analog electronic circuit design (15 ec 2103 · pdf file · 2016-07-30analog...
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ANALOGELECTRONICCIRCUITDESIGN(15EC2103)
Dr.M.Durga.PrakashAssociateProfessor
Dept.ofECE
CourseOverviewandinformaKon
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OUTLINEOFSYLLABUS
u Part-1:P-NJuncKons
u Part-2:Transistorbiasing&stability
u Part-3:OperaKonalamplifiers
u Part-4:Feedbackamplifier&Oscillators
P-1:P-N JuncKons:Diode theory, forwardandreverse-biased juncDons,reverse-biasbreakdown, loadlineanalysis,diodeapplicaDons-Limiters,clippers,clampers,voltagemulDpliers,halfwave&fullwaverecDficaDon,Capacitor filters, π-secDon filter, ripple factor, Special purpose diodes -Zener diode, Varactor, light emiPng diodes, Laser diodes. Regulators:Series and shunt voltage regulator, percentage regulaDon, Concept ofSMPS.
P-2: Transistor biasing& stability: Q point, Self-Bias-CE, CompensaDontechniques, h-model of Transistor, Expression of voltage gain, currentgain, input&output impedance,Trans-resistance&Trans-conductance,EmiWer follower circuits, High frequency model of Transistor, FETfundamentals, ConfiguraDons, current-voltage characterisDcs,parameters of JFET, Biasing of JFET, Biasing of MOSFET.Transistoramplifiers:RCcoupledamplifier,FuncDonofallcomponents,Equivalentcircuit, derivaDon of voltage gain, Current gain, Input impedance &output impedance, Frequency response characterisDcs, Lower & upperfrequencies,Bandwidth,ConceptofWidebandamplifier,FETsmallsignalmodel,CommondraincommongateconfiguraDons.
P-3: OperaKonal amplifiers: Ideal OPAMP, DifferenDal amplifier,Constantcurrentsource,CMRR,Open&closedloopcircuits,importanceof feedback loop (posiDve & negaDve), inverDng & non-inverDngamplifiers, Voltage follower circuits. ApplicaDon of OperaDonalamplifiers: Adder, Integrator & DifferenDator, Comparator,SchmiWTrigger, InstrumentaDon Amplifier, Log & AnDlog amplifier, Trans-conductancemulDplier,Precision recDfier,Voltage tocurrent&Currenttovoltageconverter.FilterCircuits:AnalysisofLowpass,Highpass,Bandpass, Band reject, All pass filters (first and second order only) usingoperaDonalamplifier.
P-4:Feedbackamplifier&Oscillators:ConceptofFeedback,NegaDve&PosiDvefeedback,Voltage/Current,Series/Shuntfeedback,Barkhausen’scriterion, ColpiW’s, Hartley’s, Phase shia, Wien Bridge, & Crystaloscillators. Power amplifiers: Class A, B, AB, C, Conversion efficiency,DistorDon. MulDvibrators: Monostable, Bistable mulDvibrators,Monostable & Astable operaDon using 555 Dmer. Special funcDoncircuits:VCO&PLL
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CourseObjecKve
• TofamiliarizewiththetheoreDcalandmathemaDcalaspectsofElectronicsystems
• To design Electronic systems and resolve Designorientedproblems
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DesiredOutcome• AnalyzingvariousdiodebasedcircuitsanddemonstraDngworking
principlesofBJTandJFET.
• DesignofBJTamplifer.
• DemonstraDngtheLinear&Non-linearapplicaDonsofOPAMPs.
• Design of the concepts of feedback amplifiers, oscillators andpoweramplifiers.
• DesignandTesDngofAnalogcircuits
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OtherRelevantInformaKon
• Prior knowledge required: Some basic Knowledge ofSemiconductorPhysics
• Levelofdifficulty:Medium
• MathemaKcs:Simple
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EvoluKonSchemeEvaluation Component
Weightage/Marks Date Duration CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
Marks
COI Number COI-1 COI-2 COI-1 COI-2 COI-1 COI-2 COI-1 COI-2 COI
BTL 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
Test 1 Weightage (6%)
1.5 hr
1.2% 4.8% 6M
Max
Marks(30) 6M 24M
Test 2 Weightage (6%)
1.5 hr
1.2% 4.8% 6M
Max
Marks(30) 6M 24M
Test 3 Weightage (6%)
1.5 hr
1.2% 4.8% 6M
Max
Marks(30) 6M 24M
Active Learning
Weightage (15%)
15M
Max
Marks(25)
Attendance Weightage (5%) 5M
Lab Continuous Evaluation
Weightage (5%)
5M
Max Marks(20)
Project
Weightage (7%)
7M
Max Marks(20)
SE Lab Exam
Weightage (5%)
3 hrs
5M
Max Marks(20)
SE Project
Weightage (5%)
5M
Max Marks(30)
Semester End Exam
Weightage (40%)
3 hrs
1.6% 6.4% 1.6% 6.4% 1.6% 6.4% 3.2% 12.8%
40M Max Marks(50) 2M 8M 2M 8M 2M 8M 4M 16M
Question Number
1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a & 5a 4b & 5b
TOTAL 100M
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Reference
TextsBooks1. MuhammadH.Rashid,“MicroelectronicCircuitsAnalysisandDesign”,2nd
ediKon,CengageLearning.
2. Sedra&Smith,“Micro-ElectronicCircuitstheoryandapplicaKons”,OxfordPress
ReferenceBooks1. JacobMillman&ChristosC.Halkias,“IntegratedElectronics”,Tata-
McGrawHill,2ndEdiKon,(2010).
2. RobertL.BoylestadandLouisNashelsky,“ElectronicDevicesandCircuitTheory”,PHI.9thEdiKon
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Lecture:1 Topics
IntroducDon
Diodetheory:operaDon,forwardandreverse-bias,V-I
characterisDcs.
DiodeequaDon,smallsignalandlargesignalequivalentcircuits.
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IntroducDon
• Thediode is thesimplestandmost fundamentalnonlinearcircuitelement.
• Justlikeresistor,ithastwoterminals.
• Unlikeresistor,ithasanonlinearcurrent-voltagecharacterisDcs.
• Its use in recDfiers is the most commonapplicaDon.
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PhysicalStructure
Themostimportantregion,whichiscalledpnjuncDon,istheboundarybetweenn-typeandp-typesemiconductor.
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SymbolandCharacterisDcfortheIdealDiode
(a)diodecircuitsymbol;(b)i–vcharacterisDc;(c)equivalentcircuitinthereversedirecDon;(d)equivalentcircuitintheforwarddirecDon.
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CharacterisDcs
• ConducDng in one direcDon and not in theotheristheI-VcharacterisDcofthediode.
• The arrowlike circuit symbol shows thedirecDonofconducDngcurrent.
• Forwardbiasingvoltagemakesitturnon.
• Reversebiasingvoltagemakesitturnoff.
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BasicSemiconductorConcepts
• IntrinsicSemiconductor• DopedSemiconductor• Carriersmovement
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IntrinsicSemiconductor
• DefiniDonAcrystalofpureandregularla4cestructureiscalledintrinsicsemiconductor.
• MaterialsØ Silicon---today’sICtechnologyisbasedenDrelyonsilicon
Ø Germanium---earlyusedØ Galliumarsenide---usedformicrowavecircuits
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IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
² Two-dimensionalrepresentaDonofthesiliconcrystal.
² The circles represent the innercore of silicon atoms, with +4indicaDng its posiDve charge of+4q,whichisneutralizedbythecharge of the four valenceelectrons.
² Observe how the covalentbondsare formedby sharingofthevalenceelectrons.
² At 0 K, all bonds are intact andno free electrons are availableforcurrentconducDon.
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IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
² At room temperature,some of the covalentbonds are broken bythermalionizaDon.
² Each broken bond givesrise to a free electron anda hole, both of whichbecome avai lable forcurrentconducDon.
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• ThermalionizaDonØ Valenceelectron---eachsiliconatomhasfourvalenceelectrons
Ø Covalentbond---twovalenceelectronsfromdifferenttwosiliconatomsformthecovalentbond§ Beintactatsufficientlylowtemperature§ Bebrokenatroomtemperature
Ø Freeelectron---producedbythermalionizaDon,movefreelyinthelaPcestructure.
Ø Hole---emptyposiDoninbrokencovalentbond,canbefilledbyfreeelectron,posiDvecharge
IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
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IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
• CarriersAfreeelectronisnegaDvechargeandaholeisposiDvecharge.Bothofthemcanmoveinthecrystalstructure.Theycanconductelectriccircuit.
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IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
• RecombinaDonSomefreeelectronsfillingtheholesresultsinthedisappearanceoffreeelectronsandholes.
• ThermalequilibriumAtacertaintemperature,therecombinaDonrateisequaltotheionizaDonrate.SotheconcentraDonofthecarriersisabletobecalculated.
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IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
• CarrierconcentraDoninthermalequilibrium
• Atroomtemperature(T=300K)
carriers/cm3
inpn ==kTE
iGeBTn −= 32
10105.1 ×≅in
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IntrinsicSemiconductor(cont’d)
Importantnotes:• hasastrongfuncDonoftemperature.Thehighthe
temperatureis,thedramaDcallygreatthecarrierconcentraDonis.
• Atroomtemperatureonlyoneofeverybillionatomsisionized.
• Silicon’sconducDvityisbetweenthatofconductorsandinsulators.ActuallythecharacterisDcofintrinsicsiliconapproachestoinsulators.
in
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DopedSemiconductor
• Dopedsemiconductorsarematerialsinwhichcarriersofonekindpredominate.
• Onlytwotypesofdopedsemiconductorsareavailable.
• ConducDvityofdopedsemiconductorismuchgreaterthantheoneofintrinsicsemiconductor.
• ThepnjuncDonisformedbydopedsemiconductor.
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
ntypesemiconductor• Concept
Doped silicon in which the majority of charge carriers are thenega>velychargedelectronsiscalledntypesemiconductor.
• Terminology
Ø Donor---impurityprovidesfreeelectrons,usuallyenDrelyionized.
Ø Posi>ve bound charge---impurity atom donaDng electron givesrisetoposiDveboundcharge
Ø carriers• Freeelectron---majority,generatedmostlyby ionizedandslightlybythermalionizaDon.
• Hole---minority,onlygeneratedbythermalionizaDon.
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
² Asiliconcrystaldopedbyapentavalentelement.
² Each dopant atomdonatesa free electron and is thuscalledadonor.
² The doped semiconductorbecomesntype.
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
ptypesemiconductor• Concept
Dopedsiliconinwhichthemajorityofchargecarriersaretheposi>velychargedholesiscalledptypesemiconductor.
• Terminology
Ø acceptor---impurityprovidesholes,usuallyenDrelyionized.
Ø nega>velyboundcharge---impurityatomaccepDngholegiverisetonegaDveboundcharge
Ø carriers• Hole---majority,generatedgeneratedmostlybyionizedandslightlybythermalionizaDon.
• Freeelectron---minority,onlygeneratedbythermalionizaDon.
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
² A silicon crystal dopedwithatrivalentimpurity.
² Each dopant atom givesrise to a hole, and thesemiconductor becomesptype.
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
CarrierconcentraDonforntypea) ThermalequilibriumequaDon
b) ElectricneutralequaDon
200 inn npn =⋅
nn0 = pn0 + ND
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
CarrierconcentraDonforptypea) ThermalequilibriumequaDon
b) ElectricneutralequaDon
200 ipp nnp =⋅
App Nnp += 00
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
Becausethemajorityismuchgreatthantheminority,wecangettheapproximateequaDonsshownbelow:
forntypeforptype
⎪⎩
⎪⎨
⎧
≈
≈
D
in
Dno
Nnp
Nn2
0 ⎪⎩
⎪⎨
⎧
≈
≈
A
ip
Ap
Nnn
Np2
0
0
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
• ConclusionØ Majoritycarrier isonlydeterminedbythe impurity,butindependentoftemperature.
Ø Minoritycarrierisstronglyaffectedbytemperature.
Ø Ifthetemperatureishighenough,characterisDcsofdoped semiconductor will decline to the one ofintrinsicsemiconductor.
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DopedSemiconductor(cont’d)
• DopingcompensaDon² n type semiconductor is generated by
donordiffusion,theninjecDngacceptorintothespecificarea(assuming )formsptypesemiconductor.
² The boundary between n and p typesemiconductoristhepnjuncDon.
² This is the basic step for VLSIfabricaDontechnology.
ND
NA
DA NN >>
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CarriersMovement
Therearetwomechanismsbywhichholesandfreeelectronsmovethroughasiliconcrystal.
• Drig--- The carrier moDon is generated by the electrical fieldacrossapieceofsilicon.ThismoDonwillproducedriacurrent.
• Diffusion--- The carrier moDon is generated by the differentconcentraDonofcarrierinapieceofsilicon.ThediffusedmoDon,usually carriers diffuse from high concentraDon to lowconcentraDon,willgiverisetodiffusioncurrent.
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DriaandDriaCurrent
• DriaØ DriavelociDes
Ø DriacurrentdensiDes
⎪⎩
⎪⎨⎧
−=
=
EvEv
ndrift
pdrift
µ
µnp µµ ,
Jn−drift = (−qn) ⋅ (−µnE) = qnµnEJp−drift = qp ⋅µpE
WherearetheconstantscalledmobilityofholesandelectronsrespecDvely.
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DriaandDriaCurrent
• Totaldriacurrentdensity
• ResisDvity
EpnqJ pndrift )µµ+(=
)(1
pn pnq µµρ+
=
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DriaandDriaCurrent
• ResisDviDesfordopedsemiconductor
*Resis@vi@esareinverselypropor@onaltotheconcentra@onof
dopedimpuri@es.• Temperaturecoefficient(TC)TCforresisDvityofdopedsemiconductorisposiDveduetonegaDveTCofmobility
⎪⎩
⎪⎨
⎧
=+=
pA
nD
pnqN
qNpnq
µ
µµµρ
1
1
)(1 Forntype
Forptype
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DriaandDriaCurrent
• ResisDvityforintrinsicsemiconductor
*Resis@vityisinverselypropor@onaltothecarrierconcentra@on
ofintrinsicsemiconductor.
• Temperaturecoefficient(TC)TCforresisDvityofintrinsicsemiconductorisnegaDveduetoposiDveTCof.
)(1
)(1
pnipn qnpnq µµµµρ +=+=
in
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DiffusionandDiffusionCurrent
• Diffusion
Abarofintrinsicsilicon(a)inwhichtheholeconcentraDonprofileshownin(b)hasbeencreatedalongthex-axisbysomeunspecifiedmechanism.
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DiffusionandDiffusionCurrent
wherearethediffusionconstantsordiffusiviDesforholeandelectronrespecDvely.
*Thediffusioncurrentdensityispropor@onaltotheslopeof the the concentra@on curve, or the concentra@ongradient.
dxxdnqDJ
dxxdpqDJ
nn
pp
)(
)(
⋅=
⋅−=
np DD ,
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EinsteinRelaDonship
Einstein relaDonship exists between the carrierdiffusivityandmobility:
WhereVTisThermalvoltage.
Atroomtemperature,
qkTV
DDT
p
p
n
n ===µµ
mvVT 25=
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pnJuncDon
• ThepnjuncDonunderopen-circuitcondiDon
• I-VcharacterisDcofpnjuncDon
Ø TerminalcharacterisDcofjuncDondiode.Ø PhysicaloperaDonofdiode.
• JuncDoncapacitance
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pnJuncDonUnderOpen-CircuitCondiDon
• UsuallythepnjuncDonisasymmetric,therearep+nandpn+.
• Thesuperscript“+”denotestheregionismoreheavilydopedthantheotherregion.
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pnJuncDonUnderOpen-CircuitCondiDon
Fig (a) shows thepn juncDonwith no applied voltage(open-circuitedterminals).
Fig.(b) shows the potenDaldistribuDon along an axisperpendiculartothejuncDon.
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ProcedureofFormingpnJuncDon
The procedure of forming pn the dynamic equilibrium ofdriaanddiffusionmovementsforcarriers inthesilicon. Indetail,thereare4steps:
a) Diffusionb) Spacechargeregion
c) Driad) Equilibrium
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ProcedureofFormingpnJuncDon
• DiffusionØ Both the majority carriers diffuse across theboundary between p-type and n-typesemiconductor.
Ø ThedirecDonofdiffusioncurrentisfrompsidetonside.
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ProcedureofFormingpnJuncDon
• SpacechargeregionØ Majority carriers recombining with minority carriersresultsinthedisappearanceofmajoritycarriers.
Ø Bound charges, which will no longer be neutralized bymajoritycarriersareuncovered.
Ø There isaregionclosetothe juncDonthat isdepletedofmajoritycarriersandcontainsuncoveredboundcharges.
Ø This region is called carrier-depleDon region or spacechargeregion.
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ProcedureofFormingpnJuncDon
• DriaØ Electricfieldisestablishedacrossthespacechargeregion.
Ø DirecDonofelectronicfieldisfromnsidetopside.
Ø It helps minority carriers dria through the juncDon. ThedirecDonofdriacurrentisfromnsidetopside.
Ø Itactsasabarrierformajoritycarrierstodiffusion.
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ProcedureofFormingpnJuncDon
• EquilibriumØ TwooppositecurrentsacrossthejuncDonisequalinmagnitude.
Ø NonetcurrentflowsacrossthepnjuncDon.
Ø Equilibrium conducDon is maintained by thebarriervoltage.
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JuncDonBuilt-InVoltage
TheJuncDonBuilt-InVoltage
Ø ItdependsondopingconcentraDonandtemperature
Ø ItsTCisnegaDve.
2lni
DATo n
NNVV =
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WidthoftheDepleDonRegion
WidthoftheDepleDonRegion:
Ø DepleDonregionexistsalmostenDrelyontheslightlydopedside.
Ø WidthdependsonthevoltageacrossthejuncDon.
oDA
depo VNNq
W )11(2+=
ε
))11(2 VVNNq
W oDA
dep -(+=ε
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I-VCharacterisDcs
Thediodei–vrelaDonshipwithsomescalesexpandedandotherscompressedinordertorevealdetails
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I-VCharacterisDcCurve
TerminalCharacterisDcofJuncDonDiodes
• TheForward-BiasRegion,determinedby
• TheReverse-BiasRegion,determinedby
• TheBreakdownRegion,determinedby
ov >
0<<− vVZKZKVv −<
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
Ø ThepnjuncDonexcitedbyaconstant-current sourcesupplying a current I in theforwarddirecDon.
Ø ThedepleDonlayernarrowsand the barrier voltagedecreases by V volts, whichappearsasanexternalvoltageintheforwarddirecDon.
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
Minority-carrierdistribuDoninaforward-biasedpnjuncDon.Itisassumedthatthepregionismoreheavilydopedthanthenregion;NA>>ND.
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
ExcessminoritycarrierconcentraDon:
Ø ExponenDalrelaDonshipØ SmallvoltageincrementalgiverisetogreatincrementalofexcessminoritycarrierconcentraDon.
T
T
Vv
ppp
Vv
nnn
enxn
epxp
0
0
)(
)(
=−
=
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
DistribuDonofexcessminorityconcentraDon:Where
arecalledexcess-minority-carrierlifeDme.
np
pn
Lxx
ppppp
Lxx
nnnnon
enxnnxn
epxppxp)(
00
)(
0
])([)(
])([)(+
-
−−+=
−+=−
nnn
ppp
DL
DL
τ
τ
=
=
pn ττ ,
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
Thetotalcurrentcanbeobtainedbythediffusioncurrentofmajoritycarriers.
)1)((
)()((
)(
00 −+=
+−=
+=
+=
−==
T
pn
VV
n
pn
p
np
xxxx
nDpD
nDpD
eLnD
LpD
Aq
dxxdnq
dxxdpqA
JJAIII
)
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
ThesaturaDoncurrentisgivenby:
)(
)(
2
00
An
n
Dp
pi
n
pn
p
nps
nLD
nLD
qAn
LnD
LpD
qAI
+=
+=
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
I-VcharacterisDcequaDon:Diodecurrent
• ExponenDalrelaDonship,nonlinear.• IsiscalledsaturaDoncurrent,stronglydepends
ontemperature.• or2,ingeneral• VTisthermalvoltage.
)1−= TnVv
s eIi (
1=n 1=n
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
assumingV1atI1andV2atI2then:
* For a decade changes in current, the diodevoltage drop changes by 60mv (for n=1) or120mv(forn=2).
1
2
1
212 lg3.2ln I
InVIInVVV TT ==−
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ThepnJuncDonUnderForward-BiasCondiDons
• Turn-onvoltageAconducDondiodehasapproximatelyaconstantvoltagedropacrossit.It’scalledturn-onvoltage.
• DiodeswithdifferentcurrentraDngwillexhibittheturn-onvoltageatdifferentcurrents.
• NegaDveTC,
VVVV
onD
onD
25.0
7.0
)(
)(
=
= Forsilicon
Forgermanium
CmvTC !/2−=
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ThepnJuncDonUnderReverse-BiasCondiDons
Ø The pn juncDon excited by aconstant-current source I in thereversedirecDon.
Ø To avoid breakdown, I is keptsmallerthanIS.
Ø Note that the depleDon layerwidens and the barrier voltageincreases by VR volts, whichappears between the terminals asareversevoltage.
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ThepnJuncDonUnderReverse-BiasCondiDons
I-VcharacterisDcequaDon:WhereIsisthesaturaDoncurrent,itisproporDonaltoni2whichisastrongfuncDonoftemperature.
sIi =
)(
)(
2
00
An
n
Dp
pi
n
pn
p
nps
nLD
nLD
qAn
LnD
LpD
qAI
+=
+=
Independentofvoltage。
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ThepnJuncDonIntheBreakdownRegion
ThepnjuncDonexcitedbyareverse-currentsourceI,whereI>IS.ThejuncDonbreaksdown,andavoltageVZ,withthepolarityindicated,developsacrossthe
juncDon.
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ThepnJuncDonIntheBreakdownRegion
• Supposing,thecurrentsourcewillmoveholesfromptonthroughtheexternalcircuit.
• ThefreeelectronsmovethroughoppositedirecDon.
• This result in the increase of barrier voltage anddecreasealmostzeroofdiffusioncurrent.
• Toachievedtheequilibrium,anewmechanismsetsinto supply the charge carriers needed to support thecurrentI.
sII >>
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Lecture:2 Topics
Recap- Diode theory, Diode equation, small signal and large
signal equivalent circuits.
Breakdown:ZenerandAvalanchemechanisms.
Loadlineanalysis
Conclusion&Summary–Breakdown,loadlineanalysis.
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BreakdownMechanisms
• ZenereffectØ OccursinheavilydopingsemiconductorØ Breakdownvoltageislessthan5v.Ø Carriersgeneratedbyelectricfield---fieldionizaDon.Ø TCisnegaDve.
• Avalancheeffect.Ø OccursinslightlydopingsemiconductorØ Breakdownvoltageismorethan7v.Ø Carriersgeneratedbycollision.Ø TCisposiDve.
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BreakdownMechanisms
Remember: pn junc@on breakdown is not a destruc@veprocess,providedthatthemaximumspecifiedpowerdissipa@onisnotexceeded.
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ZenerDiode
Circuitsymbol
Thediodei–vcharacterisDcwiththebreakdownregionshowninsomedetail.
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JuncDonCapacitance
• DiffusionCapacitanceØ Chargestoredinbulkregionchangeswiththechangeofvoltage
acrosspnjuncDongivesrisetocapaciDveeffect.
Ø Small-signaldiffusioncapacitance
• DepleDoncapacitanceØ ChargestoredindepleDonlayerchangeswiththechangeofvoltage
acrosspnjuncDongivesrisetocapaciDveeffect.
Ø Small-signaldepleDoncapacitance
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DiffusionCapacitance
AccordingtothedefiniDon:Thechargestoredinbulkregionisobtainedfrombelow
equaDons:
Qd dVdQC =
pp
pnonn
x nonp
ILpxpAq
dxpxpAqQn
τ=
⋅−×=
−×= ∫∞
])([
])([
nnn IQ τ=
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DiffusionCapacitance
Theexpressionfordiffusioncapacitance:
Forward-bias,linearrelaDonship
Reverse-bias,almostinexistence⎪⎩
⎪⎨
⎧≈
=
=
0
)(
)(
][
QT
T
QT
T
VV
sTd
IV
IV
eIdVdC T
τ
τ
τ
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DepleDonCapacitance
AccordingtothedefiniDon:Actuallythiscapacitanceissimilartoparallelplate
capacitance.
QR VVRj dVdQC
=
=
)1(
))(11(2[
0
0
o
R
j
RBA
depj
VVC
vVNNq
AWAC
+=
++
=ε
εε=
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DepleDonCapacitance
• AmoregeneralformulafordepleDoncapacitanceis:
• Wheremiscalledgradingcoefficient.• IftheconcentraDonchangessharply,• Forward-biascondiDon,• Reverse-biascondiDon,
mR
jj V
CC
)V1(0
0
+=
21~
31
=m
21
=m
02 jj CC ≈
dj CC <<
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JuncDonCapacitance
Remember:a) Diffusion and deple@on capacitances are
incremental capacitances, only are applied underthesmall-signalcircuitcondi@on.
b) Theyarenotconstants,theyhaverela@onshipwiththevoltageacrossthepnjunc@on.
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AnalysisofDiodeCircuit
• ModelsØ MathemaDcmodelØ Circuitmodel
• MethodsofanalysisØ GraphicalanalysisØ IteraDveanalysisØ Modelinganalysis
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TheDiodeModels
MathemaDcModel:
ThecircuitmodelsarederivedfromapproximaDngthecurveintopiecewise-line.
⎪⎩
⎪⎨⎧
−≈
−=
s
nVv
s
nVv
s
IeI
eIi
T
T )1(
Forwardbiased
Reversebiased
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TheDiodeModels
CircuitModela) Simplifieddiodemodel
b) Theconstant-voltage-dropmodel
c) Small-signalmodel
d) High-frequencymodel
e) ZenerDiodeModel
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SimplifiedDiodeModel
Piecewise-linearmodelofthediodeforwardcharacterisDcanditsequivalentcircuitrepresentaDon.
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TheConstant-Voltage-DropModel
Theconstant-voltage-dropmodelofthediodeforwardcharacterisDcsanditsequivalent-circuitrepresentaDon.
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Small-SignalModel
SymbolconvenDon:Ø Lowercasesymbol,uppercasesubscriptstandsfortotalinstantaneousqualiDes.
Ø Uppercasesymbol,uppercasesubscriptstandsfordccomponent.
Ø Lowercasesymbol,lowercasesubscriptstandsforaccomponentorincrementalsignalqualiDes.
Ø Uppercasesymbol,lowercasesubscriptstandsfortherms(root-mean-square)ofac.
)(tId
)(tid
DI
)(tiD
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Small-SignalModel
Developmentofthediodesmall-signalmodel.Notethatthenumericalvaluesshownareforadiodewithn=2.
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Small-SignalModel(cont’d)
Incrementalresistance:
*The signal amplitude sufficiently small suchthat the excursionatQalong the i-v curve islimitedtoashort,almostlinearsegment.
DQ
Td IVr =
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High-FrequencyModel
Highfrequencymodel
rd
rs
cj
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ZenerDiodeModel
ZZZZ rIVV += 0
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MethodofAnalysis
Ø LoadlineØ DiodecharacterisDcØ QistheintersectpointØ VisualizaDon
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Lecture:3 Topics
Recap-Breakdown,loadlineanalysis
Workingofclippers&clampers
WorkingofLimiters&voltagemulDpliers
Conclusion&Summary–Workingofclampers,clippers,Limiters
&voltagemulDpliers.
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Clippers
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² Clippers or diode limiting is a diode network that have the ability to “clip” off a portion on the i/p signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform.
² Clippers are used to eliminate amplitude noise or to
fabricate new waveforms from an existing signal.
² 2 general of clippers: a) Series clippers b) Parallel clippers
Clippers
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² The series configuraDon is defined as onewherethediodeisinserieswiththeload.
² A half-wave recDfier is the simplest formofdiodeclipper-oneresistoranddiode.
SeriesClippers
+
-Vi RL Vo
-
+
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The diode “clips” any voltage that does not put it in forward bias. That would be a reverse biasing polarity and a voltage less than 0.7V for a silicon diode.
ClipperDiodeCircuit
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Vm
Vi
t0 T/2 T
+
-Vi
V
RL Vo-
+
² The half-wave rectifier with addition of dc supply is shown in following figure. The cct known as biased series clipper.
² The dc supply have pronounced effect on the o/p of a clipper.
Biased series clipper KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
ClipperDiodeCircuit
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• +ve region turn the diode ON. • -ve region turn the diode OFF. • Vi > V to turn ON the diode • In general diode is open cct (OFF state) and short cct (ON state) • For Vi > V the Vo = Vi – V • For Vi = V the Vo= 0 V • The complete cct shown above
Vm
Vi
t0 T/2 T
+
-Vi=Vm
V
RL Vo
-
++ -
T/20
Vo
tT
Vm-V
Vi=V (diodes change state)
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ClipperDiodeCircuit
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² The diode connection is in parallel configuration with the o/p.
² Diode is ideal
+
RL
Vo-
+
-
Vi
ParallelClippers
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By taking the output across the diode, the output is now the voltage when the diode is not conducting. A DC source can also be added to change the diode’s required forward bias voltage.
ChangingOutputPerspecKve
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ClipperCircuitsSummary
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ClipperCircuitsSummarySimpleShuntclipper(IdealDiodes)
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ClipperCircuitsSummary
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Clampers
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² The clamping network is to “clamp” a signal to a different dc level. Also known as dc restorers. The clamping cct is often used in TV receivers as a dc restorer.
² The network consists of: a) Capacitor b) Diode c) Resistive element d) Independent dc supply (option)
² The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time constant
² τ = RC is large enough to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is nonconducting.
² Our analysis basis that all capacitor is fully charge and discharge in 5 time constant.
Clampers
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+R Vo
-
+
-
Vi
Vi
t0 T/2 T
V
-V
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Clamper
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+ ve region
+
R Vo
-
+-
Vi
C • 0 - T/2: Diode is ON state (short-cct equivalent) • Assume RC time is small and capacitor charge to V volts very quickly • Vo=0 V (ideal diode)
- ve region
• T/2 - T: Diode is OFF state (open-cct equivalent) • Both for the stored voltage across capacitor and applied signal current through cathode to anode • KVL: - V- V- Vo = 0 and Vo = -2V
+
R Vo
-
+-
V
C
Vo
-
+V
Vi
t0 T/2 T
V
-V
OperaKonofclamper
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Tips : Clamping network Total swing o/p signal = the total swing i/p signal
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SummaryofClamperCircuits
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VoltageMulKpliers
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WhatisaVoltageMulDplier?
² Voltage mulDpliers are AC-to-DC power conversiondevices, comprised of diodes and capacitors, thatproduce a high potenDal DC voltage from a lowervoltageACsource.MulDpliersaremadeupofmulDplestages. Each stage is comprisedof onediode andonecapacitor.
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Depending on the output voltage, mulDplierscanbeofdifferenttypes
Ø VoltagedoublersØ VoltageDpplersØ Voltagequadrupler
TypesofvoltagemulDplier
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AVoltagedoublerproducesad.c.voltagealmosttwicethermsvalueoftheinputa.c.voltage.
Voltagedoublercanbeoftwotypes;v Halfwavevoltagedoublerv Fullwavevoltagedoubler
Voltagedoublers
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CircuitDiagram
HalfwavevoltageDoubler
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The circuit for a half wave voltage doubler. During the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage diode D1 conducts and D2 is cut off. Now capacitor C1 charges to the peak rectified voltage Vm, with polarity shown in the figure. During the negative half cycle, the secondary voltage comes in series with voltage across the capacitor C1.
HalfwavevoltageDoubler
Thus C2 will try to charge towards 2Vm(Vm of the input and Vm of the capacitor C1. After few cycles the voltage across the capacitor C2 will be equal to 2Vm Since diode D2 acts as a short during the negative half-cycle (and diode D1 is open), we can sum the voltages around the outside loop. i.e;
−𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝐶1−𝑉𝐶2=0 (or) −𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑚 −𝑉𝐶2=0from which, 𝑉𝐶2=2𝑉𝑚
In the circuit capacitor C1 will discharge in the negative half cycle. Again in the positive half cycle, it starts charging. Thus the half wave voltage doubler supplies the voltage to the load in one half cycles. Therefore regulation of the half wave voltage doubler is poor.
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² Another voltage doubler circuit called full wave voltage doubler isshowninfig.
² During the posiDve half cycle of the secondary voltage diode D1conducts, charging the capacitor the capacitor C1to the peak voltageVm.
² AtthisDmediodeD2isnon-conducDng.
² During negaDve half cycle diode D2conducts, charging capacitor C2toVm,withpolarityasmarked,whilediodeD2isnon-conducDng.
² SincebothcapacitorsC1andC2areinseries,thefinaloutputvoltageisapproximately2Vm.
² This circuit is called full wave voltage doubler because one of theoutput capacitor is being charged during each half cycle of the inputvoltage
Fullwavevoltagedoubler
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Circuitdiagram
Fullwavevoltagedoubler
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• Thevoltagetriplerarrangementaddsanotherdiode/capacitorset.
• +half-cycle:C1chargestoVpthroughD1,• -half-cycle:C2chargesto2VpthroughC2,• Next + half-cycle: C3 charges to 2Vp throughC3.
• OutputisacrossC1&C3.
VoltageTripler
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Circuitdiagram
VoltageTripler
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• Thevoltagetriplerarrangementaddsanotherdiode/capacitorset.
• +half-cycle:C1chargestoVpthroughD1,• -half-cycle:C2chargesto2VpthroughC2,• Next+half-cycle:C3chargesto2VpthroughC3.• Next-half-cycle:C4chargesto2VpthroughC4• QuadrupleOutputisacrossC2&C4.
VoltageQuadruplers
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Circuitdiagram
VoltageQuadruplers
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Originally used for television CRT's, voltagemulDpliersarenowusedfor lasers, x-raysystems,travelingwavetubes (TWT's), photomulDplier tubes, ion pumps,electrostaDc systems, copymachines, andmany otherapplicaDonsthatuDlizehighvoltageDC.
CommonMulDplierApplicaDons
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Lecture:4 Topics
Recap-Workingofclampers,clippers,Limiters&voltage
mulDpliers
WorkingofHWR,FWR&BridgeRecDfier
WorkingofFWR&BridgeRecDfier
Conclusion&Summary–WorkingofHWR,FWR&BridgeRecDfier
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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ApplicaDonofDiodeCircuits
• RecDfiercircuitsØ Half-waverecDfierØ Full-waverecDfier• Transformerwithacenter-tappedsecondarywinding• BridgerecDfier
Ø ThepeakrecDfier
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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RecKfier• Rectifiers convert ac into dc
• Some commercial rectifiers
(Usedtochargebajeries)
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BlockdiagramofPowerSupply
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RecKfier• AcircuitthatconvertsacvoltageofmainsupplyintopulsaDngdcvoltageusingoneormorepnjuncDondiodes.
• HalfWaveRecDfier• FullWaveRecDfier
• CenterTapRecDfier• BridgeRecDfier
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Half-WaveRecDfier
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
CircuitDiagram
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OperaKonofHalfWaveRecKfier
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WaveformofHalfWaveRecKfier
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AverageDCloadCurrent(IDC)
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AverageDCvoltage(Edc)
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RMSLoadCurrent(Irms)
RMSLoadVoltage(Erms)
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DCPowerDeliveredtotheload
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ACinputpowerfromtransformersecondary
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HoweffecKvelyarecKfierconvertsacintodc:
• RecDfierEfficiency(η)
• RippleFactor(r)
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RecKfierEfficiency(η)Tellsusthepercentageoftotalinputacpowerthatisconvertedintousefuldcoutputpower.
η=40.6%
UnderbestcondiDons(nodiodeloss)only40.6%oftheacinputpowerisconvertedintodcpower.
Therestremainsastheacpowerintheload
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RippleFactorMeasureofpurityofthedcoutputofarecDfier
DefinedastheraDoofaccomponentoftheoutputwavetothedccomponentinthewave
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RippleFactor
Thisindicatesthattheripplecontentintheoutputare1.211Dmesthedccomponent.
i.e.121.1%ofdccomponent.
Theripplefactorisveryhigh.
ThereforeahalfwaverecDfierisapoorconverterofactodc.
TheripplefactorisminimizedusingfiltercircuitsalongwiththerecDfier.
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PeakInverseVoltage(PIV)
PIV=Em
DiodemustbeselectedbasedonthePIVraDngandthecircuitspecificaDon.
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DisadvantageofHWR
² TheripplefactorofhalfwaverecDfieris1.21,whichisquitehigh.
² Theoutputcontainslotofripples² ThemaximumtheoreDcalefficiencyis40%.² ThepracDcalvaluewillbequitelessthanthis.² ThisindicatesthatHWRisquiteinefficient.
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Full-WaveRecDfier
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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WorkingofCenterTapRecDfierCurrentFlowduringtheposiDvehalfoftheinputcycle
CurrentFlowduringthenegaDvehalfoftheinputcycle
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Waveforms
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AverageDCcurrent
Average(DC)Voltage
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RMSLoadCurrent(Irms)
RMSLoadVoltage
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DCOutputPower
ACinputpower(Pac)
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RecKfierEfficiency(η)
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RippleFactor
Thisindicatesthattheripplecontentsintheoutputare48%ofthedc component whichismuchlessthanthatforthehalfwaverecDfier.
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PeakInverseVoltage
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AdvantagesofFullWaveRecKfier
• Efficiencyishigher.• Thelargedcpoweroutput• Theripplefactorisless
DisadvantagesofFullWaveRecKfier
• PIVraDngofdiodeishigher.• HigherPIVdiodesarelargerinsizeandcostlier.• Thecostofcentertaptransformerishigh.
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TheBridgeRecDfier
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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WorkingofBridgeRecKfier
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WaveformsofBridgeRecKfier
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Parameters:
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AdvantagesofBridgeRecKfier
² Itdoesnotneedcentertaptransformersecondary.
² The transformer secondaryvoltageofCT recDfier is2Vm,whereas inBridgethetransformersecondarymusthaveapeakvoltageofVm.Thatis the transformer secondary of CT recDfier must have double thenumberofturns.Suchtransformersarecostlier.
² Ifsteppinguporsteppingdownofvoltageisnotneeded,wemayevendoawaywithouttransformer.
² Each diode in center tap has a PIV raDng of 2Vm,whereas diodes inbridge recDfierneedsaPIV raDngofVm.Hence thediodes foruse incentertaprecDfierarecostlierthanmeantforbridgerecDfier.
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DisadvantagesofBridgeRecKfier
² It requires four diodes, two of which conduct inalternatehalfcycles.Thiscreatesatotalvoltagedropof1.4V(ifSidiodesareused).
² Therefore this creates a problem if low dc voltage isrequired.
² The secondary voltage is low and two diode voltagedropof1.4Vbecomessignificant.
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SummaryThemainperformanceparametersdefinedforthethreeconfiguraDons
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PeakRecDfier
Ø VoltageandcurrentwaveformsinthepeakrecDfiercircuitwith.
Ø Thediodeisassumedideal.
TCR >>
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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Lecture:5 Topics
Recap-WorkingofHWR,FWR&BridgeRecDfier.
WorkingofCapacitor&π-secDonfilter
WorkingofCapacitor&π-secDonfilter
Conclusion&Summary–WorkingofCapacitor&π-secDonfilter.
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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Lecture:6 Topics
Recap-WorkingofCapacitorfilters&π-secDonfilter.
Specialpurposediodes-Zenerdiode
Q&ASessionVaractor,lightemiPngdiodes,Laserdiodes.
Q&ASession
Conclusion&Summary–Specialpurposediodes
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash
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Lecture:7 Topics
Recap-Specialpurposediodes
Seriesandshuntvoltageregulator
Q&ASessionPercentageregulaDon,ConceptofSMPS.
Q&ASessionConclusion&Summary–Seriesandshuntvoltageregulator,
SMPS
KLUDr.M.DurgaPrakash