an archaeology of the east midlands. class 6 radcliffe, autumn 2014

An Archaeology of the East Midlands

Class 6: The Medieval Town in the East Midlands

Tutor: Keith Challis

east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Recap: Last Week

• 850-1100 Shaping the Landscape

• Themes in the Medieval Landscape

• Laxton – a Village and its Landscape


• 1300-1485• Population decline

• Climate deterioration

• Economic troubles

• Settlement desertion• Feudal collapse

• 850-1300• The Manor• Nucleation of settlement• Open fields• The Parish• Feudal System

Class Summary

• Pre-Conquest Towns– Towns Before the Vikings– The Five Boroughs– Reconquest Towns and Burhs in Mercia

• Post Conquest Towns– Medieval Nottingham

• Coffee Break

• Field Archaeology: Reading the Landscape


Learning Outcomes

• Understand a little about the special nature and problems of urban archaeology

• Appreciate some of the archaeological evidence for Late Saxon and Medieval towns in the East Midlands

• Have a good understanding of the basic character of Saxon and Medieval Nottingham

• Understand Map Regression and its uses in urban studies

• Have a broad appreciation of the skills of use in field archaeology


Section 1: Pre-Conquest Towns


Town Before The Vikings

Life in the Ruins

• Evidence for Early and Middle Saxon occupation in Roman Town (Leicester/Lincoln) but not urban in character

• In Middle Saxon period Roman Town may have had special status (Royal/Religious places)

The Five Boroughs

• The five boroughs of Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby and Stamford were the fortified centres of Danish rule of the midlands

• Archaeological evidence is limited (eg only a few objects from Leicester) and often difficult to disentangle Saxon and Danish works (eg at Nottingham)


The Reconquest of Mercia

• New burghal towns associated with the reconquest of Mercia from the Vikings

• Newark (the New Work) a small Late Saxon burhgal town, perhaps associated with Saxon reconquest of Mercia.

• Excavations of burghal rampart at Slaughterhouse Lane (Morrisons)

• Southwell – recent Late Saxon finds from centre of town and reanalysis of plan suggesting origins as a Late Saxon planned town (a burh)


Section 2: Post Conquest Towns

Post Conquest Towns

• In general a paucity of archaeological evidence for EM towns as limited excavation and much destruction by cellars, etc.

• Excavation sometimes focused on Roman remains.

• Derby, limited excavation at Full Street in 1970s (medieval pits)

• More recent work at Court House and on Westfield Centre, but limited remains.


Post Conquest Towns• Leicester and Lincoln better

served in terms of excavation.• Lincoln focus on castle site• Leicester recent excavations

during urban renewal• Important regional town with

several specialist markets, multiple religious houses, industry, etc.

• Highcross Street, rare excavation of a medieval street frontage – occupied from Roman period to the present 3.5m+ of stratified archaeology.

• 10-11th century timber buildings• Cess pits, mash ovens, etc


Post Conquest Towns

Smaller Towns

• A complex hierarchy of medieval smaller market towns across the East Midlands

• Most with little or no excavation evidence

• What there is often patchy and inconclusive

• Chesterfield – some excavation in 1970s and more recently, focus on Roman period

• Newark, Late Saxon burghal defenses and English Civil War period is main focus


Post Conquest Towns

• Medieval Nottingham (Discussion)


Post Conquest Towns

• OriginsOrigins

• Anglo-Saxon BurhAnglo-Saxon Burh

• Norman TownNorman Town

• High Medieval NottinghamHigh Medieval Nottingham


Post Conquest Towns


Post Conquest Towns

Anglo-Saxon Burh• In existence before Viking

appropriation in 970s (?)• Certainly in existence by 921

when recaptured by Edward the Elder

• Early buildings (?pre burh) and massive rampart and ditch at Drury Hill

• Ditch at Drury Hill and Woolpack Lane recut in C10

• Post conquest Saxon rampart levelled and ditch filled in and built over


Drury Hill

Post Conquest Towns

Anglo-Saxon Burh

• Bow sided timber halls at Woolpack lane and Halifax Place

• Three phases of pre 1000 activity

• Post 1000 reorganisation and new buildings

• C1100 (Post conquest) reorganisation of frontages with corn drying ovens and caves


Halifax Place

Post Conquest Towns

The Norman Borough• Nottingham castle (1068)• Norman Borough between

castle and Saxon Burh• Persistent distinction between

Norman and Saxon traditions• Burh defenses filled in and new

earthen rampart by early C12• In old town evidence for internal

reorganisation c1150 and 1300• Industry including malting,

pottery production (Goose Gate) and corn drying (Fisher Gate)


Goose Gate

Post Conquest Towns

Later Medieval Nottingham• 1267-1334 grants of

murage add stone wall to rampart

• Cloth manufacture, iron working, tanning and pottery manufacture all evidenced by documents and archeology


Post Conquest Towns

Chapel Bar and The Town Wall


Chapel Bar, Thomas Cooper Moore (1740s) Last surviving medieval town gate

Post Conquest Towns


Post Conquest Towns


Post Conquest Towns


Post Conquest Towns

1960s excavation and exposure during redevelopment

Map Regression: Rediscovering a Town Plan

•Start with the most recent map, such as a modern Ordnance Survey map and gradually work back through time comparing the relevant maps.

•Map regression is made simpler if all the maps have been reduced or enlarged to the same scale. Maps can then be overlaid.

•A good starting point is to identify a number of features or structures, which have not changed, as this provides a framework from which to start locating other features and comparing maps.

Post Conquest Towns


1609 1610 1677

1744 1844 1861

Post Conquest Towns

Modern 1861

Post Conquest Towns


Modern 1861

Work on small areas!

Post Conquest Towns


Modern 1744

Post Conquest Towns


Modern 1610

Post Conquest Towns


Post Conquest Towns

Visualising stratigraphic relationships: town wall at Chapel Bar Nottingham

Post Conquest Towns


Post Conquest Towns

Chapel Bar and The Town Defences


1960s

Now

• Coffee Break


Section 3: Field ArchaeologyReading the Landscape

Field Archaeology

Hoskins

Crawford


• Earthworks

• Artefacts

• Field shapes and boundaries

• Vegetation

• Rivers and waterways

• Tracks, roads and routeways

• Settlement plans

• Standing buildings

• Place names……

Fieldwork Evidence


Earthworks• Earthworks are amongst the most commonly studied

sources of information for non-invasive fieldwork.

• Can provide a great deal of information on the past use and development of the landscape.

• But, need care to differentiate between naturally created landforms (e.g. glacial moraines), modern land use (e.g. road quarry pits) and cultural archaeological earthworks.

• Also, differentiating between archaeological site types based solely on earthwork remains can be risky – some monuments will be evidenced by the same earthwork appearance. For example, a circular mound could plausibly relate to a prehistoric barrow, a medieval defensive earthwork, a windmill mound, a post-medieval viewing platform or a 20th century military gun emplacement.


Earthworks• The identification and interpretation

of earthworks requires an understanding of all types of archaeological monuments, as well as those resulting from other non-archaeological practices.

• There are useful books to help in the interpretation (e.g. Aston 1985, Bowden 1999, Muir 2000, Ordnance Survey 1963…..).

• Another important consideration is that although areas of earthworks may appear homogenous on the ground today, they may in fact date from a range of periods and functions.

• ‘ The present view is like looking at the stars – in one view many ages are seen.’ (Aston 1985, 15).

After: Williamson 2002, p24


Earthworks• As well as interpretation of date and function

based on morphological description, it is also sometimes possible to construct relative chronologies by analysing the stratigraphic relationship between different features.

• Vertical stratigraphy relies on the clear and accurate identification of discrete earthwork features, as well as their chronological interrelationships.

• Horizontal stratigraphy is often less clearly perceptible, in that it relies on there being well defined differences between, for example, the core nucleus of a settlement site and later adjacent elements of a different form, scale or angle.

• Deciphering the detailed relationships between earthworks in this manner often requires the use of site survey or aerial photography.After: Bowden 1999, fig 35


Field shapes and boundaries

• The shape of a field or property boundary can be determined by a range of factors, for example:

– Agricultural regime– Topography– Economy– Soil quality– Social hierarchy + control

• In many cases the shape of a field can lead to a preliminary interpretation of date. For example, complex coaxial networks are often prehistoric, small irregular fields were often created through the piecemeal assarting of woodland or intake of common land…

• Other forms of enclosures should be considered – e.g. park boundaries.

After: Muir 2002, map 3.7 east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Hedges and Walls

• As well as the shape of the fields themselves, the form, composition and construction of their boundaries can provide important information.

• The availability of resources and suitability of the soils dictates a considerable amount of the regional variation in the distribution, although lots of other contributing factors.

• Hedges are able to not only act as barriers in the landscape but also to provide a regular supply of wood.

• Drystone walling can be established in areas where hedges would not survive due to poor soils and exposure to wind.

• Should also consider boundary features can be aimed at defining a border rather than an enclosure, for example Offa’s Dyke or Hadrian’s Wall.



• The ecologist Max Hooper suggested in the 1960s that the character and plant diversity of a hedge could be used to provide information on the date of the boundary.

• He came up with a simplified equation that claimed that the age could be calculated by counting the number of species within a 30-yard length of a hedge and multiplying this figure by 100 (e.g. 5 species = 500 years old) (the ‘Hooper hypothesis’).

• Based on assumption that hedges acquire new species over time at a gradual but fairly constant rate.

• But, the technique only provides a margin of error of 200 years either way (therefore the example above could date from 1300-1700 AD).

• And there are a number of significant problems with the theory behind the approach itself. For example, records show that many hedges were planted as multi-species boundaries at the outset. Also, species can be lost from hedges over time – for example Elms can displace existing species and even eventually create a single species hedge.

• But not completely useless – can look at species composition to understand past landscapes (‘indicator species’ can show woodland edge hedges). Need to consider regional/local context.

Dating Hedges?



Dating Walls?

‘Wall-to-Wall History’

Richard Hodges examination of Roystone Grange in Derbyshire included the creation of a typology of drystone walling, checked through construction method, association with other cultural features or excavation.

1 2

3 4 5

Ecology and Vegetation

• ‘Plants and animals do not enter into the story merely as part of the environment, as scenery in the theatre of landscape. They are actors in the play; each has its own character, which needs to be understood.’ (Rackham, 2000).

• As this quote from Rackham suggests, a thorough understanding of ecology allows a deep understanding of the nature and development of a landscape.

• Factors to consider are the distribution, nature and species composition of: woodland/wood-pasture, indicators of tree management, fields and their boundaries, grassland, heathland, moors and water bodies.

• An excellent reference for understanding historical ecology is Oliver Rackham’s ‘History of the Countryside’.

After: Rackham 2000 east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

• Calculating the age of ancient trees is problematic, especially since they are often hollow so the oldest wood is not available for dendrochronology or C-14 dating.

• A crude formula for calculating age is that free-standing timber trees (especially oaks) gain approximately 2cm of circumference each year of growth.

• But also have to take account of a wide range of factors, such as competition with other plants, species, climate and effects of management strategies such as pollarding (reduces growth rate).

Ecology and Vegetation

After: Muir 2001east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Vegetation changes as archaeological indicators


Structures and Buildings

• Standing buildings / structures

• Partially extant structures (e.g. foundations)

• Footprints and earthworks (e.g. hut platforms)


Surface finds• On ploughed arable land there is often a good chance of

finding artefacts. Pasture is obviously not usually suited.

• The distribution of the finds can then be used to give an impression of the subsurface archaeology. Isolated artefacts likely to result from domestic refuse material scattered as manure, dense concentrations suggest potential occupation?

• The ideal conditions are following rainfall and in winter when the vegetation/crop is low and have not started growing.

• Factors to consider include:– Method of collection (systematic or random)?– Positioning of artefacts?

– What type of artefacts are likely to survive local soil conditions?

– Crop type and growth.

– Depth of ploughing and time since ploughing– Colour of soil– Degree of movement from original location (i.e. not in

situ finds but by how much?)

• It is important to remember that the presence of artefacts within topsoil or on the ground surface almost certainly means that the archaeology is being eroded.


Sketch Mapping

• Sketch mapping of archaeological remains identified during fieldwork is an important skill.

• Features should be represented with care, at least to an approximate scale (pacing).

• Maps should be well annotated and include a title, description, orientation, scale bar, and a key if required.

• English Heritage drawing conventions should be used wherever possible.

After Muir 2001


Position and Orientation• Accurate positioning of identified

archaeology is also essential – although the level of accuracy will differ depending on the purpose and level of the survey.

• A central grid reference obtained from a handheld GPS is adequate for recording the basic location of a site (or multiple points for a large area).

• Alternatively, the position can be recorded onto a paper map through pacing/taping from field boundaries.

• A compass is essential for proper orientation of a site and any features within it.


Field Notes• A detailed field description is essential and should include

all of the details listed in the relevant English Heritage survey level written description information. Text should be linked into sketch maps and photographs wherever possible.

• These notes can be made on an annotated plan, in a notebook or into a voice recorder – but should be clearly legible / audible and copied up as soon as you return from the field.

• Other important considerations are the landscape context of the site (e.g. intervisibility), preservation condition / erosion, visible chronology, etc.


Ground Photography • Ground photography is primarily used to record the appearance or interrelationships of specific features within a site, or to record the broader landscape context.

• Factors to consider are the time of day/year, the weather, and the quality of the camera.

• The viewpoint should be carefully selected to maximise the information obtained (for record shots especially). Elevated positions are often useful for clarifying the overall pattern in large areas.

• Wherever possible use a measured ranging rod for scale – and always align the rod in the same manner for your photographs (e.g. red to the left). If no rod is available then improvisation is necessary (e.g. a person, a trowel, etc).

• Photographs need to be accompanied by notes – recording what they refer to and where they were taken. At its simplest level this can be recording the position and orientation of a photograph on a sketch map.


Further StudyAssignment 6: The Post Medieval East Midlands

What changes overtook the East Midlands in the period 1600-1900?

Think about broad changes affecting towns and the countryside and in particular how each are best evidenced (by archaeology or by documentary history?)

Can you come up with one solid example of significant change (enclosure/industrial growth/population movement, etc.) that is evidenced best by archaeology?

Use the chapters from the East Midland Research Framework on the website as your guide.


an archaeology of the east midlands. class 6 radcliffe, autumn 2014

Education

centre of town

late saxon planned town

small late saxon burhgal

medieval towns

roman town leicesterlincoln

saxon reconquest of

limited excavation

middle saxon occupation