an analysis of subterranean coal fire and its...

Chapter IV

A n Analysis of Subterranean Coal Fire and its

Effects

41 Coal 127

42 Coal Mining 127

43 Etymology 128

44 Types of Coal 128

45 Early Use 129

46 Present Usage 130

461 Coal as Fuel 130

462 Coking and Use of Coke 132

463 Gasification 132

464 Liquefaction 134

47 Harmful Effect 136

471 Coal Mining 136

472 Coal Burning 137

473 Energy Density 139

474 Coal Fires 140

48 World Coal Reserves 141

49 Major Coal Exporters 148

410 History of Coal Mining 149

4101 Early History 149 125

4102 Coal Mines in USA-1900 149

4103 The Industrial Revolution 150

4104 Beginning of 20 Century 151

4105 Pre-World War II Mechanization 152

411 History of Coal Mining Around the World 154

4111 Britain 154

4112 USA 157

4113 Canada 160

4114 Germany 160

4115 Belgium 161

412 Disasters 162

413 Report on Coal pollution by Green Peace

Organization of Various Coal Producing Countries 162

414 Subterranean Coal Fire 164

126

Chapter IV

An Analysis of Subterranean Coal Fire and its Effects 41 Coal

Solid usually black but sometimes brown carbon rich material that

occurs in stratified solid material deposits One of the most important

Fossil Fuels it is found in many parts of the world Coal is formed

by heat and pressure over millions of years on vegetation deposited in ancient

shallow swamps or peat organic fuel consisting of a light spongy material

formed in temperate humid environments by the accumulation and partial

decomposition of vegetable remains under conditions of poor drainage Peat

deposit is the first step in the formation of coal Dried peat bums readily with

a smoky flame and a characteristic odor It is used for domestic heating and

can be used to fire boilers It is only a major contributor to the world energy

supply but large deposits occur in Canada China Indonesia Russia

Scandinavia and the US Major users include Finland Ireland Russia and

Sweden It varies in density porosity hardness and reflectivity The major

types are Lignite Sub-bituminous Bituminous and Anthracite Coal has long

been used in synthesizing dyes solvents and drugs The search for alternative

energy source has periodically revived interests in the conversion of coal into

liquid fuels Technology for coal liquification has been known early in the

20 century

42 Coal Mining

Extraction of coal deposits from the Earths surface and from

underground Because coal was the basic energy source that fueled the

Industrial Revolution the resulting industrial growth supported the large-scale

1 Encyclopedia Britannica (Ready reference) Vol-1 EB (India) PLtd New Delhi p 273

127

underground mines as the principal source of coal was in the Industrial

nations The mining of coal from surface and underground deposits today is

highly productive mechanical operation

43 Etymology

The word coal is of Aryan origin and appears in many Germanic

languages (German language Kohle Swedish language kol Hindi Language

Koyla)^ also giving the name for element carbon in those languagesmdash

charcoal is wood rendered to carbon and carbonic compounds by pyrolysis

charring)

44 Types of coal

As geological processes apply pressure to peat over time it is transformed

successively into

bull Lignite - also referred to as brown coal is the lowest rank of coal and

used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation Jet

is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been

used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age

bull Sub-bituminous coal - whose properties range from those of lignite to

those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-

electric power generation

bull Bituminous coal - a dense coal usually black sometimes dark brown

often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material used

primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation with substantial

2 Ibid Vol-2 p 223 3 Oxford English Dictionary 1989 edition

128

quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing

and to make coke

bull Anthracite - the highest rank a harder glossy black coal used

primarily for residential and commercial space heating

bull Graphite - technically the highest rank but difficult to ignite and is not

so commonly used for ignition

45 Early Use

Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age where it has

been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres It was also

commonly used in the early period of the Roman occupation Evidence of

trade in coal has been found at the inland port of Heronbridge near Chester

and in the Fenlands of East Anglia where coal from the Midlands was

transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain Coal cinders have been

found in the hearths of villas and military forts particularly in

Northumberland dated around AD400 In the west of England contemporary

writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of

Minerva at Aquae Suits (modem day Bath) although in fact easily-accessible

surface coal from what is now the Somerset coalfield was in common use in Q

quite lowly dwelUngs locally

However there is no evidence that the product was of great importance

in Britain before the High Middle Ages after about AD 1000 Mineral coal

came to be referred to as sea-coal probably because it came to many places

in eastern England including London by sea This is accepted as the more

3000 years BC Britannica 2004 Coal mining ancient use of outcropping coal ^ Dated to about AD200 Salway Peter A History of Roman Britain (2001) Oxford University Press p 314 ^ Forbes RJ Studies in Ancient Technology 1966 Brill Academic Publishers Boston p 128

129

likely explanation for the name than that it was found on beaches having

fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal

seam outcrops These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted

(or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century when

underground mining from shafts or adits was developed^ In London there is

still a Sea-coal Lane (off the north side of Ludgate Hill) where the coal

merchants used to conduct their business An alternative name was pit-coal

because it came from mines It was however the development of the

Industrial Revolution that led to the large-scale use of coal as the steam

engine took over from the water wheeldeg

46 Present Usage

Coal is used in different forms and in different purposes

461 Coal as Fuel

Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat

through combustion World coal consumption is about 53 billion tons

annually of which about 75 is used for the production of electricity The

region including the Peoples Republic of China and India uses about 17

billion tonnes annually forecast to exceed 27 billion tonnes in 2025 The

USA consumes about 10 billion tons of coal each year using 90 of it for

generation of electricity Coal is the fastest growing energy source in the

See Supra note 3 Phillip A Lowe Wilburn C Schroeder Anthony L Liccardi (1976) Technical Economies Synfuels and

Coal Energy Symposium Solid-Phase Catalytic Coal Liquefaction Process The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Publications USA p 110

Data published by International Energy Outlook September 9 2005 which made an exhaustive survey on energy consumption and the probable future demand

130

world accounting for 42 of the increase in energy used for the three years 1 9

ending December 2004

When coal is used for electricity generation it is usually pulverized and

then burned in a furnace with a boiler The furnace heat converts boiler water

to steam which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create

electricity The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved

over time Standard steam turbines have topped out with some of the most

advanced reaching about 35 thermodynamic efficiency for the entire

process which means 65 of the coal energy is rejected as waste heat into

the surrounding environment Old coal power plants especially

grandfathered plants are significantly less efficient and reject higher levels

of waste heat The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions

running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected

efficiencies of 46 with further theorized increases in temperature and

pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies^ Approximately 40

of the world electricity production uses coal The total known deposits

recoverable by current technologies including highly polluting low energy

content types of coal might be sufficient for 300 years use at current

consumption levels although maximal production could be reached within

decades A more energy-efficient way of using coal for electricity production

would be via solid-oxide fuel cells or molten-carbonate fuel cells (or any

oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fiiels

as long as they consume oxygen) which would be able to get 60-85

~ Ibid World Primary Energy Production by Source 1970-2004 lthttpwwwpowergenerationsiemenscomdownloadpoolPGE2005_BalancingEconomicspdfgt Article Balancing economics and environmental friendliness ~ the challenge for supercritical coal-fired power plants with highest steam parameters in the future Retrieved on 2006-10-23 ie lignite bituminous

131

combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine) Currently

these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels and they are also

sensitive to sulfur poisoning issues which would first have to be worked out

before large scale commercial success is possible with coal As far as gaseous

fuels go one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier such as nitrogen Another

option is coal gasification with water which may lower fuel cell voltage by

introducing oxygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte but may also greatly

simplify carbon sequestration

462 Coking and Use of Coke

Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash low-sulfur

bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking

in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1000 degC so that the

fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together Metallurgic coke is used as a

fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace Coke from

coal is grey hard and porous and has a heating value of 248million

Btuton Byproducts of this conversion of coal to coke include coal tar

ammonia light oils and coal gas Petroleum coke is the solid residue

obtained in oil refining which resembles coke but contains too many

impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications

463 Gasification

High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in

BTU Conversion technologies such as gasification methanation and

liquefaction Coal gasification breaks down the coal into its components

Data based on Robert H Williams and Eric D Larson A Comparison of Direct and Indirect Liquefaction Technologies for Making Fluid Fuels from Coal Article appeared in Energy for Sustainable Development Vol-VII London

16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132

usually by subjecting it to high temperature and pressure using steam and

measured amounts of oxygen This leads to the production of syngas a 1 0

mixture mainly consisting of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2)

In the past coal was converted to make coal gas which was piped to

customers to bum for illumination heating and cooking At present the safer

natural gas is used instead South Africa still uses gasification of coal for

much of its petrochemical needs

The Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a US government-funded

corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported

fossil fuels (such as coal gasification) The corporation was discontinued in

1985^

Gasification is also a possibility for future energy use as the produced

syngas can be cleaned-up relatively easily leading to cleaner burning than

burning coal directly (the conventional way) The cleanliness of the cleaned-

up syngas is comparable to natural gas enabling to bum it in a more efficient

gas turbine rather than in a boiler used to drive a steam turbine Syngas

produced by gasification can be CO-shifled meaning that the combustible CO

in the Syngas is transferred into carbon dioxide (CO2) using water as a

reactant The CO-shift reaction also produces an amount of combustible

hydrogen (H2) equal to the amount of CO converted into CO2 The CO2

concentrations (or rather CO2 partial pressures) obtained by using coal

gasification followed by a CO-shift reaction are much higher than in case of

direct combustion of coal in air (which is mostly nitrogen) These higher

See supra note 15 Ibid

133

concentrations of carbon dioxide make carbon capture and storage much more

economical than it otherwise would be

464 Liquefaction

Coal can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel by

several different processes The Fischer-Tropsch process of indirect synthesis

of liquid hydrocarbons was used in Nazi Germany for many years and is

today used by Sasol in South Africa Coal would be gasified to make syngas

(a balanced purified mixture of CO and H2 gas) and the syngas condensed

using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts to make light hydrocarbons which are further

processed into gasoline and diesel Syngas can also be converted to methanol

which can be used as a fuel fuel additive or further processed into gasoline

via the Mobil M-gas process

A direct liquefaction process Bergius process (liquefaction by

hydrogenation) is also available but has not been used outside Germany

where such processes were operated both during World War I and World War

II SASOL in South Africa has experimented with direct hydrogenation

Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed among these

being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by

Gulf Oil and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960s and

1970s Another direct hydrogenation process was explored by the NUS

Corporation in 1976 and patented by Wilburn C Schroeder The process

involved dried pulverized coal mixed with roughly lwt molybdenum

catalysis Hydrogenation occurred by use of high temperature and pressure

synthesis gas produced in a separate gasifier The process ultimately yielded a

For detailed discussion see generally lthttpwwwpowergenerationorggt retrieved on 25-12-2(X)7 Data based on Cleaner Coal Technology Programme (October 1999) Technology Status Report 01 Oshy

Coal Liquefaction Department of Trade and Industry (UK) Published by UK Government Press London

134

synthetic crude product Naptha a limited amount of C3C4 gas light-medium

weight liquids (C5-C10) suitable for use as fuels small amounts of NH3 and

significant amounts of C02

Yet another process to manufacture liquid hydrocarbons from coal is

Low Temperature Carbonization (LTC) Coal is coked at temperatures

between 450 and 700degC compared to 800deg to 1000degC for metallurgical coke

These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter

hydrocarbons than normal coal tar The coal tar is then further processed into

fuels The Karrick process was developed by Lewis C Karrick an oil shale

technologist at the US Bureau of Mines in the 1920s^^

All of these liquid fiiel production methods release carbon dioxide

(CO2) in the conversion process far more than is released in the extraction

and refinement of liquid fuel production from petroleum If these methods

were adopted to replace declining petroleum supplies carbon dioxide

emissions would be greatly increased on a global scale For future

liquefaction projects Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid

releasing it into the atmosphere though no pilot projects have confirmed the

feasibility of this approach on a wide scale As CO2 is one of the process

streams sequestration is easier than from fuel gases produced in combustion

of coal with air where CO2 is diluted by nitrogen and other gases

Sequestration will however add to the cost

Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that could

potentially limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of

^ Data based on the article by Phillip A Lowe Wilbum C Schroeder Anthony L Liccardi Technical

Economies Synfuels and Coal Energy Symposium Solid-Phase Catalytic Coal Liquefaction Process

(1976) The American Society of Mechanical Engineers USA

Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135

transportation energy shortage that some authors have suggested could occur

under peak oil This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity

becoming large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for

petroleum Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest

that domestic US production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive

with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel (break-even cost) This price

while above historical averages is well below current oil prices This makes

coal a viable financial alternative to oil for the time being although

production is not great enough to make synfuels viable on a large scale

Among commercially mature technologies advantage for indirect coal

liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson

(2003) Estimates are reported for sites in China where break-even cost for

coal liquefaction may be in the range between 25 to 35 USDbarrel of oil

47 Harmful Effects

Apart from the useful effects there are harmful effects also

471 Coal Mining

Coal mining causes a number of harmful effects When coal surfaces

are exposed pyrite (iron sulfide) also known as fools gold comes in

contact with water and air and forms sulfuric acid As water drains from the

mine the acid moves into the waterways and as long as rain falls on the mine

tailings the sulfuric acid production continues whether the mine is still

operating or not If the coal is strip mined the entire exposed seam leaChes

sulfuric acid leaving the infertile subsoil on the surface and begins to pollute

- ltwwwfindarticlesa)mparticlesgt retrieved on September 9 2007 ^Based on an article Welcome to Coal People Magazine appeared in the site ltwwwcoalindiacomgt

Retrieved on September 92007 Ibid

136

streams by acidifying and killing fish plants and aquatic animals that are

sensitive to drastic pH shifts

By the late 1930s it was estimated that American coal mines produced

about 23 million tonnes of sulfuric acid annually In the Ohio River Basin

where twelve hundred operating coal mines drained an estimated annual 14

million tonnes of sulfuric acid into the waters in the 1960s and thousands of

abandoned coal mines leached acid as well In Pennsylvania alone mine

drainage had blighted 2000 stream miles by 1967^^

472 Coal Burning

Combustion of coal like any other fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide

(CO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) along with varying amounts of sulfur

dioxide (SO2) depending on where it was mined Sulfur dioxide reacts with

oxygen to form sulfur trioxide (SO3) which then reacts with water to form

sulfuric acid The sulfuric acid is returned to the Earth as acid rain Scrubbing

systems which use lime to remove the sulfur dioxide can reduce or eliminate

the likelihood of acid rain

Emissions from coal-fired power plants represent one of the two largest

sources of carbon dioxide emissions which have been implicated as the

primary cause of global warming Coal mining and abandoned mines also

emit methane another cause of global warming Since the carbon content of

coal is higher than oil burning coal is a more serious threat to the stability of

the global climate as this carbon forms CO2 when burned Many other

pollutants are present in coal power station emissions as solid coal is more

^ ltvwwwikipediacomgt retrieved on 28-7-2007 ^ Ibid 30 Based on article by John Dyson Fire Down Below published in Readers Digest July 2004 For a

detailed discussion on the blunders of scientific assessments of ecological hazards see generally Michel Crichton State ofFear Harper Collins publishers 2007 Hammersmith London

137

difficult to clean than oil which is refined before use A study commissioned

by environmental groups claims that coal power plant emissions are

responsible for tens of thousands of premature deaths annually in the United

States alone Modem power plants utilize a variety of techniques to limit the

harmfiikiess of their waste products and improve the efficiency of burning

though these techniques are not subject to standard testing or regulation in the

US and are not widely implemented in some countries as they add to the

capital cost of the power plant To eliminate CO2 emissions from coal plants

carbon capture and storage has been proposed but has yet to be commercially

used

Coal and coal waste products including fly ash bottom ash boiler slag

and flue gas desulfurization contain many heavy metals including arsenic

lead mercury nickel vanadium beryllium cadmium barium chromium

copper molybdenum zinc selenium and radium which are dangerous if

released into the environment Coal also contains low levels of uranium

thorium and other naturally-occurring radioactive isotopes whose release into

the environment may lead to radioactive contamination While these

substances are trace impurities enough coal is burned that significant

amounts of these substances are released resulting in more radioactive waste

than nuclear power plants Mercury emissions fi-om coal burning are

concentrated as they work their way up the food chain and converted into

dangerous biological compounds that have made it dangerous to eat fish from

many waterways of the world Due to its scientifically accepted connection

Based on an Article Deadly power plants Study fuels debate appeared in site lthttpwwwnativevillageorgInspiration-Albuquerque20Conventionhtmgt Retrieved on September 4 2006

- Ibid Ibid

138

with climate change the worlds reliance on coal as an energy source and

health concerns in areas with poor air pollution controls The Economist

recently labeled the burning of coal Environmental Enemy No 1

Coalization is the mass use of coal-fired power plants to produce electricity

as happens in China and USA

473 Energy Density

The energy density of coal is roughly 24 Mega joules per kilogram

The energy density of coal can also be expressed in kilowatt-hours the units

that electricity is most commonly sold in to estimate how much coal is

required to power electrical appliances The energy density of coal is 667kW-

hkg and the typical Thermodynamic efficiency of coal power plants is about

30 Of the 667 kW-h of energy per kilogram of coal about 30 of that can in

successfully be turned into electricity - the rest is waste heat As an

example running one 100 Watt computer for one year requires 876 kW-h

(100 W X 24 h X 365 days in a year = 876000 W-h - 876 kW-h)

Converting this power usage into physical coal consumption

8 7 6 k W bull h o u r s r ltbull i ^ 438 kg of eurooal ^ 967 |XiUiids of coal 20 kW bull ]iourskg

It takes 438 kg (967 pounds) of coal to power a computer for one fixll

year One should also take into account transmission and distribution losses

lthttpwwwrealclimateorgindexphparchivescategoryclimate-sciencegreenhouse-gases^ retrieved on 12-11-2007

Ibid Fisher Juliya Etwrgy Density of Coal The Physics Factbook Article appeared in

ltwwwphysicsfactbookdensitycoalhtmgt Retrieved on 25-08-2007 Coal power plants obtain approximately 20 kW-h per kg of burned coal ltwwwsciencehowstuffworkscomgt Retrieved on 2006-08-25

139

caused by resistance and heating in the power lines which is in the order of 5

- 10 depending on distance from the power station and other factprs^^

474 Coal Fires

There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world Those

burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be

extinguished Fires can cause the ground above to subside combustion gases

are dangerous to life and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface

wildfires Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact

with a mine fire or surface fire A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of

coal seams on fire Coal fires in China bum 109 million tonnes of coal a

year emitting 200 million tonnes of carbon dioxide This amounts to 2-3 of

the annual worldwide production of CO2 fiom fossil fuels or as much as

emitted fi^om all of the cars and light trucks in the United States^ In

Centralia Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the United

States) an exposed vein of coal ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the

borough landfill located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit Attempts

to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful and it continues to bum underground

to this day The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a

volcano but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been

burning for over 5500 years

The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the

Powder River Basin (Wyoming) and in western North Dakota is called

porcelanite which also may resemble the coal buming waste clinker or

Ibid Data retrieved from ltwwv coalfirecafdlrdeprqjectareasworld_wide_dislribution_enhtmlgt Article

titled Sino German Coal fire project Retrieved on September 9 2006 Committee on Resources-Index httpwwwf1reblmg0vtextdocumentspdfretrieved on 27-6-2(X)7 bull EHP 110-52002 Forum Overview about ITCs activities in China bull Buming Mountain Nature Reserve article retrieved from the site ltwvvwwikipediacomgt on 1 -1 -2008

140

volcanic scoria Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of

coal In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tonnes of coal

burned within the past three million years Wild coal fires in the area were

reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers

m the area

48 World Coal Reserves

In 2003 it was estimated that there was around one exagram ( 1 x 1 0

kg or 998 billion tons) of total coal reserves accessible using current mining

technology approximately half of it being hard coal The energy value of all

the worlds recoverable coal is 27 zettajoules^ which is expected to last

200years At the current global total energy consumption of 15 terawatt

there is enough coal to provide the entire planet with all of its energy for 57

years

British Petroleum in its annual report 2006 estimated at 2005 end

there were 909064 million tons oiproven coal reserves worldwide (9236 x

10 kg) or 155 years reserve to production ratio This figure only includes

reserves classified as proven exploration drilling programs by mining

companies particularly in under-explored areas are continually providing

new reserves In many cases companies are aware of coal deposits that have

not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as proven

The United States Department of Energy uses estimates of coal

reserves in the region of 1081279 milhon short tons (981 x jo^ kg) which

is about 4786 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent) The amount of coal

Environmental Kducatkm- The High Plains article retrieved from lthttpwwwwsgsuwyoeduCoalCR01 -1 pdfgt

bull ltwwweiadoegovcoalhtmlgt Ibid

141

burned during 2001 was calculated as 2337 GTOE (gigatonnes of oil

equivalent) which is about 46 million barrels of oil equivalent per day Were

consumption to continue at that rate those reserves would last about 285

years As a comparison natural gas provided 51 million barrels (oil

equivalent) and oil 76 million barrels per day during 2001

Of the three fossil fuels coal has the most widely distributed reserves

coal is mined in over 100 countries and on all continents except Antarctica

The largest reserves are found in the USA Russia Australia China India and

South Africa

Proved recoverable coal reserves at the end of - 2002 (million tonnes) 47

Country

Bituminous Sub-

(including Lignite bituminous

anthracite)

TOTAL

United States of America

Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010

Peoples Republic of China

115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396

Australia 42550 1840

2000

37700 82090

47 httpwwwvorldenergyorgwecgeispublicationsreportssercoalcoalasp and

httpwwweiadoegovoiafaeosupplementpdfsuptab_l 14pdf

142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300

Uzbekistan 1000 3000 4000

Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265

Iran (Islamic Rep) 1710

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain

Korea (Democratic Peoples

Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150

Congo (Democratic Rep) 88 88

145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4

Central African Republic 3 3

146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4

49 Major Coal Exporters

Exports of Coal by Country and year (million tonnes)^^

Country 2003 12004

Australia 2381 ^2476

United States 430 480

South Africa 787 749

Former Soviet Union 410 i557

Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288

Peoples Republic of China 1034 1955

South America 578 659

Indonesia 1078 11314

Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148

410 History of Coal Mining

It is important to study the methods of coal mining which was practiced

in various countries

4101 Early History

Coal was first used in various parts of the world during the Bronze

Age 2000-1000 EC The Chinese began to use coal for heating and smelting

in the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) They are credited with organizing

production and consumption to the extent that by the year 1000 AD this

activity could be called an industry In the 11th century the demands for

charcoal of the Song Dynasty (960-1279) Chinese iron industry led to

widespread deforestation With the advent of coal replacing charcoal in the

iron smelting process thousands of acres of prime timberland were spared in

China China remained the worlds largest producer and consumer of coal

until the 18th century Roman historians describe coal as a heating source in

Britannia

4102 Coal Mines in USA - 1900

The earliest use of coal in the Americas was by the Aztecs They used

coal not only for heat but as ornaments as well Coal deposits were discovered

by colonists in Eastern North America in the 18th century

Early coal extraction was small-scale the coal lying either on the

surface or very close to it Typical methods for extraction included drift

httpenwikipediaorgwikiHistory_of_coal_mining http ww w ilo orgency clop aedi a

149

mining and bell pits In Britain some of the earliest drift mines (in the Forest

of Dean) date from the medieval period^^

As well as drift mines small scale shaft mining was used This took the

form of a bell pit the extraction working outward from a central shaft or a

technique called room and pillar in which rooms of coal were extracted with

pillars left to support the roofs Both of these techniques however left CO

considerable amount of usable coal behind

4103 The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution which began in Britain in the 1700s and

later spread to Europe North America and Japan was based on the

availability of coal to power steam engines International trade expanded

exponentially when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and

steamships in the 1810-1840 era Coal was cheaper and much more efficient

than wood in most steam engines As central and northern England contains

an abundance of coal many mines were situated in these areas The small-

scale techniques were unsuited to the increasing demand with extraction

moving away from surface extraction to deep shaft mining as the Industrial

Revolution progressed

Ibid Ibid

wwwwikipediacomgt retrieved on 11-11 -2007 150

4104 Beginning of the 20th century

Coal miners 1910

Coal Production of the World around 1905^^

Country Year Short Tons

Europe

United Kingdom 1905 236128936

iGermany (coal) 121298167

iGermany (lignite) 52498507

iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280

jAustria (coal) 12585263

iAustria (lignite) 22692076

1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501

Hungary (lignite) 5447283

iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997

i Bosnia (lignite) 540237

iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204

Italy (coal and lignite) 1905 412916

Sweden 322384

Greece (lignite) 1904 466997

Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845

^lthttpwwwworldenergyorgwecgeispublicationsreportssercoalcoalaspgt and lthttpwwweiadoegovoiafaeosupplementpdfsuptab_l 14pdfgt retrieved on 19-2-2007

151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa

iTransvaal 1904 2409033

i Natal 1905 i 1129407

iCape Colony 11904 154272

lAmerica

i United States 1905 1350821000

iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia

INew South Wales 19056632138

iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135

iWestern Australia 127364

jTasmania 51993

I New Zealand 1585756

4105 Pre-World War II Mechanization

Since its introduction coal mining has played an intricate role in the

economic stability those who mined the coal itself and in turn the economic

stability of the United States This changed with the mechanization of the

industry beginning in the early 1900s Within the first forty years of the

twentieth century there was an increase of over sixty percent in the amount of

coal that was loaded mechanically as opposed to by way of man power This

152

statistics clearly demonstrates that with the advent of mechanized mining

over time less and less manual labor would be needed in the industry 55

As this trend continued the economic backbone of the coal-based

economy that supported the miners began to crumble under their feet As the

miners began to see their livelihood being ripped from their hands resistance

to mechanization grew As noted in historian Keith Dixs article Whats a

Coal Miner to Do one of the first machines to arrive at West Virginias

Kanawha field had to be escorted by a group of armed guards Dix also goes

on to say that The same machine introduced at a mine in Illinois was

operated at a slow speed because the superintendent feared labor troubles ^^

Eventually resistance of the miners was trumped by progress and

mechanization gradually replaced more and more manual laborers For

example by 1940 almost seventy percent of coal being loaded in West

Virginia one of the largest coal producing states at the time was being loaded

by machine

With the increase of mechanization in the mining industry came hard

times for the former miners and their families With no place to turn for a

steady income and fearing the inevitable debt brought on by the exploitive

scrip-based system put in place by mining companies miners were forced to

move to more urbanized areas and find steady jobs where they would be able

to earn a living that could support their wives and children A large number of

miners in this position chose to migrate to the mid-west in order to find work

^^ lthttpenwikipediaorgwikiHistory_of_coal_mininggt retrieved on 10-12-2006 Based on an article by Keith Dix Whats a Coal Miner to Do appeared on

lthttpenwikipediaorgwikiHistory_of_coal_mininggt retrieved on 10-12-2006

153

in industrialized areas such as Cleveland or Columbus Ohio Others chose to

move even further to places such as the southeastern US where jobs could

be found on the rapidly expanding peninsula of Florida While economic

prosperity brought on by the coming of the Second World War would

eventually pull America and its former mine workers out of economic

depression and presumably into the expanding middle class the initial pre-

World War II mechanization of the American coal mining industry without a

doubt changed the life of the American coal miner forever

411 History of Coal Mining Around the World

It is important to look into the details of history of coal mining in

different countries

4111 Britain

Deep shaft mining in the UK started to develop in the late 18th century

although rapid expansion occurred throughout the 19th and early 20th

Century The location of the coalfields helped to make the prosperity of

Lancashire of Yorkshire and of South Wales the Yorkshire pits which

supplied Sheffield were only about 300 feet deep Northumberland and

Durham were the leading coal producers and they were the sites of the first

deep pits In much of Britain coal was worked fi-om drifts or scraped off

when it outcropped Small groups of part-time miners used shovels and

primitive equipment Before 1800 a great deal of coal was left in places as

support pillars As a result in the deep Tyneside pits (300 to 1000 ft deep)

only about 40 percent of the coal could be extracted The use of wood props

to support the roof was an innovation first introduced about 1800 The critical

Ibid 154

factor was circulation of air and control of explosive gases At first fires were CO

burned to create air currents

Coal was so abundant in Britain that the supply could be stepped up to

meet the rapidly rising demand About 1770-1780 the annual output of coal in

was some 64 million tons (or about the output of a week and a half in the

twentieth century) After 1790 output soared reaching 16 million tons by

1815 The miners less menaced by imported labour or machines than were

the cotton operatives had begun to form unions and fight their grim battle for

wages against the coal owners and royalty-lessees

Coal extraction passed into Government control in 1947 although coal

had been a political issue since the early part of the century The need to

maintain coal supplies (a primary energy source) had figured in both world

wars As well as energy supply coal in the UK became a political issue due

to conditions under which colliers worked and the way they were treated by

colliery owners The main labour union was the National Union of

Mineworkers founded in 1888 which claimed 600000 members in 1908

The UK General Strike of 1926 was in part due to concerns colliers had

over working conditions Much of the old left of British politics can trace its

origins to coal-mining areas^

Technological development throughout the 19th and 20th century

helped both to improve the safety of colliers and the productive capacity of

lthttpenwikipediaorgwikiHistory_of_coal_mininggt retrieved on 10-12-2006 Ibid ^ Op cit wikipediacom Ibid

155

collieries they worked In the late 20th century improved integration of coal

extraction with bulk industries such as electrical generation helped coal

maintain its position despite the emergence of alternative energies supplies

such as oil natural gas and from the late 1950s nuclear power used for

electricity More recently coal has faced competition from renewable energy

sources and bio-fiiels

Post World War II the coal industry in Britain was Nationalized and

remained in public ownership until the 1980s The 1980s and 1990s saw

much change in the UK coal industry with the industry contracting in some

areas quite drastically Many pits were uneconomic to work at current wage

rates compared to cheap North Sea oil and gas and in comparison to subsidy

levels in Europe The Miners Strike of 1984 failed to stop the governments

plans to shrink the industry The National Coal Board (by then British Coal)

was privatized by selling off a large number of pits to private concerns

through the mid 1990s and the mining industry disappeared almost

completely

Ib id ^^ Op cit wikipediacom

156

4112 USA

Coal Producing States 1889

ICoal Production State

(thousands of short tons)

Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926

Anthracite (or hard coal) clean and smokeless became the preferred

fuel in cities replacing wood by about 1850 Anthracite from the

Northeastern Pennsylvania Coal Region (and later from West Virginia) was

typically used for household uses because it is a high quality coal with few

^lthttpwvwworldenergyorgwecgeispublicationsreportssercoalcoalaspgt and lthttpwwweiadoegovoiafaeosupplementpdfsuptab_l 14pdfgt retrieved on 19-2-2007

157

impurities and stoves and furnaces were designed for it The rich

Pennsylvania anthracite fields were close to the Eastern cities and a few

major railroads like the Reading Railroad controlled the anthracite fields By

1840 hard coal output had passed the million-short ton mark and then

quadrupled by 1850^^

Bituminous (or soft coal) mining came later In the mid-century

Pittsburgh was the principal market After 1850 soft coal which is cheaper

but dirtier came into demand for railway locomotives and stationary steam

engines and was used to make coke for steel after 1870^^

Total coal output soared until 1918 before 1890 it doubled every ten

years going from 84 milhon short tons in 1850 to 40 million in 1870 270

million in 1900 and peaking at 680 million short tons in 1918 New soft coal

fields opened in Ohio Indiana and Illinois as well as West Virginia

Kentucky and Alabama The Great Depression of the 1930s lowered the

demand to 360 million short tons in 1932^^

After the Lattimer Massacre of 1897 and the Battle of Virden in Illinois

in 1898 the United Mine Workers (UMW) labor union was successfiil in its

strike against bituminous mines in the Midwest in 1900 However the unions

strike against the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania turned into a national

political crisis in 1902 President Theodore Roosevelt brokered a compromise

solution that kept the flow of coal going and won higher wages and shorter

Dan Rotenberg In the Kingdom of Coal An American Family and the Rock That Changed the World (2005) Routledge United States of America p 441 Ibid at p443 ^Ibid

158

hours for the miners but did not include recognition of the union as a

bargaining agent

The UMW called strikes in Colorados coal fields one of which

resulted in the Ludlow Massacre of 1914 Neutralized by the dispatch of

federal troops after ten days of skirmishes provoked by the massacre the

UMW essentially suspended most activities in Colorado for more than a

decade Meanwhile the organization grew stronger in the east until about

1920 when it collapsed after a national strike

In 1927 the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) led a state-wide

strike in Colorados coalfields which resulted in the Columbine Massacre

Immediately after that massacre Rocky Mountain Fuel Company announced

that it would recognize any union affiliated with the American Federation of

Labor In announcing this policy the company avoided recognizing the

radical IWW Thus the United Mine Workers was awarded its first contract

in Colorado

Under the leadership of John L Lewis the UMW became the dominant

force in the coal fields in the 1930s and 1940s producing high wages and

benefits Repeated strikes caused the public to switch away from anthracite

for home heating after 1945 and that sector collapsed

In 1914 at the peak there were 180000 anthracite miners by 1970 only

6000 remained At the same time steam engines were phased out in railways

and factories and bituminous was used primarily for the generation of

^^ Op cit Wikipediacom Ibid tradeIbid

159

electricity Employment in bituminous peaked at 705000 men in 1923 falling

to 140000 by 1970 and 70000 in 2003 Environmental restrictions on high-

sulfur coal and the rise of very large-scale strip mining in the west (especially

the Powder River Basin fields in Wyoming and adjacent states) caused the

sharp decline in underground mining after 1970 UMW membership among

active miners fell from 160000 in 1980 to only 16000 in 2005 as coal

mining became more mechanized and non-union miners predominated in the

new coal fields The American share of world coal production remained

steady at about 20 from 1980 to 2005^

4113 Canada

Canada had a small coal industry concentrated at Cape Breton in Nova

Scotia At its peak in 1949 25000 miners dug 17 million metric tons of coal

from mines The miners who lived in company towns were politically active

in lefl-wing politics Westray Mine closed in 1992 after an explosion killed 26

miners All the mines were closed by 2001 The United States always

supplied the coal for the industrial regions of Ontario By 2000 about 19 of

Canadas energy was supplied by coal chiefly imported from the US

4114 Germany

The first important mines appeared in the 1750s In 1782 the Krupp

family began operations near Essen After 1815 entrepreneurs in the Ruhr

Area which then became part of Prussia took advantage of the tariff zone

(Zollverein) to open new mines and associated iron smelters New railroads

Ibid lthttpenwikipediaorgwikiHistory_of_coal_mininggt retrieved on 10-12-2006

160

were built by British engineers around 1850 Numerous small industrial

centers sprang up focused on ironworks using local coal The iron and steel

works typically bought mines and erected coking ovens to supply their own

requirements in coke and gas These integrated coal-iron firms

(Huettenzechen) became numerous after 1854 after 1900 they became

mixed firms called Konzern

The average output of a mine in 1850 was about 8500 short tons its

employment about 64 By 1900 the average mines output had risen to

280000 and the employment to about 1400 Total Ruhr coal output rose from

20 million short tons in 1850 to 22 in 1880 60 in 1900 and 114 in 1913 on

the verge of war In 1932 output was down to 73 million short tons growing

to 130 in 1940 Output peaked in 1957 (at 123) declining to 78 million short

tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium

By 1830 when iron and later steel became important the Belgian coal

industry had long been established and used steam-engines for pumping The

Belgian coalfield lay near the navigable River Meuse so coal was shipped

downstream to the ports and cities of the Rhint-Meuse delta The opening of

the Saint-Quentin canal allowed coal to go by barge to Paris The Belgian

coalfield outcrops over most of its area and the highly folded nature of the

seams meant that surface occurrences of the coal were very abundant Deep

mines were not required at first so there were a large number of small

operations There was a complex legal system for concessions often multiple

Ibid Ibid

161

layers had different owners Entrepreneurs started going deeper and deeper In

1790 the maximum depth of mines was 220 meters By 1856 the average

depth in the area west of Mons was 361 and in 1866 437 meters and some

pits had reached down 700 and 900 meters one was 1065 meters deep

probably the deepest coal mine in Europe at this time Gas explosions were a

serious problem and Belgium had high fatality rates By the late 19th century

the seams were becoming exhausted and the steel industry was importing

some coal from the Ruhr

412 Disasters

Mining has always been dangerous because of explosions cave-ins

and the difficulty of rescue The worst single disaster in British coal mining

history was at Senghenydd in South Wales On the morning of 14 October

1913 an explosion and subsequent fire killed 436 men and boys Only 72

bodies were recovered The Monongah Mine disaster of Monongah West

Virginia 6 December 1907 was the worst mining disaster in American

History The explosion was caused by the ignition of methane (also called

black damp) which ignited the coal dust In all the hves of 362 men were

lost in the underground explosion

413 Report on Coal pollution by Green Peace Organization of Various

Coal Producing Countries

Green Peace International a NGO Organization in its report The True

Cost of Coal reports as follows^^

Coal burning has existed for centuries and its use as a fuel has been

recorded since the 1100s It powered the Industrial Revolution changing the

Ibid 76 httpenwikipediaorgwikiHistory_of_coal_mining The True Cost of Coal How people and the planet are paying the price for the worlds dirtiest fuel A report produced by Green Peace International found at lt wwwgreenpeaceorggt retrieved on 20-12-2008

162

course of first Britain and then the world in the process In the US the first

coal-fired power plant - Pearl Street Station - opened on the shores of the

lower East River in New York City in September 1882 Shortly thereafter

coal became the staple diet for power plants across the world^

There is now almost 40 per cent more carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere than before the industrial revolution Current Carbon dioxide

levels are higher than any point in the last 650000 years^

Further the report also says in its article Coal - A Dirty Fuel thats

destroying our Climate Coal burning contributes more to climate change than

any other fossil fuel Coal-fired power stations pump vast amounts of CO2

into the atmosphere each year 11 billion tonnes to be precise This amounts

to 72 of CO2 emissions from power generation and 4 1 of total global

emissions of CO2 from fossil fuels^

The report also talks about the contribution by India accounts for the

worlds greatest concentration of coal fires Raising surface temperatures and

toxic bi-products soil and air have turned the densely populated Raniganj

Singareni and Jharia coal fields into waste lands

With regard to coal in China the report says China is a big energy

producer and consumer Most f their energy is derived from coal China must

take on the responsibility to reduce pollution and emissions^^

The report says on South Africa which is the 6th largest producer of

coal and 7th largest consumer of coal In 2006 about 80 of South Africas

coal exports landed up in European power stations^

Ibid at p 5 of the report ^ Ibid at p 7 of the report Ibid at p II of the report Ibid at p27 of the report Ibid at p 43 of the report

163

The report further says that Coal wreaks havoc and destruction on the

planet and our health could be the understatement of the century Coal is

causing our planet harm Thats easy to see The damage costs right along its

chain of custody - from digging it out of the ground to what remains after it

has burnt

414 Subterranean Coal Fire

Fires are burning in thousands of underground coal seams from

Pennsylvania to Mongolia releasing toxic gases adding millions of tons of

heat-trapping carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and baking the earth until

vegetation shrivels and the land sinks Scientists and government agencies are

starting to use heat-sensing satellites to map the fires and try new ways to

extinguish them But in many instances particularly in Asia they are so

widespread and stubborn that miners simply work around the flames

There is geological evidence that grassland and forest fires lightning

and spontaneous combustion of coal have spawned such fires for hundreds of

thousands of years In Wyoming and northern China broad layers of earth are

composed of clinker the brittle baked rock left behind when subterranean

coal bums

But the frequency of coal fires appears to have risen experts say as

mining has exposed more and more deposits around the world to fires both

natural and set by people and the oxygen that feeds them

Increasingly scientists are saying the problem needs to be more

carefully assessed both as a potential contributor to global warming and

source of toxic air pollution A 1999 report by the Clean Coal Center of the

^^ Ibid at p 48 of the report Ibid at p 77 of the report ^ lohn Dyson Fgte Down Below Article published in Readers Digest July 2004 Ibid

164

International Energy Agency concluded that the biggest coal fires in China

and India particularly make a significant global impact These fires are

obviously pumping all noxious gases into the atmosphere and that is the

major threat to the world atmosphere and no one is aware of it ^

The coal fires are similar to those that smoldered for months beneath

the wreckage of the World Trade Center in that they involve buried fuels and

are sustained and intensified by slight drafts of air and heat locked into

surrounding rubble or rock Geologists and engineers who have studied coal

fires offered their expertise and specialized equipment like firefighting foams

to emergency officials in Lower Manhattan But firefighters at the scene stuck

mainly with the simplest method pouring endless streams of water on the

wreckage as work crews slowly removed layers of debris

Many coal fires start spontaneously when pyrite and other reactive

minerals in coal are exposed to oxygen They begin to release heat which if

not dissipated by air currents builds until the coal itself ignites

In Indonesia hundreds of coal fires erupted deep in the rain forests

when forest fires spread during an extreme drought in 1997 and scorched

exposed coal seams

Alfred E Whitehouse a fire expert for the federal Office of Surface

Mining now assigned to Indonesia said there were 700 such fires just in East

Kalimantan on the island of Borneo Some were extinguished by crews using

hand pumps and picks to isolate the hot spots But many are still burning

^ Opines Dr Glenn B Stracher a geologist and expert on coal fires at Kast Georgia College in Swainsboro Georgia

^ Op cit John Dyson ^ Reports of Federal Office of Surface mining for detailed discussion see ltwwwfireblmgovusgt

165

The fires persist as long as there is the right mix of fuel oxygen and

heat Sometimes that can be a very long time One fire eating deep into an

Australian peak called Burning Mountain is believed to have been going

strong for 2000 years The mountain has often been mistaken for a

simmering volcano by passers-by although Australia has no volcanic

activity

In the United States a common cause of such fires has been the

burning of trash dumped into abandoned mines That is how the coal fire

became most familiar to many Americans started 40 years ago in Centralia a

town in the anthracite region of eastern Pennsylvania Smoldering trash in a

dump ignited a coal seam The fire steadily crept through abandoned mine

tunnels forcing the federal government by 1984 to evict residents and

eventually pay $40 million to buy damaged land^

Centralia briefly gained national notoriety and then faded away Its

population shrank from 1100 to 40 Smoke and steam now rise from

overgrown backyards and cracked sunken streets marking the path of

subterranean fires that continue to consume buried coal Geologists say it

could bum for another hundred years

But Centralias is just one of dozens of fires that smolder unchecked

in old mines and coal seams around the country The federal Office of Surface

Mining has tallied nearly $1 billion in accumulated costs from coal fires

primarily in Pennsylvania West Virginia Utah Colorado Kentucky and

Wyoming And the coal fires in the United States are negligible compared

with those overseas In Chinas rich northern coal belt hundreds of

See supra note 80 Supra Note 81

Ibid 166

underground fires are burning upward of 200 million tons of coal each year

about 20 percent of the nations annual production The fires produce nearly

as much carbon dioxide the main gas linked to global warming as is emitted

each year by all the cars and small trucks in the United States ^

Only in the last few years have scientists begun a concerted effort to

map and monitor coal fires around the world and calculate how much

pollution they are producing For the moment the total is anyones guess

Geologists are developing ways to integrate maps of the heat of the earths

surface generated by satellites with geological maps to track coal fires in

northern China

Often a deep coal fire raises the surface temperatures by only a few

degrees even though the heat in the middle of the fire can easily exceed 1000

degrees But that subtle signal is enough to show up from space particularly

when other clues about coal deposits are combined with the heat data

Chinese geologists recently generated a map of Chinas coal fires that showed

a constellation of glowing orange spots spread across the countrys northern

coal belt which spans 3000 miles and is 400 miles wide

Further the important goal is to monitor the region continually from

space so spots that are growing warmer indicating intensifying fires can be

attacked by firefighters before the fires grow to the point where they cannot

be stopped

Ibid bull Opines Mrs Dr Anupma Prakash a geological mapping expert at the International Institute for Aerospace

Survey and Earth Sciences in the Netherlands retrieved from ltwwwcoaIfirecafdlrdeprojectareasworldwidedistribution htmlgt on 9-11-2007

Op cit Anupama Prakash Ibid

167

The important thing is to detect the rising heat anomahes ahead of

time Once they get going these buried fires are very hard to stop The coal

beds in Pennsylvania tend to generate particularly persistent fires because the

corrugated terrain there has many separate narrow coal seams that reach the

surface and the ground is heavily fractured allowing ample oxygen to reach

the coal Many parts of the state like the foundation of Centralia are also

riddled with old abandoned tunnels that carry air into the coal layers and

expose broad surfaces of coal to heat^^

For many years engineers and scientists have been experimenting

with a variety of ways to extinguish or control the fires Some small fires have

been snuffed by drilling holes and pumping in inert gases or foams that stifle

flames Others have been flooded by damming surface streams and creating

lakes over the burning coal

Some fires have been controlled by excavating deep trenches that cut

off the fires the same way a fire break in woodland can stop a forest fire from

spreading But in most cases the costs of such efforts outweigh the benefits

That was why Centralia picked up and moved and why another Pennsylvania

community Youngstown may suffer the same fate

Overseas however some of the fires are in densely populated regions

where hundreds of thousands of poor people live on the edges of open pits

that fume and flame In many such places the mining industry has simply

adapted to the situation working in and around the burning rock Parts of one

of Indias most important coal fields the Jharia mining complex which is

rich in low-sulfur coal used to produce coke for steel mills have been on fire

Opines Stanley R Michalski a senior staff geologist at GAI Consultants a firm in Monroeville that has for more than 20 years studied fires and drawn up firefighting plans from India to Centralia

Op Cit John Dyson 168

since 1916 In many places the walls of open-pit mines glow and hiss like

lava flows^^

The regions 150000 miners truck drivers train loaders and other

workers toil stolidly against a constant backdrop of orange flames and brown

smoke But the fires are far more than an inconvenience On Sept 10 1995

the walls of one mine complex collapsed after being progressively weakened

by fires Water from a nearby canal poured in and flooded the pits and

tunnels killing more than 60 miners

The population around the Jharia mines has grown from half a

million to 11 million since the early 1980s ^ A plan was drawn up to

modify the mining operations and constrain the fires But the bank never

released the money But this fire is so complicated and so widespread that

India could not really afford to extinguish it In the meantime the fires there

still bum and residents and mineworkers continue to adapt In places where

the ground cracks and slumps and smokes people simply dismantle their

mud-brick homes and move them somewhere else

Most of the scientists pessimistically concluding their research stating

that it is rather difficult to kill the fire

1 The result is loss of much needed energy of the world

2 These energy resources are merely wasted which are nonshy

renewable

Report submitted by Coal India Ltd to the Central Government ^ Op cit Dr Anupama Prakash whose doctoral thesis was an analysis of the fires Op cit Stanley R Michalski and also see httpwwwmail-archiveeomeristocracymerrymeetcommsg00038html From Donald Eastlake Date Fri 26 Apr 2002 081727 -0400 (EDT) lthttpwwwnytimeseom200201l5sciencel SFIRiihtmlgt retrieved on 15-12-2006

169

3 Energy resources while being it is polluting the globe and also

vast contributory factors in reducing the age of the earth

The question to be answered is who is to regulate this hazardous

pollution It is important for the world to have a governing body to join

together by quelling the differences whether political social economical and

tackling the problem so as to not only extending the life of earth and also to

save the energy resources of the world for future generations

170

4102 Coal Mines in USA-1900 149

4103 The Industrial Revolution 150

4104 Beginning of 20 Century 151

4105 Pre-World War II Mechanization 152

411 History of Coal Mining Around the World 154

4111 Britain 154

4112 USA 157

4113 Canada 160

4114 Germany 160

4115 Belgium 161

412 Disasters 162

413 Report on Coal pollution by Green Peace

Organization of Various Coal Producing Countries 162

414 Subterranean Coal Fire 164

126

Chapter IV



















20 century

42 Coal Mining





127




43 Etymology





charring)

44 Types of coal


successively into












128


and to make coke





45 Early Use


















129











46 Present Usage


461 Coal as Fuel











130

























131




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

Chapter IV



















20 century

42 Coal Mining





127




43 Etymology





charring)

44 Types of coal


successively into












128


and to make coke





45 Early Use


















129











46 Present Usage


461 Coal as Fuel











130

























131




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170




43 Etymology





charring)

44 Types of coal


successively into












128


and to make coke





45 Early Use


















129











46 Present Usage


461 Coal as Fuel











130

























131




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170


and to make coke





45 Early Use


















129











46 Present Usage


461 Coal as Fuel











130

























131




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170











46 Present Usage


461 Coal as Fuel











130

























131




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

























131




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170




















463 Gasification





16 J g32 op

296 MJkg 132











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170











1985^














133



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170



464 Liquefaction
























134



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170



























Ibid

^ See Supra note 21

135














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170














47 Harmful Effects


471 Coal Mining










136









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170









472 Coal Burning

















137










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170










used















- Ibid Ibid

138






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170






473 Energy Density

















139



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170



474 Coal Fires























140





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170





m the area








years













141









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170









South Africa


Country

Bituminous Sub-


anthracite)

TOTAL


Russian Federation

115891

49088

62200

101021

97472

33082

10450

249994

157010


115891

49088

62200 33700 18600 114500

India 82396 2000

37700

84396


2000

37700 82090



142

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

Germany 23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

66000

South Africa

23000

49520

16274

43000

1933

49520

Ukraine

23000

49520

16274 15946

43000

1933 34153

Kazakhstan 31000 3000 34000

Poland 20300 1860 22160

Serbia 64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732 16256

Brazil

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

11929

Colombia

64

6267

1460

11929

381

14732

6648

Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

871 2236

150

6578 Canada

Czech Republic

3471

2114

790

4300

3414

2236

150 5678

Indonesia

3471

2114

790

4300

1430 3150 5370

Botswana

3471

2114

790

4300 4300


Turkey 278 761 2650 3689

Greece

278

2874 2874

143

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

Bulgaria 13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265 Pakistan

13 233

2265

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

2711

2265


2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1710

United Kingdom

Romania

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1500

1457

Thailand

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1268

Mexico

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1211

Chile

1000

1

860

31

35

300

1150

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1181

Hungary 80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100

1097

Peru 960

80

2465

500

1421

1268

51

1017

100 1060

Kyrgyzstan 812 812

iJapan

Spain


Rep)

773

200

300

400

300

60

773

660

600

144

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

New Zealand 33 206 333 572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430

232 100

430

Philippines

430

232 100 332

Slovenia 40 235 275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21 169 190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150


145

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

Korea (Republic) 78

70

66

40

6

78

Niger

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66 Afghanistan

78

70

66

40

6

70

i66

Algeria

Croatia

78

70

66

40

6 33

40

39

Portugal 3 33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

France 22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Italy

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25 Austria

22

14

10

4

27

33

14

7

25

36

36

34

25

Ecuador

22

14

10

4

24 2A

Egypt (Arab Rep)

22

14

10

4

22 22

Ireland

Zambia

Malaysia

22

14

10

4

14

10

4


146

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

Myanmar (Burma) 2

2

2

VI

i Malawi

2

2

2 2

iNew Caledonia

2

2 2

Nepal

Bolivia

2

1

2

1

i Norway

2

1

1 1

Republic of China 1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

i Sweden

TOTAL

1

519062

1

276301 189090

1

984453

1 4



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170



Country 2003 12004





Poland 164 163

Canada 277 288




Total 7139 7640

bull Ibid

148




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170




4101 Early History











Britannia








149



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170



















Ibid Ibid



Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170


Coal miners 1910



Europe




iFrance 35869497

i Belgium 21775280



1 Hungary (coal) 1904 1031501


iSpain 1905 3202911

i Russia 11904 19318000

IHolland 466997


iRomania 110000

Serbia 1904 183204


Sweden 322384


Asia

India 1905 8417739

Japan 1903 10088845


151

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

ISumatra 1904 1207280

i Africa


i Natal 1905 i 1129407


lAmerica


iCanada 1904 17509860

i Mexico 700000

iPeru 1905 72665

iAustralasia


iQueensland 529326

iVictoria i 153135


jTasmania 51993









152















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170















by machine










153











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170











different countries

4111 Britain













Ibid 154























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170























155
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170
















completely


156

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

4112 USA




Pennsylvania 81719

i Illinois 112104

lOhio 19977

iWest Virginia 6232

ilowa 4095

iAIabama 3573

hndiana 2845

iColorado 12544

i Kentucky i 2400

JKansas |2221

^Tennessee il926






157























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170























158


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170


bargaining agent













in Colorado









159










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170










4113 Canada








4114 Germany






160













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170













tons in 1974^^

4115 Belgium










Ibid Ibid

161









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170









412 Disasters

















162

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170

























163





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170





has burnt













coal bums








164


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170


















exposed coal seams







165






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170






activity




















Ibid 166










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170










northern China











be stopped




167




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170




























lava flows^^



















renewable


169








170








170

an analysis of subterranean coal fire and its...

Documents