an archaeology of the east midlands, class 5. radcliffe autumn 2014

An Archaeology of the East Midlands

Class 5: The Medieval Countryside of the East Midlands.

Tutor: Keith Challis

east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Recap: Last Week

• Viking Origins

• Scandinavian Settlement in the East Midlands

• Discussion – Repton and the Vikings

• Techniques: Geophysical Survey


Class Summary

• 850-1100 Shaping the Landscape• Themes in the Medieval Landscape• Laxton – a Village and its Landscape

• Coffee Break

• Field Archaeology. Reading the Landscape


Learning Outcomes

• Identify some of the key themes in the archaeology of medieval rural settlement in the Midlands

• Understand some of the factors affecting settlement form and agricultural landscapes

• Recognise some of the physical evidence for medieval (and other) past landscapes which survive to the present and how archaeologists deal with these


Section 1: 850 – 1100

850-1100 Shaping the Landscape

• By 870s almost total Danish control of East Midlands

• Administered and defenced from the Five Boroughs

• From late 10th Century Saxon Reconquest of Midlands

• 11th Century unified Anglo-Danish Kingdom



• Wholesale changes in landholding and landscape – but why?


Middle Saxon

•Large “multiple” estates

•Dispersed settlement based on farmstead

•Infield/Outfield agriculture (?)

•Minster Churches

Late Saxon/Saxo-Norman

•Small estates based on the manor

•Nucleated settlement in villages

•Development of open fields

•Parochial system and churches

•Castles

•Feudal land holding


• What causes the changes…?

• Scandinavian settlement..?

• Norman influence..?

• Population growth (competition or resources..?

• Climate change..?

• Fashion..?




Catholme

South Leverton

Section 2: Themes in the Medieval Landscape

Themes in the Medieval Landscape

• What are The Key Themes?



• 850-1300

• The Manor

• Nucleation of settlement

• Open fields

• The Parish

• Feudal System

• Castles


• 1300-1485

• Population decline

• Climate deterioration

• Economic troubles

• Settlement desertion

• Feudal collapse


• Rural Settlement• In E Mids predominance of

nucleated settlement.• Excavation evidence for origins rare

and equivocal

• Eg. Barton Blount – tofts and crofts from 11th century

• Re-imaging of nucleated settlements in 13th century into regulated plan forms (eg Rockingham 1270s)

• But – areas of distinctive dispersed settlement, eg Charnwood, North Derbyshire, Sherwood, The Coal Measures



• Rural Settlement• The Manor (manorium) basic unit of

lordly landholding• Fundamental to feudal land holding,

but with pre-conquest origins

• Manors may include one or many settlement in any form – the manor and the village are not equal

• Excavations of manorial complexes show use of sites bridging conquest (eg at Goltho)

• Some manorial sites become sites for castles

• Abandoned manorial complexes may be confused with deserted villages



• Agriculture• Champion landscape of

communal open fields cropped under two or three year rotation

• Evidence suggests pre-Conquest origin but little archaeology

• Some documents (eg Southwell AD956) but most are post-Conquest

• Open fields and nucleated settlements appear to be part of a single system of rural landscape organisation



• Agriculture• Areas with no open

fields poorly understood

• Possibly infield/outfield systems in uplands

• Extensive Assarting in Sherwood and other forest areas



• Feudal Appurtenances

• Castles• Early post-Conquest castles at

Nottingham, Lincoln, Leicester, Duffield

• Networks of smaller earthwork castles – eg along Trent and associated with major estate centres

• Some short-lived castles associated with Anarchy (1135-54 eg Derby)


Duffield Reconstructed


• Feudal Appurtenances

• Deer Parks, Gardens, Mills, Warrens, Fish-Ponds

• All significant features with persistent impact on landscape and significant earthwork remains


Speed 1610.

Section 3: Laxton

Laxton



Laxton

Open Field Farming Survives


Mark Pierce’s Map of 1625


Laxton


Laxton Top Lane

• Excavation of two tofts vacant since 1635

• Mid-Late Saxon pottery (York, Maxey, Stamford and Lincoln)

• Abundant 13th-14th Century pottery

• Nothing post c1500

• Pre conquest occupation

• 13th century regulated plan

• Later medieval abandonment


Laxton Old VicarageOld Infants’ School

Isolated pits/ditches with 13th/14th century pottery


Laxton

Two phase castle


Laxton

• Pre-conquest Anglo-Scandinavian settlement (?dispersed/nucleated)

• At conquest granted to Geoffrey Alselin, an absent landlord

• c1090s Alselin’s death and manor to Robert de Caux by marriage

• Caput of de Caux barony: first castle build near to former manorial site

• c1100 de Caux appointed “Keeper of Sherwood Forest”

• Second castle built to accommodate this role and regular royal visitors

• Original village form replaced by a regulated plan two row village in late 12th /early 13th century

• Development of Open Field at same time (Mill 1189/West 1232)

• Freed from forest law in 1227 – agriculture expansion and population growth

• 1230s manor to de Everinghams


Laxton

• Original village form replaced by a regulated plan two row village in late 12th /early 13th century

• Development of Open Field at same time (Mill 1189/West 1232)

• Freed from forest law in 1227 – agriculture expansion and population growth

• 1230s manor to de Everinghams• 1286 Robert imprisoned and loss of

office but further expansion and town like wealth

• 14th century IPM show decline in Demense – castle abandoned

• Pre and post Black Death decline and abandonment of tofts

Adam de Everingham (died 1336) and his wives

• Coffee Break


Section 4: Field ArchaeologyReading the Landscape

Field Archaeology

Hoskins

Crawford


• Earthworks

• Artefacts

• Field shapes and boundaries

• Vegetation

• Rivers and waterways

• Tracks, roads and routeways

• Settlement plans

• Standing buildings

• Place names……

Fieldwork Evidence


Earthworks• Earthworks are amongst the most commonly studied

sources of information for non-invasive fieldwork.

• Can provide a great deal of information on the past use and development of the landscape.

• But, need care to differentiate between naturally created landforms (e.g. glacial moraines), modern land use (e.g. road quarry pits) and cultural archaeological earthworks.

• Also, differentiating between archaeological site types based solely on earthwork remains can be risky – some monuments will be evidenced by the same earthwork appearance. For example, a circular mound could plausibly relate to a prehistoric barrow, a medieval defensive earthwork, a windmill mound, a post-medieval viewing platform or a 20th century military gun emplacement.


Earthworks• The identification and interpretation

of earthworks requires an understanding of all types of archaeological monuments, as well as those resulting from other non-archaeological practices.

• There are useful books to help in the interpretation (e.g. Aston 1985, Bowden 1999, Muir 2000, Ordnance Survey 1963…..).

• Another important consideration is that although areas of earthworks may appear homogenous on the ground today, they may in fact date from a range of periods and functions.

• ‘ The present view is like looking at the stars – in one view many ages are seen.’ (Aston 1985, 15).

After: Williamson 2002, p24


Earthworks• As well as interpretation of date and function

based on morphological description, it is also sometimes possible to construct relative chronologies by analysing the stratigraphic relationship between different features.

• Vertical stratigraphy relies on the clear and accurate identification of discrete earthwork features, as well as their chronological interrelationships.

• Horizontal stratigraphy is often less clearly perceptible, in that it relies on there being well defined differences between, for example, the core nucleus of a settlement site and later adjacent elements of a different form, scale or angle.

• Deciphering the detailed relationships between earthworks in this manner often requires the use of site survey or aerial photography.After: Bowden 1999, fig 35


Field shapes and boundaries

• The shape of a field or property boundary can be determined by a range of factors, for example:

– Agricultural regime– Topography– Economy– Soil quality– Social hierarchy + control

• In many cases the shape of a field can lead to a preliminary interpretation of date. For example, complex coaxial networks are often prehistoric, small irregular fields were often created through the piecemeal assarting of woodland or intake of common land…

• Other forms of enclosures should be considered – e.g. park boundaries.

After: Muir 2002, map 3.7 east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Hedges and Walls

• As well as the shape of the fields themselves, the form, composition and construction of their boundaries can provide important information.

• The availability of resources and suitability of the soils dictates a considerable amount of the regional variation in the distribution, although lots of other contributing factors.

• Hedges are able to not only act as barriers in the landscape but also to provide a regular supply of wood.

• Drystone walling can be established in areas where hedges would not survive due to poor soils and exposure to wind.

• Should also consider boundary features can be aimed at defining a border rather than an enclosure, for example Offa’s Dyke or Hadrian’s Wall.



• The ecologist Max Hooper suggested in the 1960s that the character and plant diversity of a hedge could be used to provide information on the date of the boundary.

• He came up with a simplified equation that claimed that the age could be calculated by counting the number of species within a 30-yard length of a hedge and multiplying this figure by 100 (e.g. 5 species = 500 years old) (the ‘Hooper hypothesis’).

• Based on assumption that hedges acquire new species over time at a gradual but fairly constant rate.

• But, the technique only provides a margin of error of 200 years either way (therefore the example above could date from 1300-1700 AD).

• And there are a number of significant problems with the theory behind the approach itself. For example, records show that many hedges were planted as multi-species boundaries at the outset. Also, species can be lost from hedges over time – for example Elms can displace existing species and even eventually create a single species hedge.

• But not completely useless – can look at species composition to understand past landscapes (‘indicator species’ can show woodland edge hedges). Need to consider regional/local context.

Dating Hedges?



Dating Walls?

‘Wall-to-Wall History’

Richard Hodges examination of Roystone Grange in Derbyshire included the creation of a typology of drystone walling, checked through construction method, association with other cultural features or excavation.

1 2

3 4 5

Ecology and Vegetation

• ‘Plants and animals do not enter into the story merely as part of the environment, as scenery in the theatre of landscape. They are actors in the play; each has its own character, which needs to be understood.’ (Rackham, 2000).

• As this quote from Rackham suggests, a thorough understanding of ecology allows a deep understanding of the nature and development of a landscape.

• Factors to consider are the distribution, nature and species composition of: woodland/wood-pasture, indicators of tree management, fields and their boundaries, grassland, heathland, moors and water bodies.

• An excellent reference for understanding historical ecology is Oliver Rackham’s ‘History of the Countryside’.

After: Rackham 2000 east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

• Calculating the age of ancient trees is problematic, especially since they are often hollow so the oldest wood is not available for dendrochronology or C-14 dating.

• A crude formula for calculating age is that free-standing timber trees (especially oaks) gain approximately 2cm of circumference each year of growth.

• But also have to take account of a wide range of factors, such as competition with other plants, species, climate and effects of management strategies such as pollarding (reduces growth rate).

Ecology and Vegetation

After: Muir 2001east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Vegetation changes as archaeological indicators


Structures and Buildings

• Standing buildings / structures

• Partially extant structures (e.g. foundations)

• Footprints and earthworks (e.g. hut platforms)


Surface finds• On ploughed arable land there is often a good chance of

finding artefacts. Pasture is obviously not usually suited.

• The distribution of the finds can then be used to give an impression of the subsurface archaeology. Isolated artefacts likely to result from domestic refuse material scattered as manure, dense concentrations suggest potential occupation?

• The ideal conditions are following rainfall and in winter when the vegetation/crop is low and have not started growing.

• Factors to consider include:– Method of collection (systematic or random)?– Positioning of artefacts?

– What type of artefacts are likely to survive local soil conditions?

– Crop type and growth.

– Depth of ploughing and time since ploughing– Colour of soil– Degree of movement from original location (i.e. not in

situ finds but by how much?)

• It is important to remember that the presence of artefacts within topsoil or on the ground surface almost certainly means that the archaeology is being eroded.


Sketch Mapping

• Sketch mapping of archaeological remains identified during fieldwork is an important skill.

• Features should be represented with care, at least to an approximate scale (pacing).

• Maps should be well annotated and include a title, description, orientation, scale bar, and a key if required.

• English Heritage drawing conventions should be used wherever possible.

After Muir 2001


Position and Orientation• Accurate positioning of identified

archaeology is also essential – although the level of accuracy will differ depending on the purpose and level of the survey.

• A central grid reference obtained from a handheld GPS is adequate for recording the basic location of a site (or multiple points for a large area).

• Alternatively, the position can be recorded onto a paper map through pacing/taping from field boundaries.

• A compass is essential for proper orientation of a site and any features within it.


Field Notes• A detailed field description is essential and should include

all of the details listed in the relevant English Heritage survey level written description information. Text should be linked into sketch maps and photographs wherever possible.

• These notes can be made on an annotated plan, in a notebook or into a voice recorder – but should be clearly legible / audible and copied up as soon as you return from the field.

• Other important considerations are the landscape context of the site (e.g. intervisibility), preservation condition / erosion, visible chronology, etc.


Ground Photography • Ground photography is primarily used to record the appearance or interrelationships of specific features within a site, or to record the broader landscape context.

• Factors to consider are the time of day/year, the weather, and the quality of the camera.

• The viewpoint should be carefully selected to maximise the information obtained (for record shots especially). Elevated positions are often useful for clarifying the overall pattern in large areas.

• Wherever possible use a measured ranging rod for scale – and always align the rod in the same manner for your photographs (e.g. red to the left). If no rod is available then improvisation is necessary (e.g. a person, a trowel, etc).

• Photographs need to be accompanied by notes – recording what they refer to and where they were taken. At its simplest level this can be recording the position and orientation of a photograph on a sketch map.


Further Study

Assignment 5: Medieval Nottingham

•Take a look at Maurice Barley’s seminal 1969 historical summary of Nottingham and the more recent taster paper by David Knight et al on excavations revealing the origins of the town. You might like to supplement this with your own reading – local studies libraries are bursting with Nottingham material.

•We will discuss Nottingham as an example of the development of a great Midland’s town in the Middle Ages – come prepared!


an archaeology of the east midlands, class 5. radcliffe autumn 2014

Education

settlement form

medieval landscapewhat

medieval landscapethemes

manornucleated settlement

medieval landscapelaxton

medieval landscape850

medieval countryside

key themes