An Archaeo-Organological Survey of the NetherlandsAuthor(s): Joan RimmerSource: World Archaeology, Vol. 12, No. 3, Archaeology and Musical Instruments (Feb., 1981),pp. 233-245Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/124235Accessed: 08/07/2010 05:26

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An archaeo-organological survey of the

Netherlands

Joan Rimmer

In the Netherlands, as in most countries with some tradition of acquiring and preserving material objects of many kinds, instruments from archaeological sources fall into three categories; those of native provenance, those of foreign origin which have been found in the Netherlands and those of non-Netherlandish origin which have been acquired by various means, including purchase. It is the purpose of this article, in so far as space allows, to provide a general survey of instruments in the first category.

The currently known total of instruments and soundmakers from Netherlands soil up to about A.D. I500 is nearly 200. Quantitatively, the north, with its comparatively dense population in the first millennium A.D. and soils favourable to preservation, has so far yielded more than any other region, though this may not give a true picture of the original density of instrument use elsewhere.

Over thirty complete or fragmentary vessel rattles of black, pink or yellowish clay have been found in the provinces of Friesland and Groningen. Shapes include flattened oval, double cone and double pie-crust (there are examples of the latter from Ur, of the early second millennium B.C.: Rimmer I969: plate III b). Some are roughly made, some are carefully formed and decorated with incised lines or indentations. In many cases, the pellets have disintegrated; in others, particularly where these are about the size of a large pea, they are well preserved. Some rattles found during the last few decades, for example those found near Suawoude and Bantega, can be dated to the early centuries of this era, and this pre-christianization date, together with the size, weight and form of many rattles, reinforces the theory that they were ritual soundmakers. One double cone, from Finkum, has a hanging loop at each end, presumably for suspension from the neck, and another large one, from Hallum, has adult-size finger grips at each end, one vertically and one horizontally placed (plate 3a). This rattle sits comfortably between two hands, and when it is shaken precisely a clear, dry sound is produced by the friction of the large, hard pellets against the 5 mm-thick walls. Though the use of rattles in social and religious ritual (as in procession and dance) is now unfamiliar in most of Europe, in pre- and non- Christian societies it may well have been as usual as it still is in many non-European societies.

A few examples are hors de se'rie. From Groningen there are possible half-rattles of inverted cup shape with a spike or stump on top. They somewhat resemble cup cymbals

World Archaeology Volume I2 No. 3 Musical instruments

? R.K.P. I98I 0043-8243/81/I203-0233 $I.50/I

234 Joan Rimmer

and give a dry thud when struck together, rather like half coconuts. From Friesland come two which stand on end. One from Bilgaard resembles a pointed egg in an eggcup, while the other, from Hallum, is like a mushroom-shaped pepper-pot, with thirty-one tiny perforations in the top. The latter appears to be wheel-turned; both have a crisp sound.

Whistles and flutes

A few clay whistles have been found in the west of Friesland. One of dark brownish-black clay, found in the old Zuiderzee port of Staveren, was considered by Boeles (I 95 I) to be an import into Friesland, and this seems likely. His dating between the mid-eighth and the eleventh century, seems less likely. This whistle, and others which are coarser and perhaps locally-made examples of the same type, are tiny vessel and tube flutes, with spherical vessels and tubular ducts (very long in proportion to the total length of the instruments) set at an angle over the vessel opening. Their sizes and proportions are similar to those of the larger Mochica and Chimu whistles in the Haags Gemeente- museum (total lengths of around 6o mm., tube lengths 40 mm. and tube diameter 2-3 mm.), as is the exterior shape (plate ib and c). Other kinds of vessel and duct flute are well known in Europe; but since evidence is lacking for this type in first millennium A.D. Europe, its presence in a few places on or near the coast of Friesland may be ex- plained by importation of at least one example from post-Conquest Latin-America, and therefore a date no earlier than the sixteenth century.

Bone whistles which do seem to be native are tiny block-and-duct vessel flutes. They have been found in a number of external shapes, ranging from roughly worked antler tips (Atanassov I977: I I9 cites a present-day example of goat horn, used as a railway whistle!) to bone 'shoe-horns', flat 'spatulae' (plate ia) and turned tubes. The internal tubular vessel is small in relation to the overall length of the object; for example, a mere 30 mm. out of a total of I I4 mm. The crudest whistles have rough-cut suspension(?) notches; the rest have either front to back and side-to-side perforations in the lower part, that is, below the vessel area, or a sort of spindle terminating in a stump at the bottom. There are traces of metal or metal stain in some of the perforations and stumps.

They have been found in Friesland and elsewhere; for example in Schokland (formerly an island in the Zuiderzee, though now part of the Noordoostpolder), North Holland, Zeeland and coastal Brabant. Van Vilsteren's study of the dating and function of some of them is in the press.

A search for earlier tonal systems can be an unrewarding exercise, given little know- ledge of the fabric of musical activity from which they emerged. Nevertheless, the quantity and variety of bone flutes from the north, the probable time span they cover and the discovery of some comparable instruments elsewhere combine to provide a certain amount of information. Apart from a number of notched flutes which were no doubt bird lures, all these instruments are internal block and duct flutes made from the bones of various domestic animals, goose or swan. A few lack finger-holes; some of these have suspension notches like the antler whistles. A small flute from Oosterlittens, with one finger-hole, was perhaps a bird lure; a thirteenth-fourteenth-century example found

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands 235

in Alkmaar has been identified as similar to golden plover lures still in use in North Holland (Cordfunke, I975). With one five-hole exception, all are one-hand flutes and in some cases offsetting of one or more finger-holes indicates whether they were right- or left-hand flutes. A broken flute from Stiens, listed by Crane (I972: 30) as a five-holer, in fact has three cut finger-holes plus a small hole drilled iz mm. below the remains of the window. Of the present five holes on a flute from Feerwerd tested by Megaw (I968: 338), the bottom three are carefully and identically cut while the upper two - presumably later additions - are quite different in shape, the top one very shallow and the one below it deeply and crudely gashed. In a few cases, the position of the head in relation to the finger-holes suggests that the flute was played from the side of the mouth, as is still the case in parts of eastern Europe and the Middle East.

Given the non-scientific circumstances in which most flutes were uncovered (Boersma I972: 9I-I09) and their wide distribution (figs. i and z) it is difficult to establish chrono- logy - several types must have been in use simultaneously - or to suggest social or

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Fig'ure i The Provinces of Friesland and Groningen. z clay vessel rattles; 2 bone whistles (4 types); 3 bone block-and-duct flutes (15S types); 4 bone reedpipe; ? triple-coiled clay horns; 6 clay whistles; 7 hornpipe parts; 8 wooden reedpipe; 9 jews' harps

occupational differentiations related to type. From the later end of the probable time span, c. fourteenth-fifteenth century, there are several instruments which resemble the gar kleine Plockfl6tlein with three finger-holes and a thumb-hole which was illustrated and described as late as the seventeenth century by Praetorius (I6I9: 34 and plate 9).

236 Joan Rimmer

Between the later, lathe-turned instruments with drilled finger-holes and some very crudely hand-cut instruments, these flutes exhibit many different degrees of skill and care in the selection and preparation of bone, the placing and shaping of the head, window and labium or voicing lip, and of the cutting or drilling of finger-holes; also in tuning implications. Two were found in I920 in a terp cemetery at Aalsum in Groningen; whether they had been buried with their owners is now impossible to establish. In 1973, in the course of levelling the remains of an early terp, Weakens, near Winsum in Fries- land, one was found along with remains of cheese-making equipment. Were some of these bone flutes for the self-delectation of farmers and dairy women or had they also a signal function connected with fairly large scale cattle-keeping? Boeles (195I: 214) quoted, from the eighth-century registers of Fulda, cattle holdings in Friesland of up to one hundred beasts.

Only a brief typological breakdown of these flutes can be given here:

A (i) Two finger-holes set low on a tube c. i5o mm. long. (ii) Two finger-holes and thumb-hole set low on the tube (in later English terminology

tabor-pipe, German schwegel). B (i) Two finger-holes set in the middle of the tube; for example as in one from

Hallum in Friesland, 68 mm. and 87 mm. from the bottom of a tube I84 mm. long (plate 2a). The fundamental note series here would comprise a largish interval from the lowest note (all holes covered) to the next (lower hole open) and a smaller one from that to the next (both holes open). If played on fundamentals, one musical possibility is of touched drone on the lowest note. An example of this type from Staveren can be dated ? A.D. I000-1300.

(ii) Three finger-holes set in the middle of the tube; interval implications as in B (i). A flute of this kind, of C. A.D. I I00, was found on Walcheren in Zeeland (Trimpe Burger I960-I: 207).

C (i) Short, flutes, II3 mm.-I3o mm. long, with three finger-holes. A late example of this type, from Valkum in Groningen, has a forward-cut beaked head.

(ii) Short, frequently thick flutes of similar lengths with three finger-holes and thumb- hole. This is the category most discussed hitherto (Megaw I968: 34I-6; Vellekoop I966; Brade I975). A late, lathe-turned example from Warffum (a right-hand flute) has a back-cut beaked head and finger-holes drilled into the bore at an angle. The idea that a bottom rear hole which is found in some instruments was a second thumb-hole (Brade I975: 30) seems to be based on a misunderstanding of the nature of instruments with two thumb-holes and of the practicalities of vertical flute playing. In the Netherlands, rear and lateral holes (sometimes quite small) set very close to the lower end are found on a number of instruments with three or four holes, both shorter and longer and of bird and animal bone. At least in the case of duplicate lateral holes, they must have been for suspension, for a string to sling the instrument from the neck; possibly all were suspension holes. The instrument type which does have two thumb-holes, the arigot or French flageolet, has in fact a pair of tabor-pipe settings in one tube, each hand having two finger- holes and one thumb-hole. A possible analogy for some of the short, fat bone flutes seems to be the north Spanish one-hand flute called fluviol. Some modern

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands 237

forms have side keys and an extended, unfingered lower length carrying three vent holes. Leaving these aside, however, it is a short flute with three frontal and two rear holes disposed in the same manner as in some of the Netherlandish bone instruments, and only a centimetre or so longer than these. Its frontal holes are closed by three fingers and the upper rear hole by the thumb, while the bottom rear hole rests on and is closed by the upper surface of the little finger (Baines I96I: 228 and fig. 54f for a thirteenth-century depiction with tabor see Gardner n.d.: 8-9). The bone flutes sit comfortably in the hand with the little finger under (in one case towards the side of) the bottom of the tube.

D (i) Three finger-holes set on the lower half of a tube 150-200 mm. long. One of the Aalsum cemetery flutes and the cheese-associated Winsum flute are of this type. Some are of bird bone with holes on the concave surface.

(ii) Three finger-holes and one thumb-hole set on the lower half of the tube. These are rare; on these longer flutes, it seems that extension to four holes was more usual on the front.

E Four finger-holes. These occur in animal and bird bone. Bird-bone flutes are generally longer, C. 210-230 mm. and the finger-holes, on concave or convex surface, are set low on the tube (plate 2C). Animal-bone flutes are shorter, c. 150- i6o mm. (though one from Loppersum is I90 mm.) and have finger-holes set slightly higher on the tube. A small one from Farmsum, made from the tibia of a long-legged sheep, seems to have been fashioned in imitation of a bird-bone flute.

F Four finger-holes and thumb-hole. The second instrument from the Aalsum terp cemetery is the only example of this so far.

G Five finger-holes. There is one example from Britsum.

Bone flutes have been found elsewhere; for example, in Emmeloord, on the former island of Schokland, in Deventer and Zwolle in the east, in Heerlen in the south, near the great rivers and in Zeeland (fig. 2 and Roes I963; for others in northern Europe see Brade 1975; Sevag 1973: 79-83).

No doubt bone and wood flutes were in use contemporaneously in later times. A well- preserved wooden tabor-pipe from the first half of the fifteenth-century was recovered, along with personal and domestic objects, from a disused well in Goedereede on the island of Goeree (Olivier I979). At 240 mm., it is 90 mm. longer than the largest bone example and it has holes in the side of the head, presumably for bolting the block in place (plate 2d). Remains of a slightly larger instrument from Aardenburg in Zeeuwse Vlanderen date from the second half of the fourteenth century (Rimmer I98I). From Dordrecht in the Rhine Delta region came two wooden flutes - a tiny instrument, only 8o mm. long, from c. A.D. i6oo (Sarfatij 1978: 308 and afb, 30) and the late fourteenth- or early fifteenth-century recorder found in the ruins of the Huis te Merwede, which has already been described elsewhere and a copy made (Weber 1976). In connection with the fact that intonation and tone quality in the copy were satisfactory only when the bore was reduced to 8 mm. at the lower end (the original foot joint is missing), it is interesting to note that one of the bone flutes from Blija (plate 2b) is almost closed at the bottom.

238 Joan Rimmer

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Figure 2 The Netherlands except Friesland and Groningen. i Jangling rings; 2 bells; 3 stick sistra and loose jingles; 4 goblet cymbals; 5 tuba mouthpiece; 6 clay rattles; 7 double reedpipes; 8 bronze horns; 9 clay horns; io clay trumpet; ii jews' harps; I2 bone whistles; I3 bone flutes; I4 wooden flutes (3 types); I5 lyre bridges; i6 panpipes; I7 duct panpipes

Reedpipes Reedpipes of various kinds have been found. A 2I5 mm. long pipe of very pale bird bone, found at Hatsum in Friesland, has six finger-holes. The highest, which is perhaps a later addition, is round while the others are oval and set in the lower half of the tube; the disposition is close to that on the bird-bone block and duct flutes. The pair of pipes of eagle bone, c. 26o mm. long, which were found in a fire pit of the first century A.D. at Mook on the Maas, came from a different tradition of pipe-making, probably of more easterly origin. There are six holes on each pipe, the lowest being 8o mm. from the bottom and the rest fairly evenly spaced over the whole tube (Oomen I968; 1971; Rimmer I975).

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands 239

They may have been played as parallel pipes, fingered right across both simultane- ously, though the slight flare at the lower ends suggests otherwise. If played as divergent pipes, only four of the holes could be covered in each hand. The same questions arise with the two pairs of five-hole bone pipes from the Avar cemetery at Alattyan, though the flaring part of the bone was not incorporated into these (Kovrig I963: I73-6). Copies of the Mook pipes, equipped with double reeds, yielded g bb c d e g, octave and fingering method unspecified (Oomen I968: 59). The now shrunken remains of a seven- hole wooden reedpipe were found in a terp at Blija. Thought to be eighth-eleventh century A.D., this instrument has some similarities of proportion with the Mook reed- pipes. Present length is nearly 250 mm. and the lower end terminates in a gentle flare. The lowest of the six frontal holes is nearly 70 mm. up from the bottom and the other five are evenly spaced over the rest of the tube (the thumb-hole is slightly higher than the highest finger-hole). The lowest frontal hole was no doubt a vent hole; it is set in the middle of the lowest of the decorated raised blocks which elsewhere on the pipe are situated between the finger-holes. The back of the pipe is rounded while the front is flat, and the top is shaped so that a reed or reed-carrier can be fitted over it. The bore is at present c. 5 mm. at the top and 6-7 mm. at the bottom, i.e. only minutely conical. This early example of a western reedpipe seems closer to the cylindrical duduk-balaban family than to the strongly conical Islamic zurnas (though this name is used in some regions for cylindrical instruments also) and later Western shawms (Rimmer 1976: Vertkov 1975: 29).

Four wooden sections of hornpipes, with three finger-holes, have been found in Friesland. Now lacking reed fittings and terminal horns though the fitting points for these are clear, they are between 107 and I20 mm. long, externally rectangular and with raised sections between the finger-holes, like the reedpipe (plate 2e). Bores are c. 6 mm. except in the now shrunken piece from Achlum which is probably of the same date as the reedpipe from Blija. This may have been part of a double hornpipe; it is decorated along one side but the other is plain. Later west European forms were larger (for example those depicted in Bernardo Daddi's Nativity now in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence) but the rectangular exterior and stepped front are found as late as the eighteenth century in one Welsh instrument (Harrison and Rimmer I964: plates 77-8). Some single forms of the Russian zhaleika still have only three finger-holes, while even large forms like the modernized Lithuanian birbine clearly show two distinct one-hand units (Vertkov 1975: IOI-2). It is noteworthy that these Frisian hornpipes seem to date from the time of intensive Frisian-Baltic trading.

Other instruments

Many of the soundmakers and instruments from the regions of the great rivers and further south are of a different character. Earliest are four bronze bolts for axle caps, from the remains of a four-wheel, two-horse chariot found in I897 in a seventh-century B.C. Hallstatt burial on the Wezelsche Berg, near Wijchen. Every bolt carries a grid with three uprights; each upright has an anthropomorphic finial and an integral loop to which a single ring carrying three more rings is attached - a total of forty-eight jangling rings,

240 Joan Rimmer

some of which did not survive (de Laet 1974: 402; see Atanassov 1977: 50 for a present- day axle-attached soundmaker). The Viking rangle is based on the same principle (see Lund, this journal). From post-Roman times come other metallic instruments. In a sarcophagus of the fourth century A.D., from the Grutberg in Nijmegen, were fragments of several stick sistra - as they may be described - along with the remains of a girl of about ten years. They were solid wooden sticks, about 380 mm. long, with a hand grip in the middle and cut-out sections in each half into which a pair of heavy (ioo grams) bronze jingles of unequal size were set on a transverse rod (plate 3c). Similar objects have been found in a sarcophagus in Hessloch in Germany, and loose jingles in the grave of a young girl in Kaiseraugst in Switzerland (van Buchem 1950) and with mid-third century burnt remains in Brunssum in Limburg (Bogaers I966). Were these instruments used by professional child dancers or entertainers? They are heavy and un-childish (see Atanassov 1977: 57 for a simple sistrum used in eastern Bulgaria). Thinner bronze jingles, stray finds discovered during work on the railways in Nijmegen, may be of later date.

One of a pair of sarcophagi of the sixth century A.D., found on the Hunnerberg in Nijmegen in i842, contained what appears to be a pair of goblet- or bell-cymbals (Leemans I842: i6 calls them bells). About 55 mm. high, with solid handles and sharply flared rims, they are decorated inside and out with incised and raised lines and they have no trace of clappers or of fixing for them (plate 3b). Distant as they may be in space, analogies are perhaps with instruments frequently depicted on the Hindu-Javanese temples at Barabadur and Prambanan (Kunst I968: 48-53), some of which are about the same size as the Hunnerberg pieces though most are larger, and with some still used in parts of south-east Asia. These instruments, held upwards or downwards, are struck together at a single point on the rim, not clashed vertically or horizontally like bowl- or plate-shaped cymbals.

Clay vessel rattles from gravefields of the mid-first to mid-third centuries A.D. in the Nijmegen area have heads of deer, cockerel or possibly dove set on squat, ovoid bodies, and large, flat tails (perhaps as finger grips?), vertical in the case of the birds and hori- zontal in the deer. They are up to ioo mm. high and long, and it is possible that, like the northern vessel rattles, they were ritual soundmakers of some kind. One with well- modelled antlers on a deer head was in a pre-A.D. 70 grave associated with large pots, dishes, ewer, and a lamp, among other objects (Vermeulen 1932). Eleventh-century clay rattles from Schinveld are maracca-shape (Bruijn I964).

Many Roman-period bells have come from the Nijmegen district, particularly from the great villa site at Plasmolen. In four main categories, they range in height from 130 mm. to little more than 2o mm. Some must have been cowbells; the shape has been retained to the present day. Others were no doubt for sheep or goats and some of the tiny bells must have been for horse harness. One example still attached to part of a harness is in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn (Klar 1971: 329 and this journal). A bronze mouth-piece of the mid-second to mid-third century was found in a ditch system at Wijk bij Duurstede (plate 4b). It has a back-turned rim (internal diameter I90 mm.), is cup-shaped internally with a cylindrical tube 4-4 mm. in diameter (Verwers 1975: I 13- I4). It does not match exactly with other known Roman mouthpieces though it must belong to a tuba, bucina or even cornu rather than lituus (Baines 1976: 57ff. and plate 2; Klar, this journal).

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands 241

A much worn and repaired instrument which has long been regarded locally as a Roman lituus was washed up by the sea in i6i8 at the place known as de Oude Wereld, on the island of Goeree (Pleyte I9OI: 85-6; Trimpe Burger I960-I: 20I-2). The few known Roman instruments and fragments of this type are of sheet bronze. This one is of thick cast bronze, made in two parts with an octagonal hooked bell (plate 4a). It is 675 mm. long and weighs 2 kg. 68g. It has two slinging loops, like the Roman lituus, and the integral mouthpiece is funnel-shaped internally, 8z2 mm. internal diameter at the rim and about 8 mm. deep. This is indeed a lituoid horn, but seems likely to be post A.D. IwoO rather than Roman. The upper part of what must have been a similar instrument was found during excavation of the foundations of the Nieuwburg, near Oudorp (now part of Alkmaar) in West Friesland; when found, it was thought perhaps to be the blowpipe of a bellows (Renaud I97I). The castle was built about A.D. 1290 and destroyed in 1517, and the horn fragment and other finds are dateable within that period. Lituoid metal horns were used even later in the Netherlands. Two splendid brass dijkshoorns, dating from the first half of the seventeenth century and used on the river Lek to give warning of rising water levels and such emergencies, have the upturned bell (Groenveld et al. 1979: 50).

Clay horns of several kinds have been found. A short (360 mm.) slightly curved instrument, manufactured locally about A.D. I200, was found along with other ceramic articles at Schinveld (Bruijn I962-3). A coiled clay horn was found in the Wieringermeer in West Friesland, while remains of two triple-coiled horns of pipe-clay - so-called processiehoorns - came from a terp in Ezinge and a monastery site in Warffum, both in Groningen. They date from the sixteenth century and probably had a total length of about 2 m. The Ezinge instrument, probably made in Aachen or Cologne, is covered with bronze-coloured paint and the narrow bell carries an oval stamp in which a Virgin and Child stand in a sickle moon (Boersma et al. I966: no. 72). A short, curved clay horn with a colourless lead glaze, also from Ezinge, cannot at present be traced. A folded trumpet of pipe-clay - a so-called pelgrimshoorn - was found during excavations on the site of the Abbey of Middelburg in Zeeland. Dating from about 1500, it carries a circular stamp with the sign IHS (Trimpe Burger I967). Fragments of others come from various sites in South Holland and Brabant.

Of the several sets of clay duct panpipes from the great rivers region, that found at Velp before I887 (Land I894) cannot now be traced. A six-pipe example found at Cothen is probably fifteenth or sixteenth century (van Tent 1976: 66) though the type may go back to Roman times (Borger 1977: 49). Remains of a miniature five-tube clay panpipe were found in 197I near Eindhoven. They bear the makers name in Latin (incomplete on the surviving fragments) and this tiny piece was perhaps a votive offering

(Bogaers 1975). Two finished amber lyre bridges (Roes I965: 45-6 and plate I9: 140-I) and one

unfinished example, all probably eighth-ninth-century A.D., were stray finds from the site of Dorestad, which seems to have been a centre for the import and working of amber. Like most surviving European lyre bridges, they have grooves for six strings; in the unfinished bridge, the outer two are set minutely lower than the rest. The feet have not been cut in this example. Work must have been abandoned when a sizeable fracture appeared on one side; it would not have been started on an already fractured piece of amber.

242 Joan Rimmer

Jews harps of bronze or iron and of various types have been found all over the country; Leeuwarden in Friesland (a recent find), Deventer in Overijssel, Amsterdam and Delft, along the great rivers and in the Delta region, in the Zeeland islands and in Maastricht. Many come from urban areas and some can be safely dated between the early fourteenth century and the sixteenth century (van Sprang 1973; Ypey 1976-7; Baart 1977: 476-7). The exact provenance of five bronze Jews harps from the Nijmegen district is not known, and until more detailed comparative and technological studies have been made of all the older western European Jews harps, one cannot be sure whether or not these five instruments are Gallo-Roman.

Acknowledgements

For reasons of space, no inventory numbers or present whereabouts have been given for the objects discussed. A register of all instruments from archaeological sources in the Netherlands (including those not mentioned or illustrated here) is in preparation and will incorporate this information. Thanks are due to many people in the Netherlands, some of them professionally attached to museums and other institutions, some of them private owners of single instruments or collections. Without their goodwill and co- operation, it would have been difficult to make even as brief a survey as this. In thanking two - Wil Mank and Henk Bloklander, both of the Rijksdiesnt voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek in Amersfoort - I thank them all. I also thank the Faculty of Letters and the Institute of Musicology of the University of Utrecht for subsidizing the necessary research, without which it would not have been possible.

Instituut voor Muziekwetenschap '22 V TAR(R 7;;,;se.tpt TTtfrr.t

References

Atanassov, V. I977. Systematik der Bulgarischen Volksmusikinstrumenten. Sofia: Bulgarische Akademie der Wissenschaften (in Bulgarian).

Baart, J. et al. 1977. Opgravingen in Amsterdam: 20 jaar stadskernonderzoek. Haarlem: Fibula- van Dishoek.

Baines, A. 196I. Woodwind Instruments and their History (2nd edn). London: Faber.

Baines, A. 1976. Brass Instruments. London: Faber.

Boeles, P. C. J. A. I95I. Friesland tot de elfde eeuw (2nd edn). Den Haag: Nijhoff.

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Plate r (a) Bone whistle. Lekkum. Fries 1\Iuseum, Lecuwarden; (b) Clav wvhistle (broken at top) with lateral loops. l\lochica, Peru. Haags Gemeentemuseum (c) Clay whistle Nwith rear loop. Staveren. Fries 1Iuseum, Leeuwarden

(b)

(c)

Plate2 (a) Bone flute with tw,o finger-holes. Ilallum. Fries Museum, Lecuwarden

(b)) Bone flute with three finger-holes. BIijia. Fries Museum, Leeuwarden

(c) Swan ulnia flute with four finger- holes. Elst. Rij'ksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden (d) Wooden tabor pipe. Earlv fifteenth century. Goedereede. Gemeentehuis, Goedereede (e) Hornpipe fragment. Ninth-eleventh centuries. Britsum. RijkSMuIseum van Oudheden, Leiden

(a) (b) () (d)()

(a)

Plate 3 (a) Clay vessel rattle. Early first millennium A.D. (?), Hallum. Fries Museum, Leeuwarden (b) Goblet cymbals. Sixth century A.D., Nijmegen. Rijksmuseum van (b) Oudheden, Leiden (c) Stick sistrum. Fourth century A.D., Nijmegen. Reconstruction with original jingles. Rijksmuseum G. M. Kam, Nijmegen DNI

(a) Lituoid bronze horn. c. twelfth-thirteenth centuries. Washed up by the sea on the coast of Goeree; original provenance unknown. Gemeentehuis, Goedereede. (Photo: ROB Amersfoort) (b) Bronze mouthpiece. Second-third centurieS A.D., Wijk bij Duurstede. (Photo: ROB Amersfoort)

Plate 5 (a) Bronze rattle, Mikkeli-Tuukkala, Finland (NMH inv. no. 248I:78). Late Iron Age. Total width c. I0 mm.

? Ri=ilF 1 5 r ;tn i g#qr (Photo: C Lund) (b)I(b) Iron rattle, Kalmaanm.ki, Finland

(NMH inv. no. 2890:I2). Late Iron (a) ~~~~~Age. Length of handle i19o mm.

(Photo: C. Lund) (c) The BalkAkra 'drum' BalkAkra, Sweden (SHM Cv no i46i). Early Bronze Age Diameter 420 MM. (Photo: ATA, Stockholm) (d) Bronze bells, Havor, Gotland, Sw~eden (Gotlands fornsal, Visby, inv no. ii6 3H and 3K i96i). Early Iron Age. Height c. io0 mm. (Photo: G. GAdefors, Visby)

(a) (C)

(b) (d)

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands 243

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244 Yoan Rimmer

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Abstract

Rimmer, Joan

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands

Musical instruments and soundmakers have been found in the Netherlands in archaeological sources from the seventh century B.C. to the sixteenth century A.D. From the northern terpen come clay rattles (early first millennium A.D.), vertical bone flutes and whistles of many types (from a considerable time span) and bone and wood reedpipes. Bone flutes and whistles also come from the eastern Netherlands, the great river region, the Zeeland islands, the Delta region and south Limburg. Bone reedpipes (first century A.D.) were found near Nijmegen, also jangling rings for chariot axles (seventh century B.C.), stick sistra (fourth century A.D.), goblet cymbals (sixth century A.D.), clay rattles (mid-first to mid-third century A.D.) and many Roman-period bells. Clay duct panpipes and amber lyre bridges come from the great rivers, lituoid bronze

An archaeo-organological survey of the Netherlands 245

horns from South and North Holland, straight and coiled clay horns and trumpet from Groningen, South Limburg and Walcheren. Jews harps of bronze or iron have been found all over the country; some are fourteenth-sixteenth century, others may be Gallo-Roman. From late fourteenth-century Dordrecht came a wooden recorder. From Aardenburg there is a wooden tabor-pipe of the second half of the fourteenth century, and from Goedereede, another from the early fifteenth century.

Article Contentsp. [233]p. 234p. 235p. 236p. 237p. 238p. 239p. 240p. 241p. 242[unnumbered][unnumbered]p. 243p. 244p. 245

Issue Table of ContentsWorld Archaeology, Vol. 12, No. 3, Archaeology and Musical Instruments (Feb., 1981), pp. 231-336Volume InformationFront MatterThe Archaeology of Musical Instruments: Editorial Note [pp. 231-232]An Archaeo-Organological Survey of the Netherlands [pp. 233-245]The Archaeomusicology of Scandinavia [pp. 246-265]Archaeology and Musical Instruments in Poland [pp. 266-272]The Conch in Prehistory: Pottery, Stone and Natural [pp. 273-279]Prehistoric Brass Instruments [pp. 280-286]Music in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt [pp. 287-297]The Reconstruction of Ancient Greek auloi [pp. 298-302]Reconstructing the Greek Tortoise-Shell Lyre [pp. 303-312]The Archaeology of Musical Instruments in Germany during the Roman Period [pp. 313-320]The Australian didjeridu: A Late Musical Intrusion [pp. 321-331]Back Matter [pp. 332-336]