.5 Example 5: Calculation of Efficiency

5 Asynchronous Motors (ASM)5.1 Designs and Types5.1.1 Principle of Operation (No-Load)5.1.2 Typical Speed-Torque Characteristics

5.2 Properties Characterizing Asynchronous Motors5.2.1 Rotor Frequency5.2.2 Torque5.2.3 Slip5.2.4 Gear System

5.3 Startup of Asynchronous Motors5.3.1 Direct Switch-On5.3.2 Star Delta Startup

5.4 Speed Adjustment5.4.1 Speed Control by the Slip5.4.2 Speed Control by Frequency5.4.3 Speed Control by Pole Changing5.4.4 Soft Starters5.4.5 Motor Operating Modes

5.5 Project Planning of Drives5.5.1 Example 1: Calculation With SIKOSTART5.5.2 Example 2: Calculation of Overload and Starting Conditions5.5.3 Example 3: Calculation of Motor Data5.5.4 Example 4: Calculation of the Belt Pulley Diameter and Motor Power5.5.5 Example 5: Dimensioning of a Motor

6 Emergency Generators6.1 Generator-Specific Limiting Operational Values6.2 Planning a Standby Generator6.3 Example: Calculation of Standby Generator Power

7 Equipment for Overcurrent Protection7.1 Electric Arc7.1.1 Electric Arc Characteristic7.1.2 DC Cut-Off7.1.3 AC Cut-Off7.1.4 Transient Voltage

7.2 Low-Voltage Switchgear7.2.1 Characteristic Parameters7.2.2 Main or Load Switches7.2.3 Motor Protective Switches7.2.4 Contactors and Motor Starters7.2.5 Circuit Breakers7.2.6 RCDs (Residual Current Protective Devices)7.2.7 Main Protective Equipment7.2.8 Meter mounting boards with main protective switch7.2.9 Fuses7.2.10 Power Circuit Breakers7.2.11 Load Interrupter Switches7.2.12 Disconnect Switches7.2.13 Fuse Links7.2.14 List of Components

8 Selectivity and Backup Protection8.1 Selectivity8.2 Backup Protection

9 Switchgear Combinations9.1 Type-Tested Switchgear Combinations (TSC)9.2 Partially Type-Tested Switchgear Combinations (PTSC)9.3 Proof of Short Circuit Strength9.4 Proof of Compliance With Upper Temperature Limits in Partially Type-Tested Switchgear Combinations9.5 Differentiation of Power Losses9.6 Checklist9.7 Notes on Project Planning9.8 Example: Computer Evaluation of Temperature Rise

10 Protection Against Electric Shock10.1 Voltage Ranges10.2 Protection by Cut-Off or Warning Messages10.2.1 TN-Systems10.2.2 TT-Systems10.2.3 IT Systems10.2.4 Summary of cut-off times and loop resistances10.2.5 Example 1: Checking Protective Measures10.2.6 Example 2: Determination of Rated Fuse Current10.2.7 Example 3: Calculation of Maximum Conductor Length10.2.8 Example 4: Rated current for a TT System10.2.9 Example 5: Cut-Off Condition for an IT System10.2.10 Example 6: Protective Measure for Connection Line to a House10.2.11 Example 7: Protective Measure for a TT System

11 Current Carrying Capacity of Conductors and Cables11.1 Terms and Definitions11.2 Overload Protection11.3 Short Circuit Protection11.3.1 Designation of Conductors11.3.2 Designation of Cables

11.4 Current Carrying Capacity11.4.1 Loading Capacity Under Normal Operating Conditions11.4.2 Loading Capacity Under Fault Conditions11.4.3 Installation Types and Load Values for Lines and Cables11.4.4 Current Carrying Capacity of Heavy Current Cables and Correction Factors for Underground and Overhead Installation

11.5 Examples of Current Carrying Capacity11.5.1 Example 1: Checking Current Carrying Capacity11.5.2 Example 2: Checking Current Carrying Capacity11.5.3 Example 3: Protection of Cables in Parallel11.5.4 Example 4: Connection of a Three-Phase Cable11.5.5 Example 5: Apartment Building Without Electrical Water Heating

11.6 Examples for the Calculation of Overcurrents11.6.1 Example 1: Determination of Overcurrents and Short Circuit Currents11.6.2 Example 2: Overload Protection11.6.3 Example 3: Short Circuit Strength of a Conductor11.6.4 Example 4: Checking Protective Measures for Circuit Breakers

12 Calculation of Short Circuit Currents in Three-Phase Networks12.1 The Equivalent Voltage Source Method12.1.1 Single-Pole Short Circuits to Ground12.1.2 Calculation of Loop Impedance12.1.3 Three-Pole Short Circuits

12.2 Calculation of Resistance Values for Operational Equipment12.2.1 Network Feeders12.2.2 Synchronous Machines12.2.3 Consideration of Motors12.2.4 Overland Lines, Cables and Lines12.2.5 Transformers12.2.6 Impedance Corrections

12.3 Short Circuit Currents for Three-Pole Short Circuits12.3.1 Peak Short Circuit Current12.3.2 Symmetrical Breaking Current12.3.3 Steady State Short Circuit Current

12.4 Thermal and Dynamic Short Circuit Strength12.5 Examples for the Calculation of Short Circuit Currents12.5.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Short Circuit Current in a DC System12.5.2 Example 2: Calculation of Short Circuit Currents in a Building Electrical System12.5.3 Example 3: Dimensioning of an Exit Cable12.5.4 Example 4: Calculation of Short Circuit Currents with Zero-Sequence Resistances12.5.5 Example 5: Complex Calculation of Short Circuit Currents12.5.6 Example 6: Calculation With Effective Power and Reactive Power12.5.7 Example 7: Complete Calculation for a System12.5.8 Example 8: Calculation of Short Circuit Currents With Impedance Corrections

13 Voltage Drop Calculations13.1 Voltage Regulation13.1.1 Permissible Voltage Drop in Accordance With the Technical Conditions for Connection13.1.2 Permissible Voltage Drop in Accordance With Electrical Installations in Buildings13.1.3 Voltage Drops in Load Systems13.1.4 Voltage Drops in Accordance With IEC 60 36413.1.5 Parameters for the Maximum Line Length13.1.6 Summary of Characteristic Parameters13.1.7 Lengths of Conductors With a Source Impedance

13.2 Examples for the Calculation of Voltage Drops13.2.1 Example 1: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a DC System13.2.2 Example 2: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an AC System13.2.3 Voltage Drop for a Three-Phase System13.2.4 Example 4: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Distributor13.2.5 Calculation of Cross-Section According to Voltage Drop13.2.6 Example 6: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an industrial plant13.2.7 Example 7: Calculation of voltage drop for an electrical outlet13.2.8 Example 8: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Hot Water Storage Unit13.2.9 Example 9: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Pump Facility

14 Lighting Systems14.1 Interior Lighting14.2 Types of Lighting14.2.1 Normal Lighting14.2.2 Normal Workplace-Oriented Lighting14.2.3 Localized Lighting14.2.4 Technical Requirements for Lighting14.2.5 Selection and Installation of Operational Equipment14.2.6 Lighting Circuits for Special Rooms and Systems

14.3 Lighting Calculations14.4 Planning of Lighting with Data Blocks14.4.1 System Power14.4.2 Distribution of Luminous Intensity14.4.3 Luminous Flux Distribution14.4.4 Efficiencies14.4.5 Spacing Between Lighting Elements14.4.6 Number of fluorescent lamps in a Room14.4.7 Illuminance Distribution Curves14.4.8 Maximum Number of Fluorescent Lamps on Switches14.4.9 Maximum Number of Discharge Lamps Per Circuit Breaker14.4.10 Mark of Origin14.4.11 Standard Values for Planning Lighting Systems14.4.12 Economic Analysis and Costs of Lighting

14.5 Procedure for Project Planning14.6 Exterior Lighting14.7 Low-Voltage Halogen Lamps14.8 Safety and Standby Lighting14.8.1 Terms and Definitions14.8.2 Circuits14.8.3 Structural Types for Groups of People14.8.4 Planning and Configuring of Emergency-Symbol and Safety Lighting14.8.5 Power Supply14.8.6 Notes on Installation14.8.7 Testing During Operation

14.9 Battery Systems14.9.1 Central Battery Systems14.9.2 Grouped Battery Systems14.9.3 Single Battery Systems14.9.4 Example: Dimensioning of Safety and Standby Lighting

15 Compensation for Reactive Power15.1 Terms and Definitions15.2 Effect of Reactive Power15.3 Compensation for Transformers15.4 Compensation for Asynchronous Motors15.5 Compensation for Discharge Lamps15.6 c/k Value15.7 Resonant Circuits15.8 Harmonics and Voltage Quality15.8.1 Compensation With Non-Choked Capacitors15.8.2 Inductor-Capacitor Units15.8.3 Series Resonant Filter Circuits

15.9 Static Compensation for Reactive Power15.10 Examples of Compensation for Reactive Power15.10.1 Example 1: Determination of Capacitive Power15.10.2 Example 2: Capacitive Power With k Factor15.10.3 Example 3: Determination of Cable Cross-Section15.10.4 Example 4: Calculation of the c/k Value

16 Lightning Protection Systems16.1 Lightning Protection Class16.2 Exterior Lightning Protection16.2.1 Air Terminal16.2.2 Down Conductors16.2.3 Grounding Systems16.2.4 Example 1: Calculation of Grounding Resistances16.2.5 Example 2: Minimum Lengths of Grounding Electrodes16.2.6 Exposure Distances in the Wall Area16.2.7 Grounding of Antenna Systems16.2.8 Examples of Installations

16.3 Interior Lightning Protection16.3.1 The EMC Lightning Protection Zone Concept16.3.2 Planning Data for Lightning Protection Systems

17 Using the CD-ROM17.1 Use of CAD Systems17.1.1 SIKOSTART: Dimensioning and Calculation of Startup Time for a Motor17.1.2 TXI: Calculations for Lighting Systems17.1.3 TRABTECH-Select: Planning Software for Overvoltage Protection Concepts17.1.4 MODLCON (MODL Power Conditioning): Calculation of Compensating Systems for Reactive Currents17.1.5 KUBS plus: Short Circuit Calculations17.1.6 NEPLAN: Planning and information system for electrical networks

17.2 Aids for Installation

BibliographyIndex