an analysis of factors affecting quality in the
TRANSCRIPT
AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY
IN THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN ZAMBIA
By
Richard Kabwe
2020
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DECLARATION
I, Richard Kabwe , do hereby declare that this dissertation entitled “ANALYSIS OF
FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY LEVELS IN THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
IN ZAMBIA” is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, my own work and has not been
submitted at this or any other institution in full or in part for a degree or any other purposes.
All the works of other persons utilized herein, published or unpublished have been duly
acknowledged in accordance with the University policy on plagiarism.
Student Name: ___________________________ Signature: _______________
Date: _________________
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DEDICATION
I would love to first appreciate the almighty God for the gift of Life and His faithfulness. He
has brought me this far!
To my Wife : Thank you sunshine for the inspiration, encourage to pursue this avenue, to
aspire for greater things and excellence, your constant prayers for me for protection and
wisdom. Without you, I would have been content with status quo, but you have brought
success in my life.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would to appreciate the role my supervisor, played in my research; his guidance,
corrections, timely feedback, verifications of all works, etc. This made it easier to embrace
the study and do a good work. His wisdom was excellent to the conclusion of this study.
I want also to acknowledge all my course lecturers and the academic staff for the knowledge
imparted to me through all the courses taught and the emphasis to be practical, realistic and
attitude change towards work and productivity. The emphasis was to develop our country.
To all my friends in my study group, thank you for your team work efforts and to the rest,
thank you for the help you gave me to ensure that this paper is successful.
I would also love to appreciate staff at Zambia Association of Manufacturers for helping me
with information relevant to the research and all the manufacturing companies that responded
to this study. I wish you all God’s guidance in your work.
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CONTENTS
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii
CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................ xi
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. xii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Main Objective of the study ........................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Specific Objectives of the study .............................................................................. 3
1.5 Scope of the study .......................................................................................................... 3
1.6 Significance of the study ................................................................................................ 4
1.7 Key Concepts of the study ............................................................................................. 4
1.8 Outline of the Study ........................................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 8
LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 8
2.0: Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Definition of Quality ....................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Service Quality.............................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Quality Gurus ................................................................................................................ 13
2.3.1 Walter A. Shewhart: .............................................................................................. 14
2.3.2 W. Edwards Deming: ............................................................................................ 15
2.3.3 Joseph M. Juran ..................................................................................................... 15
2.3.4 Armand V. Feigenbaum ........................................................................................ 16
2.3.5 Phillip B. Crosby ................................................................................................... 17
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2.3.6 Kaoru Ishikawa ...................................................................................................... 17
2.3.7 Genichi Taguchi .................................................................................................... 18
2.4 Features of Total Quality Management (TQM) ............................................................ 19
2.4.1 Customer Focus ..................................................................................................... 19
2.4.2 Use of Quality Tools.............................................................................................. 19
2.4.2.1 Cause-and-Effect Diagrams ........................................................................... 20
2.4.2.2 Process flow charts ......................................................................................... 21
2.4.2.3 Check sheets ................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2.4 Graphs ............................................................................................................ 22
2.4.2.5 Pareto analysis ................................................................................................ 22
2.4.2.6 Scatter diagrams ............................................................................................. 23
2.4.2.7 Control charts ................................................................................................. 24
2.4.3 Other good practices .............................................................................................. 25
2.5 Earlier Researches Taken .............................................................................................. 25
2.6 Lessons Learnt from Previous researchers ................................................................... 29
2.7 Details on Selected Factors of Quality.......................................................................... 30
2.7.1 Product Design Specification ................................................................................ 30
2.7.2 Human Factor (Skills and Competence) ................................................................ 31
2.7.3 Quality Control Systems ........................................................................................ 31
2.7.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 32
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 33
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAME WORK ..................................................... 33
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 33
3.1 Methods......................................................................................................................... 36
3.1.1 Adherence to Design Specifications ...................................................................... 36
3.1.2 Inclusion of Quality Control Systems ................................................................... 37
3.2 Machines ....................................................................................................................... 38
3.2.1 Availability of Appropriate Technology ............................................................... 38
3.3 Workers (Human Resource) ......................................................................................... 39
3.3.1 Availability of Skills and Competence .................................................................. 39
3.4 Customer Feedback ....................................................................................................... 41
3.4.1 What is a compliment? .......................................................................................... 41
3.4.2 What is a complaint? ............................................................................................. 41
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3.5 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 42
3.6 Operationalization of Concepts ..................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 44
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................. 44
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 44
4.1 The target Population .................................................................................................... 44
4.2 The Sample size ............................................................................................................ 44
4.2.1 Methods of Determining a Sample ........................................................................ 45
4.3 Research Instrument...................................................................................................... 46
4.4 Validity of Instrument ................................................................................................... 47
4.5 Data ............................................................................................................................... 47
4.5.1 Primary data ........................................................................................................... 48
4.5.2 Secondary Data ...................................................................................................... 48
4.6 Data Analysis Procedure ............................................................................................... 48
4.7 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 48
4.8 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 50
DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................... 50
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 50
5.1 Questionnaire Design .................................................................................................... 50
5.1.1 Management Questionnaire ................................................................................... 50
5.1.2 Employee Questionnaire ........................................................................................ 50
5.2 Challenges Encountered................................................................................................ 51
5.1 Responses of the Respondents ...................................................................................... 51
5.2 Findings and Analysis ................................................................................................... 53
5.2.1 Availability of Appropriate Technology ............................................................... 53
5.2.1.1 Line Employees .............................................................................................. 53
5.2.1.2 Management ................................................................................................... 56
5.2.2 Quality Control Tools ............................................................................................ 57
5.2.2.1 Line Employees .............................................................................................. 57
5.2.2.2 Management ................................................................................................... 60
5.2.3 Skills and Competence .......................................................................................... 62
5.2.3.1 Line Employees .............................................................................................. 62
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5.2.3.2 Management ................................................................................................... 63
5.3 Discussions ................................................................................................................... 65
5.3.1 Research Question One (1) .................................................................................... 67
5.3.2 Research Question Two (2) ................................................................................... 68
5.3.3 Research Question Three (3) ....................................................................................... 70
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................ 72
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................... 72
6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 72
6.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 72
6.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 72
6.3 Recommendation for Further Research ........................................................................ 73
6.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 73
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 74
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 77
Appendix 1: SPSS DATA ANALYSIS .............................................................................. 77
Appendix 1.1: LINE EMPLOYEES .................................................................................. 77
Appendix 1.2: MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................... 83
Appendix 2.0: QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................... 89
Appendix 2.1: Management Questionnaire ....................................................................... 89
Appendix 2.2: Employee Questionnaire ............................................................................ 93
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Categories of Manufacturing Industries in Zambia……………………… 46
Table 5.1: Response of Respondents………………………………………………... 50
Table 5.2: Sector response…………………………………………………………... 51
Table 5.3: Showing Response to Question: “Is the Technology being used in the
company giving desired benefits?”……………………………………… 53
Table 5.4 Response Pattern on the benefits that the technology has brought……… 53
Table 5.5: Response patterns on how Technology has helped Job Performance…… 54
Table 5.6: Response Pattern on whether Technology being used had given desired
benefits to the company………………………………………………….. 55
Table 5.7: Pattern on what kind of technology the organization has put in place to
manufacture their products………………………………………………. 55
Table 5.8: Response Pattern on whether the technology used meet the product design
specifications…………………………………………………………….. 56
Table 5.9: Response Patterns on whether a particular Company has quality control tools
at their place of work…………………………………………………….. 56
Table 5.10: Patterns on the usefulness of these tools………………………………… 57
Table 5.11: Response Patterns on how Products are rejected during manufacturing… 58
Table 5.12 Response Pattern on what tools are used to check for quality…………… 59
Table 5.13: Response Pattern on how often quality audit is conducted……………… 59
Table 5.14: Response Pattern on whether the quality control tools have helped to increase
sales volumes…………………………………………………………….. 60
Table 5.15: Patterns on whether a particular employees/organization find it easy to
produce their products…………………………………………………… 60
Table 5.16: Response Patterns on the type of training received……………………… 61
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Table 5.17: Pattern on whether the organization have training policy in place……… 62
Table 5.18: Pattern on how management impart knowledge and skills in their employees.. 62
Table 5.19: Pattern on how competence is ensured to the employees………………. 63
Table 5.20: Pattern on whether skills and competence are important in improving quality. 63
Table 5.21: Descriptive Statistics (Employee)……………………………………… 64
Table 5.22: Descriptive Statistics (Management)…………………………………… 65
Table 5.23: Correlations (Employee)……………………………………………… 66
Table 5.24: Correlations (Management)…………………………………………… 68
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Quality Gurus…………………………………………………………… 13
Figure 2.2: Cause-And-Effect-Diagram…………………………………………….. 19
Figure 2.3 Flow Chart……………………………………………………………… 20
Figure 2.4: Check Sheet…………………………………………………………….. 21
Figure 2.5: Graph (Histogram)……………………………………………………… 21
Figure 2.6: Pareto Diagram…………………………………………………………. 22
Figure 2.7: Scatter Diagram…………………………………………………………. 23
Figure 2.8: Control Chart……………………………………………………………. 24
Figure 3.1: Cause-And-Effect-Diagram (Ishikawa)…………………………………. 33
Figure 3.2: Conceptual Model……………………………………………………….. 34
Figure 3.3: Steps to Professional Competence………………………………………. 39
Figure 3.4: Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………. 41
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Figure 5.1: Manufacturing Sector Response……………………………………….. 51
Figure 5.2: Competition from Imported Products………………………………….. 52
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
AP Appropriate Technology
COMESA Common Market for East and Southern Africa
GDP Gross Domestic Product
KIFCO Kabwe Industrial Fabrics Corporation
MMD Movement for Multi-Party Democracy
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
R&D Research and Development
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
ZACCI Zambia Chamber of Commerce and Industry
ZAM Zambia Association of Manufacturers
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ABSTRACT
The Manufacturing industry is very important in a country because the last 300 years has
shown that manufacturing helps drive national development and increase living standards. It
accounts for 16% of world Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 14% of world employment, 70%
of world exports and 77% of Research and Development (R&D) according to McKinsey
Global Institute. Empirical evidence shows that as economies become wealthier and reach
middle income status manufacturing’s share of GDP peaks at about 20-35% of GDP (David
Ryder, 2013).
The Zambian manufacturing Industry’s contribution to GDP fell from 11.5% in 2008 to
10.7% in 2012 (David Ryder, 2013). The drop was attributed to massive competition from
imported products due to a drop in quality levels of Zambia’s manufactured products. These
factors of quality that have led to reduced customer satisfaction include; Quality Control
Systems, Design Specification, Skills and Competencies, Customer Feedback, and
Appropriate Technology. Given this scenario, the study aimed at establishing whether there
was a significance relationship between these factors to the quality of the Zambian products.
However, particular attention was made to three (3): Quality control tools, Skills and
competence and appropriate technology.
After analyzing the responses using Pearson correlation, it was concluded that the reasons
why the observations made on the industry had taken place was due to competition from
imported products as a result of a drop in quality levels of the local products. Cumulative
frequency analysis was also used on the results and the correlation results showed that there
was;
(i) A strong relationship between the technology being used and job
performance of the employees.
(ii) A relationship between technology in place with the imparting of skills
and competence and that a relationship also existed between use audit
of quality control tools and technology being used.
(iii) Minimal relationship between quality control tools and job
performance, meaning that these tools are rarely used, hence affecting
quality levels.
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The study concluded that quality levels in the Zambian Manufacturing industries are being
affected by these factors and little effort is made to get customer feedback to help in
continuous improvement of the products.
The study recommended that;
Manufacturing industries should move from solely mechanized equipment to
computerized ‘fool proof’ equipment to minimize the rate of defects and
reduce on down time of taking measurements as a way of rejecting or
accepting a product.
Management of these manufacturing industries must invest adequately in
skills training for this is one of the solutions to addressing the levels of quality
and hence improve the competitiveness with imported products. Further,
competence monitoring systems must be implemented and enhanced so that
the shop floor employees are consistent in their work culture.
The manufacturing industry should embrace quality control tools, despite
being time-consuming and tedious, as they are very important because they
help the organization to identify areas of improvement so that continuous
improvement (Kaizen) is practised.
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CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction
The manufacturing sector is diverse, comprising a wide-ranging number of different
industries, technologies and activities. Alongside established industries such as food
and drink, aerospace, pharmaceuticals, electronics and automotive, new industries are
beginning to develop based around new emerging technologies. These include low
carbon, industrial biotechnology, nanotechnology, digital and advanced materials
such as composites.
Given the highly competitive nature of markets today, companies must provide high
quality products or services to survive. In today’s markets quality has become a
crucial competitive factor. It is not surprising therefore that the provision of high
quality products or services is often mentioned as a goal in most companies’ mission
statements. In manufacturing industries, the general term “quality” refers to what
quality management literature divides into the two complementary categories of
quality of design and quality of conformance. Whereas quality of design focuses on
how the product design meets consumer requirements, quality of conformance is
concerned with whether the quality produced and provided to the consumer meets the
intended design. In manufacturing, a measure of excellence or a state of
being free from defects, deficiencies and significant variations. It is brought about by
strict and consistent commitment to certain standards that achieve uniformity of
a product in order to satisfy specific customer or user requirements. ISO 8402-
1986 standard defines quality as "the totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bears its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs."
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American Society for
Quality (ASQ) defines quality as “the totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy given needs”. Different authors
have defined quality in different ways. For instance Crosby defined it as
“Conformance to requirement” Juran views quality as the satisfaction of customer
needs i.e. “Fitness for use” of a product, and one of the most popular definitions of
quality is meeting or exceeding customer expectations. (Evans & Dean, 2000)
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Quality is an aspect that can be described in many ways subject to the orientation that
is based on judgment, value, product etc. Quality can be described as the ‘goodness of
the product’, which is judgmental and looking at it from a product base, quality is the
conformance to specific, measureable variable. To a user, quality is the fitness for the
intended use, or how well the product performs its intended function. Because of the
importance of quality and its complexity due to the investment needed, it has been
seen that many companies struggle to maintain the requisite quality levels due to a
number of factors at play. These factors vary from region to region and industry to
industry. However, the principles still remain the same. This study aims at providing a
detailed effect of such factors that may be prevalent in the Zambian manufacturing
industries as a platform for research with an objective of enhancing improvement in
quality.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The Zambian manufacturing industry has been faced with a lot challenges in the
products and services they produce due to quality standards as set by the international
standards board. Most manufacturers have failed to implement fully quality control
measures in there industries and this has resulted in a lot of substandard goods being
produced, hence failing to compete favourably on the international markets.
According to a 2000 to 2001 report on manufacturing sector survey, inadequate
improvements in the technology of the production processes and a lack of growth in
the quantum of engineers and technical skills has immensely contributed to factors
that affect quality in the Zambian manufacturing sector. Mwansa (2002) in the 2000
to 2001 report on manufacturing further observed that as a result of this, most of
Zambia’s Manufacturing Industry products do not meet the quality standards as set on
the international markets hence fail to compete favourably with other products in the
region.
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1.3 Research Objective of the study
1.3.1 General Objective
To analyse the factors affecting quality in the manufacturing industries in Zambia
1.3.2 Specific Objectives of the study
i. To identify the constraints faced by manufacturing industries in
Zambia
ii. To assess the availability of Appropriate Technology necessary to
produce products of desired quality
iii. To analyze the availability of appropriate Skills and Competencies
needed to manufacture a product
iv. To analyze the availability and utilization of Quality Control Tools in
the manufacturing processes.
1.4 Research Questions
i. What are the constraints faced by manufacturing industries in Zambia
ii. How relevant is technology, being used in the company, to the liking and
acceptance by employees in the production process in order to improve quality
of products?
iii. How does the company attain the relevant skills and competences in the
improvement of quality for the manufactured products?
iv. To what extent does the company use quality control tools to improve the
quality of the product?
1.5 Scope of the study
The scope of the study focused on analyzing manufacturing companies in Zambia that are
involved in manufacturing. The manufacturing industry has sixteen (16) categories; Agro
Processing, Metal Engineering, Gemstones, Edible Oils, Plastics, Wood and Wood Products,
Beverages(Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic), Petroleum, Paints, Explosives, Asbestos
Processing, Leather and Leather Products, Electrical Engineering, Soaps and Chemicals,
Cement/Refractory, and Rubber and Rubber Products. The focus was on the industries that
are spread along the line of rail.
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1.6 Significance of the study
The Zambian manufacturing sector’s contribution to GDP fell from 11.5% in 2008 to
10.7% in 2012 growing at about half the national growth rate of just over 6%. This is
depressing given the importance of manufacturing to trade, innovation and jobs. Two
thirds of the total contribution by manufacturing to GDP is accounted for by food and
metals subsectors, while textiles and chemicals account for another quarter according
to the Zambia Association of Manufacturers (ZAM). It can be clearly seen that the
sector is very important and something needs to be done to revive it. The last 300
years has shown that manufacturing helps drive national development and increase
living standards. It accounts for 16% of world GDP, 14% of world employment, 70%
of world exports and 77% of R&D according to McKinsey Global Institute.
Technological advances and productivity growth have limited the cost of goods for
the consumer. The role of manufacturing in an economy changes over time. Empirical
evidence shows that as economies become wealthier and reach middle income status
(which Zambia aspires to by 2030) manufacturing’s share of GDP peaks at about 20-
35% of GDP. Zambia has barely half that contribution. Beyond that point,
consumption shifts towards services. In China, India and Indonesia manufacturing
contributes 10-33% of gross value added (David Ryder, 2013).
Manufacturing becomes important to drive productivity growth, innovation and trade.
It also plays a critical role in reducing energy and resource consumption and limiting
greenhouse gas emissions. To grow industry, a country must have access to low cost
or high skill labor, be close to demand markets, efficient transport, natural resources
and energy, and sources of innovation. This study brought out factors that we need to
improve on in order for our manufacturing industry reach the levels required to foster
products that will meet the Zambian and international customer expectations.
1.7 Key Concepts of the study
Quality Control Systems: This is a process through which a business seeks to
ensure that product quality is maintained or improved
and manufacturing errors are reduced or eliminated.
Quality control requires the business to create an
environment in which both management and employees
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strive for perfection. This is done by training personnel,
creating benchmarks for product quality, and testing
products to check for statistically significant variations.
Design Specification These are minimum requirement according to which a
manufacturer makes and delivers the product to the
customer. For example, in designing the product, the
specifications and drawings produced by the designer
show the quality standard demanded by the customer or
marketplace in clear and precise terms. Every
dimension should have realistic tolerances and other
performance requirements should have precise limits of
acceptability so that the production team can
manufacture the product strictly according to
specification and drawings. To achieve the above, those
responsible for design, production and quality should be
consulted from the sales negotiation stage onwards. The
overall design of any product is made up of many
individual characteristics. Manufacturing drawings and
specifications are prepared by the designers and these
should indicate to the production team precisely what
quality is required and what raw materials should be
used.
Skills and Competencies These are abilities and capacity acquired through
deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly
and adaptively carryout complex activities or job
functions involving ideas, things. It includes
knowledge, commitments that enable a person or an
organization act effectively in a job or situation.
Technology These are methods or inventions that allow humans and
manufacturing organizations to control or adapt their
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products and services to meet the desired specifications
and customer needs.
1.8 Outline of the Report
The study is presented in Six (6) chapters as outlined below;
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
This chapter discusses the general background to the research, explaining the essence
of the study based on the challenges faced in Zambia. The chapter further gives a
justification as to why the research is necessary in this area based on the research
questions and objectives. Finally, it looks at the scope and limitations of the study.
CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review.
In this chapter, a comprehensive evaluation of the theoretical basis of the study is
presented based on what other scholars have written and studied on the same and
similar topic. It also focuses on literature on quality.
CHAPTER THREE: Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
The key concepts of the study highlighted in Chapter one (1) are explained and their
relationship to the study is shown in detail. Further, from the relationship, a
conceptual model to try and address the research problem and answers are then given.
Major theories to help explain the conceptual framework are highlighted. Finally,
hypotheses are developed.
CHAPTER FOUR: Research Methodology
The chapter explains the steps that were taken to provide answers to the research
questions that were derived. Details of the ‘how’ and procedures of the study were
explained. The explanation looks at the design, population, sample size, data
collection and analysis as well as sampling design. The population targeted was the
manufacturing industries along the ‘line of rail’ that were identified with the help of
Zambia Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ZACCI) and Zambia Association of
Manufacturers (ZAM).
CHAPTER FIVE: Data Analysis, Findings and Discussions
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This chapter describes the methods of data collection. Data collected was compiled
using Microsoft Excel whilst analysis was done by Regression and Correlation. The
use of tables, charts, and various graphs in the analysis are explained. The chapter
also provides the outcome of the data analysis especially the results of the hypotheses
testing. The entire research findings are presented here. Further, the research findings
are discussed in light of the research problem and research questions. It provides a
connection between the findings of the study and the problem in terms of providing a
solution and some answers.
CHAPTER SIX: Conclusions and Recommendations
The final chapter draws a conclusion to the study and gives practical
recommendations. All creative / innovative ideas from the findings are highlighted
here.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0: Introduction
This chapter discussed the variables arising from the research topic and explained the
concepts that were used. The chapter also discussed the conceptual frame work, the theories
that governed the research and the comparative studies related to this topic.
2.1 Definition of Quality
Quality means those features of products which meet customer needs and thereby provide
customer satisfaction. According to Slack et al (2007), quality is concerned with making
products or providing services that are free from errors and that conform precisely to their
design specification. A search for the definition of quality has yielded inconsistent results.
Quality has been variously defined as value (Abbott, 1955), conformance to specifications
(Gilmore, 1974), excellence (Pirsig, 1974), conformance to requirements (Crosby, 1979),
meeting and for exceeding customer’s expectations (Gronroos, 1983), fitness for use (Juran,
1986), loss avoidance (Taguchi, cited in Ross, 1989). Crosby (1980) defined quality as
‘conformance to requirement’, focusing on people and organisational factors, emphasising
cultural change, training, management commitments to quality, and the ongoing calculation
of quality cost. Feigenbaum (1983) stated that product and service quality can be defined as
the total composite product and service characteristics of marketing, engineering,
manufacturing and maintenance through which the product and service in use will meet the
expectations of the customer. Deming (1986) approached quality from a statistical
perspective, emphasising the reduction of variance through statistical process control
techniques.
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In general, quality has been defined from the following viewpoints: transcendent quality
(superiority or excellence), product based quality (quality vis-à-vis price), manufacturing
based quality conformance to specifications and user-based quality (fitness for intended use).
Transcendent definition offers little practical guidance for managers, product based and value
based definition represent two concepts, quality and price. Manufacturing based definition is
an internally focused definition of quality that may cause managers to focus on internal
efficiency rather than external effectiveness. User based definition is a customer focus
definition of quality. Most business today define it as meeting or exceeding customer
expectations (Evans and Lindsay, 1995).
The definition of quality depends on the role of the people defining it. Most
consumers have a difficult time defining quality, but they know it when they see it.
For example, although one probably has an opinion as to which manufacturer of
athletic shoes provides the highest quality; it would probably be difficult for such a
one to define any quality standard in precise terms. Also, friends may have different
opinions regarding which athletic shoes are of highest quality. The difficulty in
defining quality exists regardless of product, and this is true for both manufacturing
and service organizations. Further, think about how difficult it may be to define
quality for products such as airline services, child day-care facilities, college classes,
or even textbooks. Further complicating the issue is that the meaning of quality has
changed over time. Today, there is no single universal definition of quality. Some
people view quality as “performance to standards.” Others view it as “meeting the
customer’s needs” or “satisfying the customer.” The following are some of the more
common definitions of quality.
Conformance to specifications measures how well the product or service meets the
targets and tolerances determined by its designers. For example, the dimensions of a
machine part may be specified by its design engineers as 3.05 inches. This would
mean that the target dimension is 3 inches but the dimensions can vary between 2.95
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and 3.05 inches. Similarly, the wait for hotel room service may be specified as 20
minutes, but there may be an acceptable delay of an additional 50%. Also, consider
the amount of light delivered by a 60 watt light bulb. If the bulb delivers 50 watts it
does not conform to specifications. As these examples illustrate, conformance to
specification is directly measurable, though it may not be directly related to the
consumer’s idea of quality.
Fitness for use focuses on how well the product performs its intended function or
use. For example, a Mercedes Benz and a Jeep Cherokee both meet a fitness for use
definition if one considers transportation as the intended function. However, if the
definition becomes more specific and assumes that the intended use is for
transportation on mountain roads and carrying fishing gear, the Jeep Cherokee has a
greater fitness for use. You can also see that fitness for use is a user-based definition
in that it is intended to meet the needs of a specific user group.
Value for price paid is a definition of quality that consumers often use for product or
service usefulness. This is the only definition that combines economics with consumer
criteria; it assumes that the definition of quality is price sensitive. For example,
suppose that you wish to sign up for a personal finance seminar and discover that the
same class is being taught at two different colleges at significantly different tuition
rates. If you take the less expensive seminar, you will feel that you have received
greater value for the price.
Psychological criteria are a subjective definition that focuses on the judgmental
evaluation of what constitutes product or service quality. Different factors contribute
to the evaluation, such as the atmosphere of the environment or the perceived prestige
of the product. For example, a hospital patient may receive average health care, but a
very friendly staff may leave the impression of high quality. Similarly, we commonly
associate certain products with excellence because of their reputation; Rolex watches
and Mercedes-Benz automobiles are examples.
Defining quality in manufacturing organizations is often different from that of
services. Manufacturing organizations produce a tangible product that can be seen,
touched, and directly measured. Examples include cars, CD players, clothes,
computers, and food items. Therefore, quality definitions in manufacturing usually
focus on tangible product features. The most common quality definition in
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manufacturing is conformance, which is the degree to which a product characteristic
meets preset standards. Other common definitions of quality in manufacturing include
performance—such as acceleration of a vehicle; reliability—that the product will
function as expected without failure; features—the extras that are included beyond the
basic characteristics; durability— expected operational life of the product; and
serviceability—how readily a product can be repaired. The relative importance of
these definitions is based on the preferences of each individual customer. It is easy to
see how different customers can have different definitions in mind when they speak of
high product quality.
2.2 Service Quality
Service is a patch up activity to fulfill some one’s need in the market. Service is
something, which can be experienced but cannot be touched or seen. Services offered
by service providers cannot be seen & touched, as they are intangible activities. Some
basic definitions of service as defined by Management Gurus are:
“A service is any activity or benefit that one party can offer to another which is
essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything.” By Collis, et
al (2003).
“Services are economic activities that create value and provide benefits for customers
at specific times and places as a result of bringing about a desired change in or on
behalf of the recipient of the service.” By Christopher Lovelock (C.Bhattacharjee).
“Services are the production of essentially intangible benefits and experience, either
alone or as part of a tangible product through some form of exchange, with the
intention of satisfying the needs, wants and desires of the consumers.” By C.
Bhattachargee
The basic difference between service and product is that services are intangible but
products are tangible and are required to follow some standardized procedures.
Service user can specify about that particular service satisfaction only after availing it
for some period of time. Some of the common service areas are: Retailing,
Transportation, Cell phones, Education, Health & hospitality Services, and many
more.
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Knowledge about product quality, however, is insufficient to understand service
quality. The three well documented characteristics of services – intangibility,
heterogeneity, and inseparability-must are acknowledged for full understanding of
service quality. First, most services are intangible (Berry et al, 1990). Because they
are performances rather than objects, precise manufacturing specifications concerning
uniform quality can rarely be set. Most services cannot be counted, measured,
inventoried, tested, and verified in advance of sale to assure quality. Because of
intangibility, the firm may find it difficult to understand how consumers perceive their
services and evaluate service quality (Zeithaml 1990). Second, services, especially
those with a high labor content, are heterogeneous: their performance often varies
from producer to producer, from customer to customer, and from day to day.
Consistency of behavior from service personnel (i.e., uniform quality) is difficult to
assure (Booms and Bitner 1981) because what the firm intends to deliver may be
entirely different from what consumer receives.
Third, production and consumption of many services are inseparable (Carmen and
Langeard 1980, Gronroos 1078, Regan 1963, Upah 1980). As a consequence, quality
in services is not engineered at the manufacturing plant, and then delivered intact to
the consumer. In labor intensive services, for example, quality occurs during service
delivery, usually in an interaction between the client and the contact person from the
service firm (Lehtinen and Lehtinen 1982). The service firm may also have less
managerial control over quality in services where consumer participation is intense
(e.g., haircuts, doctor’s visits) because the client affects the process. In these
situations, the consumer’s input (description of how the hair should look, description
of symptoms) becomes critical to the quality of service performance. Service quality
has been discussed in only a handful of writings (Gronroos 1982; Lehtinen and
Lehtinen 1982; Lewis and Booms 1983; Sasser, Olsen, and Wyckoff 1978).
Examination of these writings and other literature on services suggests three
underlying themes:
- Service quality is more difficult for the consumer to evaluate than
goods quality
- Service quality perceptions result from a comparison of consumer
expectations with actual service performance
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- Quality evaluations are not made solely on the outcome of a service;
they also involve evaluations of the process of service delivery.
Therefore, ‘service quality is a measure of how well the service level delivered
matches customer expectations. Delivering quality service means conforming to
customer expectations on a consistent basis.’(Lewis and Booms 1983).
In this study, quality is defined as the extent to which a product can last while in use,
perform as well as stand out to other similar products.
2.3 Quality Gurus (remove)
To fully understand Quality, it will be prudent to look at it from the point of TQM
movement; there is need to look at the philosophies of notable individuals who have
shaped the evolution of TQM. Their philosophies and teachings have contributed to
our knowledge and understanding of quality today. Their individual contributions are
summarized in Figure 2.1.
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Figure 2.1: Quality Gurus ant Their Contributions (Source: wiley.com)
2.3.1 Walter A. Shewhart: Shewhart was a statistician at Bell Laboratories during
the 1920s and 1930s. Shewhart studied randomness and recognized that
variability existed in all manufacturing processes. He developed quality
control charts that are used to identify whether the variability in the process is
random or due to an assignable cause, such as poor workers or miscalibrated
machinery. He stressed that eliminating variability improves quality. His work
created the foundation for today’s statistical process control, and he is often
referred to as the “grandfather of quality control.”
Control charts are the most widely used tool in quality systems. Control charts
communicate a lot of information effectively. Figure … shows a process in
which all the outcomes are within the specified limits. The upper control limit
(UCL) is 0.18 and the lower control limit (LCL) is 0.02 and all the points fall
between these two limits. This means the process is in control and operating
correctly. If some of the points were to fall outside of the UCL or LCL, it
would signal that the process is not in control and action needs to be taken to
correct the problem. We discussed earlier the two different types of errors, (1)
systematic and (2) special causes. Systematic errors will show up on a control
chart as one or two points outside of the control limits with the rest of the
Quality Guru Main Contribution
Walter A. Shewhart – Contributed to understanding of process variability.
– Developed concept of statistical control charts.
W. Edwards Deming – Stressed management’s responsibility for quality.
– Developed “14 Points” to guide companies in quality
improvement.
Joseph M. Juran – Defined quality as “fitness for use.”
– Developed concept of cost of quality.
Armand V. Feigenbaum – Introduced concept of total quality control.
Philip B. Crosby – Coined phrase “quality is free.”
– Introduced concept of zero defects.
Kaoru Ishikawa – Developed cause-and-effect diagrams.
– Identified concept of “internal customer.”
Genichi Taguchi – Focused on product design quality. –Developed Taguchi
loss function.
Page | 15
points within the limits. Special causes will show up on a control chart with
numerous points outside of the control limits.
2.3.2 W. Edwards Deming: Deming is often referred to as the “father of quality
control.” He was a statistics professor at New York University in the 1940s.
After World War II he assisted many Japanese companies in improving
quality. The Japanese regarded him so highly that in 1951 they established the
Deming Prize, an annual award given to firms that demonstrate outstanding
quality. It was almost 30 years later that American businesses began adopting
Deming’s philosophy. A number of elements of Deming’s philosophy depart
from traditional notions of quality. The first is the role management should
play in a company’s quality improvement effort. Historically, poor quality was
blamed on workers—on their lack of productivity, laziness, or carelessness.
However, Deming pointed out that only 15 percent of quality problems are
actually due to worker error. The remaining 85 percent are caused by
processes and systems, including poor management. Deming said that it is up
to management to correct system problems and create an environment that
promotes quality and enables workers to achieve their full potential. He
believed that managers should drive out any fear employees have of
identifying quality problems, and that numerical quotas should be eliminated.
Proper methods should be taught and detecting and eliminating poor quality
should be everyone’s responsibility.
Deming outlined his philosophy on quality in his famous “14 Points.” These
points are principles that help guide companies in achieving quality
improvement. The principles are founded on the idea that upper management
must develop a commitment to quality and provide a system to support this
commitment that involves all employees and suppliers. Deming stressed that
quality improvements cannot happen without organizational change that
comes from upper management.
2.3.3 Joseph M. Juran: After Deming, Juran is considered to have had the greatest
impact on quality management. Juran originally worked in the quality program
at Western Electric. He became better known in 1951, after the publication of
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his book Quality Control Handbook (Juran, 1988). In 1954 he went to Japan
to work with manufacturers and teach classes on quality. Though his
philosophy is similar to Deming’s, there are some differences. Whereas
Deming stressed the need for an organizational “transformation,” Juran
believes that implementing quality initiatives should not require such a
dramatic change and that quality management should be embedded in the
organization. One of Juran’s significant contributions is his focus on the
definition of quality and the cost of quality. Juran is credited with defining
quality as fitness for use rather than simply conformance to specifications. As
we have learned in this chapter, defining quality as fitness for use takes into
account customer intentions for use of the product, instead of only focusing on
technical specifications. Juran is also credited with developing the concept of
cost of quality, which allows us to measure quality in dollar terms rather than
on the basis of subjective evaluations. Juran is well known for originating the
idea of the quality trilogy: quality planning, quality control, and quality
improvement. The first part of the trilogy, quality planning, is necessary so
that companies identify their customers, product requirements, and overriding
business goals. Processes should be set up to ensure that the quality standards
can be met. The second part of the trilogy, quality control, stresses the regular
use of statistical control methods to ensure that quality standards are met and
to identify variations from the standards. The third part of the quality trilogy is
quality improvement. According to Juran, quality improvements should be
continuous as well as breakthrough. Together with Deming, Juran stressed that
to implement continuous improvement workers need to have training in proper
methods on a regular basis.
2.3.4 Armand V. Feigenbaum: Another quality leader is Feigenbaum, who
introduced the concept of total quality control. In his 1961 book Total Quality
Control (Feigenbaum, 1991), he outlined his quality principles in 40 steps.
Feigenbaum took a total system approach to quality. He promoted the idea of a
work environment where quality developments are integrated throughout the
entire organization, where management and employees have a total
commitment to improve quality, and people learn from each other’s successes.
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This philosophy was adapted by the Japanese and termed “company-wide
quality control.”
2.3.5 Phillip B. Crosby: Crosby is another recognized guru in the area of TQM. He
worked in the area of quality for many years, first at Martin Marietta and then,
in the 1970s, as the vice president for quality at ITT. He developed the phrase
“Do it right the first time” and the notion of zero defects, arguing that no
amount of defects should be considered acceptable. He scorned the idea that a
small number of defects are a normal part of the operating process because
systems and workers are imperfect. Instead, he stressed the idea of prevention.
To promote his concepts, Crosby wrote a book titled Quality Is Free, which
was published in 1979 (Crosby, 1979). He became famous for coining the
phrase “quality is free” and for pointing out the many costs of quality, which
include not only the costs of wasted labor, equipment time, scrap, rework, and
lost sales, but also organizational costs that are hard to quantify. Crosby
stressed those efforts to improve quality more than pay for them because these
costs are prevented. Therefore, quality is free. Like Deming and Juran, Crosby
stressed the role of management in the quality improvement effort and the use
of statistical control tools in measuring and monitoring quality.
2.3.6 Kaoru Ishikawa: Ishikawa is best known for the development of quality
tools called cause-and-effect diagrams, also called fishbone or Ishikawa
diagrams. These diagrams are used for quality problem solving, and we will
look at them in detail later in the chapter. He was the first quality guru to
emphasize the importance of the “internal customer,” the next person in the
production process. He was also one of the first to stress the importance of
total company quality control, rather than just focusing on products and
services. Ishikawa believed that everyone in the company needed to be united
with a shared vision and a common goal. He stressed that quality initiatives
should be pursued at every level of the organization and that all employees
should be involved. Ishikawa was a proponent of implementation of quality
circles, which are small teams of employees that volunteer to solve quality
problems.
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2.3.7 Genichi Taguchi: Taguchi is a Japanese quality expert known for his work in
the area of product design. He estimates that as much as 80 percent of all
defective items are caused by poor product design. Taguchi stresses that
companies should focus their quality efforts on the design stage, as it is much
cheaper and easier to make changes during the product design stage than later
during the production process. Taguchi is known for applying a concept called
design of experiment to product design. This method is an engineering
approach that is based on developing robust design, a design that results in
products that can perform over a wide range of conditions. Taguchi’s
philosophy is based on the idea that it is easier to design a product that can
perform over a wide range of environmental conditions than it is to control the
environmental conditions. Taguchi has also had a large impact on today’s
view of the costs of quality. He pointed out that the traditional view of costs of
conformance to specifications is incorrect, and proposed a different way to
look at these costs. To briefly look at Taguchi’s view of quality costs,
conformance to specification, a target value for the product with specified
tolerances, say 5.00 plus or minus 0.20. According to the traditional view of
conformance to specifications, losses in terms of cost occur if the product
dimensions fall outside of the specified limits. However, Taguchi noted that
from the customer’s view there is little difference whether a product falls just
outside or just inside the control limits. He pointed out that there is a much
greater difference in the quality of the product between making the target and
being near the control limit. He also stated that the smaller the variation
around the target, the better the quality. Based on this he proposed the
following: as conformance values move away from the target, loss increases as
a quadratic function. This is called the Taguchi loss function. According to
the function, smaller differences from the target result in smaller costs: the
larger the differences, the larger the cost. The Taguchi loss function has had a
significant impact in changing the view of quality cost.
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2.4 Features of Total Quality Management (TQM)
2.4.1 Customer Focus
The first, and overriding, feature of TQM is the company’s focus on its
customers. Quality is defined as meeting or exceeding customer expectations.
The goal is to first identify and then meet customer needs. TQM recognizes
that a perfectly produced product has little value if it is not what the customer
wants. Therefore, we can say that quality is customer driven. However, it is
not always easy to determine what the customer wants, because tastes and
preferences change. Also, customer expectations often vary from one
customer to the next. For example, in the auto industry trends change
relatively quickly, from small cars to sports utility vehicles and back to small
cars. The same is true in the retail industry, where styles and fashion are short
lived. Companies need to continually gather information by means of focus
groups, market surveys, and customer interviews in order to stay in tune with
what customers want. They must always remember that they would not be in
business if it were not for their customers.
2.4.2 Use of Quality Tools
You can see that TQM places a great deal of responsibility on all workers. If
employees are to identify and correct quality problems, they need proper
training. They need to understand how to assess quality by using a variety of
quality control tools, how to interpret findings, and how to correct problems.
In this section we look at seven different quality tools. These are often called
the seven tools of quality control. They are easy to understand, yet extremely
useful in identifying and analyzing quality problems. Sometimes workers use
only one tool at a time, but often a combination of tools is most helpful. The
seven quality control tools were developed by Kaoru Ishikawa, is known as
the “father of quality control circles”. It has been the Japanese experience that
95 per cent of problems in the workshop can be solved by using these seven
simple quality control tools and by the effective working of quality circles:
- Process flow charts
- Check sheets
- Graphs
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- Pareto analysis
- Cause and effect diagrams
- Scatter diagrams
- Control charts
2.4.2.1 Cause-and-Effect Diagrams: Cause-and-effect diagrams are charts
that identify potential causes for particular quality problems. They are often
called fishbone diagrams because they look like the bones of a fish. The
“head” of the fish is the quality problem, such as damaged zippers on a
garment or broken valves on a tire. The diagram is drawn so that the “spine”
of the fish connects the “head” to the possible cause of the problem. These
causes could be related to the machines, workers, measurement, suppliers,
materials, and many other aspects of the production process. Each of these
possible causes can then have smaller “bones” that address specific issues that
relate to each cause. For example, a problem with machines could be due to a
need for adjustment, old equipment, or tooling problems. Similarly, a problem
with workers could be related to lack of training, poor supervision, or fatigue.
Cause-and-effect diagrams are problem-solving tools commonly used by
quality control teams. Specific causes of problems can be explored through
brainstorming. The development of a cause-and-effect diagram requires the
team to think through all the possible causes of poor quality. An example of
this diagram is shown if Figure 2.2 below.
Fig 2.2: Cause-and-Effect Diagram; Source (Wiley.com)
QUALITY
YY PROBLEMS
MACHINE
S
WORKERS SUPPLIERS
MATERIAL
L
PROCESS ENVIRONMENT
Page | 21
2.4.2.2 Process flow charts
Process flow charts record a series of events and activities, stages and
decisions in a form that can be easily understood and communicated to all.
Figure 2.3 gives an example of a flow chart. Flow charts can also be used as a
problem-solving tool. For this, first a flow chart is drawn up by a team of
persons in order to reflect the way the process actually works. Then the
members of the group are asked to draw up a flow chart on how the process
should work ideally. The difference between the two represents the problems
to be solved. It thus helps first to understand the process and then to make
improvements.
Figure 2.3: Flow Chart; Source (Wiley.com)
2.4.2.3 Check sheets
Check sheets, or tally charts, are a simple device on which data is collected by
putting a mark against predetermined items of measurement. The purpose for
which the data is collected should always be clear. For example, check sheets
can be used to track events by factors such as timeliness (in time, one day late,
two days late, etc.), reasons for failure during inspection (defects like blow
holes, cracks, etc.) or number of customer complaints per day. An example
check sheet for the final inspection of bracket casting in a foundry shop is
shown in Figure 2.4 below.
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Figure 2.4: Check Sheet; Source (Wiley.com)
2.4.2.4 Graphs
There are numerous types of graphs, ranging from simple plotting points to a
graphic presentation of complex and interrelated data. Graphs are a good way
to organize, summarize and display data for subsequent analysis. The most
common examples of graphs are histograms (Figure 2.5) line graphs, pie
charts, etc.
Figure 2.5: Graph (Histogram); Source (Wiley.com)
2.4.2.5 Pareto analysis
Pareto analysis is based on a bar graph and a line chart. The bar graph lists in
descending order the problems affecting a process. The line chart accumulates
the percentage of the total number of occurrences for each problem area. The
other name of this tool is the 80-20 rule, indicating that 80 per cent of the
problems stem from 20 per cent of the causes. It helps to identify the most
important area to work to solve the problem. Juran, an expert on quality
control, has said that one should concentrate on the “vital few” rather than the
Defect Type
Broken zipper
Ripped
material
Missing
buttons
Faded color
No. of
Defects
Total
3
7
3
2
FREQUENCY
F
R
E
Q
U
E
N
C
Y
Page | 23
“trivial many” in tackling quality problems. Let us take an example of a
restaurant that is trying to analyze and prioritize the complaints received from
its customers. The complaint data is shown in the table below. The Pareto
diagram of this data is shown in Figure 2.6. The above analysis shows that 75
per cent of customer complaints are related to service delays and wrong items
being served. Based on this finding, the restaurant can use cause and effect
diagrams to determine the root cause of these two major problems.
%
Figure 2.6: Pareto Diagram; Source (Wiley.com)
2.4.2.6 Scatter diagrams
Scatter diagrams are used to study the possible relationship between one
variable and another. This can be used to test the possible cause and effect
relationship. It does not prove that one variable causes the other, but it does
make it clear whether a relationship exists between them and determines the
strength of the relationship. Usually the horizontal axis in the diagram is the
one over which there is control. Each data point as observed is plotted. The
more closely the dots group along an axis, the stronger the correlation. The
more scattered they are, the weaker the correlation. Figure 2.7 shows an
example of a scatter diagram showing a positive relationship.
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Figure 2.7: Scatter Diagram; Source (Wiley.com)
2.4.2.7 Control charts
Control charts are pictures of variations found in a process. The data of
measurement or observations is plotted on graphs against time. These charts
consist of two lines, called upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit
(LCL). These are not the same as specification tolerances; rather they are the
values within which a process is expected to operate and if the results of
measurements exceed these limits then the cause must be investigated and
action taken on the process immediately. In order to reduce variations in the
process, fundamental changes may need to be made in methods, machines
and/or materials. Control charts help to monitor and control quality by acting
as a set of process “traffic lights” and are valuable in all types of activity.
Control charts can be plotted for variable or continuous data (such as weight
of a bag, temperature of cold storage, and time of baking, dimension of a rod
or speed of a conveyor). Control charts for variables consist of mean and range
charts. Control charts can also be plotted for attribute or discrete data such as
the number of defects found in a lot, the number of cracks in a piece, the
number of missing stitches in a garment, percentage delays in shipments or
percentage delays in responding to customer complaints. As regards attribute
data, the two most popular charts are control charts for the number of
defective items in a lot, known as an “np-chart” and the proportion of
defective items, known as a “p-chart”. Below is a control charts showing the
limits for in which variations are acceptable
Page | 25
Figure 2.8: Control Chart; Source (Wiley.com)
2.4.3 Other good practices
While the above seven quality control tools can help operators and supervisors
to monitor their processes and find the causes of variations, there are other
simple practices that have been very successfully practiced in Japanese
industry. They are:
- Japanese 5S’s
- Quality circle
- Kaizen
Japanese 5S’s
Japanese factories are reputed for their cleanliness and orderliness. They
follow the well-known “5S” practice, which refers to the following five
Japanese words:
- Seiri (Structurize: organize well)
- Seiton (Systemize: neatness in all areas)
- Seiso (Sanitize: cleanliness)
- Seiketsu (Standardize)
- Shitsuke (Self-discipline: do 5S daily)
2.5 Earlier Researches Taken
In their study/research on ‘critical success factors for quality management
implementation in Russia’, Hsien H. Khoo and Kay C (2002). Tan stated that
“Compared to the rest of the world, quality management in Russia is still in its
infancy. Unless an appropriate quality culture is developed to support and sustain
quality management practices, it would be ineffective to introduce quality
management systems into Russia”. In the article, several critical success factors were
UCL
LCL
Page | 26
identified needed to promote the effectiveness of quality training and management in
Russian organizations. These were;
Leadership;
Quality planning;
Employee development and satisfaction;
Resources, technology, and processes; and
Customer satisfaction.
From the study, it was revealed that the factor of Resources, technology, and
processes was due to many Russian companies lack capital to purchase sophisticated
equipment such as robots, flexible manufacturing systems, and computers
(Radovilsky, 1994, Puffer, 1994). This is added to the fact that many current
manufacturing systems were inherited from the Soviet period and are mostly outdated
and operated based on tight rigid production schedules with little room for flexibility
and quality improvement (Radovilsky, 1994). In fact low product quality results in
low productivity, as well as higher levels of rejects and waste. In this manner,
resources are utilized inefficiently (Birch and Pooley, 1995), introducing greater
flexibility in production systems. Understanding that low product quality results in
low productivity and resource wastage. Enabling production workers to make
decisions (within their own departments) to improve quality.
From the same study, Russian Customer satisfaction levels revealed that buyers in
the country still preferred imported goods due to their higher quality and sophisticated
features (Cassel et al., 1999). One of the reasons for the quality problems faced by
Russia was cited as ’’hasty industrialization and a lack of a creative, scientific, and
enterprising climate’’ (Birch and Pooley, 1995, p. 221). Unless the Russians can
improve their poor product quality image, they may have problems selling their
products in the international markets. In order to change the trend, it was suggested
that, managers have to increase awareness – their own as well as all employees’ – of
the changing trends of customer demands and markets, as well as heightened
worldwide competition for better quality products. The Russian corporate culture has
to be nurtured and trained to develop skills for listening to customers and responding
to their needs. Customer satisfaction is one notable factor in the researches that have
Page | 27
been carried, which is quite a difficult factor to measure and address; “Customer
satisfaction is the individual’s perception of the performance of the product or service
in relation to his or her expectations” (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007-2008). Satisfaction
of Consumers with products and services of company is considered as most important
factor leading towards competitiveness and success (Hennig-Thurau and Klee, 1997).
Product quality can have a critical impact on the success of Russia’s economy. Russia
is still struggling to meet the demands of high market competition and satisfying the
needs of customers (Eklof and Selivanova, 2000). Many companies must take the
initiative to make adjustments to improve the quality of their products, which is
necessary for increasing self-confidence and pride of the workforce in serving
customers (Puffer, 1994). In order to achieve this, managers have to increase
awareness – their own as well as all employees’ – of the changing trends of customer
demands and markets, as well as heightened worldwide competition for better quality
products. This is customer feedback.
It can be seen clearly that customers play a major role as well a significant impact on
the quality levels for the manufactured goods as they tend to control what should be
produced and to what taste. This is besides the fact that they are not the invertors or
owners of the idea which brought about the product. Customers are a major success
factor for the improvement and maintenance of high quality levels in an industry, lest
they shun the products.
Another researcher, Obaid Ahmed Mohamed (2005) did a study on ‘Identifying the
Barriers Affecting Quality in Maintenance within Libyan Manufacturing
Organizations (Public Sector)’ and his concern was understanding a quality
management system and its interaction with maintenance management activities
within the organization. The aim was to identify the barriers and difficulties affecting
quality in maintenance, within Libyan (public sector) manufacturing organizations.
These barriers were divided into five (5) main kinds:
The technical;
Economic barriers;
Managerial;
Organizational barriers, and
Page | 28
Cultural environmental barriers.
Massoud M. Arshida and Syed Omar Agil investigated ‘Critical success factors for
Total Quality Management Implementation within the Libyan Iron and Steel
Company’. In the investigation, they defined Critical Success Factors as “the limited
number of areas in which results, if they are satisfactory, will ensure successful
competitive performance for the organization, they are the critical key area where
'things must go right' for the business to flourish. If results in these areas are not
adequate, the organization’s efforts for the period will be less than defined. "(Rockart,
1979). Further in their investigation, it was found that the critical success factors for
implementing total quality management in Libyan Iron and steel company were;
Education and Training;
Supplier quality management;
Employee Empowerment;
Vision and Plan statement;
Recognition and Reward and
Customer Focus
Improving and maintaining the highest quality levels and standards is a considerable
force throughout the world because customers now differentiate products based on
quality as well as durability. Durability is a direct benefit to high quality standards.
Form different literature and other scholars who have pioneered the study and
implementation of quality, it has been found that although methods to improve and
manage quality are numerous, it can be said that there are factors which affect the
quality of products for the success of manufacturing organizations. In most highly
industrialized countries of the world, ensuring that these factors are kept in check has
become a common practice and a preferred approach for improving quality.
Page | 29
2.6 empirical or previous studieds and not Lessons Learnt from Previous
researchers
From the aforesaid, this study has picked on a few of the factors considered in other
earlier researches with a bias to the Zambian context. The factors that will be
investigated include the following;
a) Customer Feedback: This factor is critical as it is the driver of all manner
of quality and controls the design as well as the technology to be used.
From the earlier researches cited in this paper, customer satisfaction and
customer focus were considered. Therefore, it is right to critically consider
the feedback as this is critical and will drive the improvement of quality in
manufacturing.
b) Skills and Competence: This factor comes about through extensive
employee development and satisfaction as shown in the studies taken
earlier together with employee empowerment. In this study’s context,
assumptions are taken that training has been recognized as key to
improvement of quality and how such training has translated into skills
and competence to produce goods that will meet customer requirements.
c) Design Specification: This factor is as a result of the customer satisfaction
and focus to what will meet their requirements. Engineers and designers
are motivated by what customers want. However, to what extent has such a
design specification met the requirement of the customer? This is what
will be investigated.
d) Appropriate technology: The use of an appropriate technology stems
from the design specification in order to be specific with what customers
want. A design may be correct and right, however, if a wrong technology
in used, different results or products will be produced. In order to check if
the manufacturing in Zambia is using the correct technology, this factor
will be used as criteria as well.
e) Quality control systems: With all the above factors in place, the right
controls need to be put in place in order to avoid deviations from what
product is needed. Hence this factor will be checked if it is applied in the
Zambian manufacturing industry.
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Nevertheless, it is clearly evident that factors that affect quality are the same
worldwide but each geographical location will have those that will be highly
pronounced based on the culture and other factors. From the review outlined above,
based on the factors considered, further review on some of the critical factors based
on this study are given as follows;
2.7 Details on Selected Factors of Quality
2.7.1 Product Design Specification
Product Design: A useful tool for translating the voice of the customer into specific
technical requirements is quality function deployment (QFD). Quality function
deployment is also useful in enhancing communication between different functions,
such as marketing, operations, and engineering and is a critical aspect of building
quality into a product and to ensure that the product design meets customer
expectations. This typically is not as it seems. Customers often speak in everyday
language. For example, a product can be described as “attractive,” “strong,” or “safe.”
However, these terms can have very different meaning to different customers. What
one person considers being strong, another may not. To produce a product that
customers want, we need to translate customers’ everyday language into specific
technical requirements. However, this can often be difficult.
A product design specification is the minimum requirement according to which a
manufacturer makes and delivers the product to the customer. In setting specification
limits, the following should be considered:
The user’s and/or customer’s needs
Requirements relating to product safety and health hazards provided for in the
statutory and regulatory requirements
Requirements provided for in national and/or international standards
The competitor’s product specifications, in order to gain marketing advantages
In designing the product, the capacity of processes and machines should be kept in
mind. It is also necessary to maintain a balance between cost and value realization.
The clearer the specification, the better the possibility of creating and delivering
quality products. The specifications and drawings produced by the designer should
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show the quality standard demanded by the customer or marketplace in clear and
precise terms. Every dimension should have realistic tolerances and other
performance requirements should have precise limits of acceptability so that the
production team can manufacture the product strictly according to specification and
drawings.
2.7.2 Human Factor (Skills and Competence)
It is commonly believed that most quality problems are caused primarily by lack of
interest or care on the part of the worker in the production department. However, it is
usually not the worker who can be blamed for this, since the conditions necessary to
carry out the work correctly often do not exist. For example, instructions may be
inadequate, the incoming material may be defective, the machines may not be capable
of producing goods of the required quality, and proper conditions for conducting
inspection of the product are not given to the workers and so on. Unfortunately the
worker has no control over these factors, but they may lead to defective work. In
Japan, it is generally believed that 40 per cent of quality problems are caused by poor
product design, 30 per cent of quality problems are caused by wrong or defective
materials being purchased from suppliers and the remaining 30 per cent are due to
errors made during the manufacturing process. Both design and purchase problems
can be solved only by intervention by the management and workers have no control
over them. One could argue that the remaining quality problems in manufacturing are
caused in equal proportion by managers (by not providing adequate training for
workers) and by workers (e.g. by not paying adequate attention to machine settings).
Thus 85 per cent of problems come under management control, whereas 15 per cent
are under worker control.
2.7.3 Quality Control Systems
Quality Control (QC) is a system of routine technical activities, to measure and
control the quality of the product as it is being developed. This definition involves
inspection; Inspection is one of the quality control systems. By “inspection” it is
usually meant that, at certain stages in the course of production, a comparison is made
between what has actually been produced and what should have been produced. The
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standard of reference may be a specification, drawing or a visual quality standard. The
check made must be appropriate to the job and must be made with suitable measuring
instruments. Inspectors should not waste time checking things that do not matter or
fail to do a check that is important. Things that are unlikely to go wrong need little
checking and those which are difficult to hold within limits will need a considerable
amount of attention.
An effective quality control system is the basis for ensuring that the results will meet
customers’ needs time after time and withstand challenges directed at them. The
quality control system should define principles, policies, and procedures that will
achieve the consistent quality of work that the manufacturing organization expects.
Above all, system guidance should establish what is expected at each phase of an
assignment, leaving room for initiative and creativity on how it is done. An
assignment can go wrong at any stage. It can be ill-conceived, improperly directed,
poorly planned, badly implemented, and its results can be ineffectively
communicated. For a variety of reasons, it can fail to meet its customers’ needs. An
appropriate quality control system identifies or flags those factors that could
jeopardize the quality of an audit and establishes processes or procedures that
promptly identify and correct problems before they occur.
2.7.4 Summary
Quality in the manufacturing industry is the key to keep customers who will
continuously buy the products. This will entail that the industry will remain viable due
to revenue generation leading to profits. This becomes a key to our local
manufacturing industry as it will reduce on competition from imported products,
which, to some extent may even be slightly expensive than those manufactured
within. Therefore, the customer is at the center of quality in study based on the
literature reviewed from different scholars and other writers. The Zambian
manufacturing industry will, therefore, need to esteem the customer in order to foster
the required quality standards and other factors observed in different researches will
then be able to be applied effectively in order to meet the objective- improving the
quality levels in manufacturing. This is a good platform as it has highlighted and
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reviewed some factors which are evidently affecting our nation economy in terms of
manufacturing viability.
CHAPTER THREE
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAME WORK
3.0 Introduction
This chapter provides the interrelationships or linkages between the concepts /
constructs of the study, resulting into the development of conceptual framework
model that tries to address the research problem and research answers. Many third
world countries have been struggling to improve the quality levels of their
manufactured products despite having all the necessary raw materials and the
technical know-how. However, studies have reviewed that among the requirements
needed to fully implement quality standards in these industries, a lot of factors have
been an hindrance, all varying from country to country and location to location.
Quality has many dimensions that need to be understood while developing a
conceptual and theoretical framework. One scholar, Garvin, developed a meaningful
conceptual view of quality and suggested that ‘quality is composed of eight
dimensions’ as follows;
i) Performance – A product/service’s primary operating characteristics
e.g. a radio's output.
ii) Features -add - ons or supplements e.g. a meal on an air flight
iii) Reliability - a probability of not malfunctioning or breaking down for a
specified period accompanied by a warranty,
iv) Conformance - the degree to which a product's design and operating
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characteristics meet established standards.
v) Durability - a measure of a product's life
vi) Serviceability - the speed and case of repair
vii) Aesthetics - a product's look, feel, taste, smell
viii) Perceived quality - quality as viewed by a customer, client or student.
Other attributes and determinants that come into play when quality is being
considered will be; design-which incorporates customer's needs, product or service
capability, safety and reliability both during production and after delivery and also
Customer education which leads to use of the product or service as intended; the
product should be accompanied by instructions.
Nevertheless, these dimensions are all common to the industry. Zambia’s
manufacturing industry has not been spared by this phenomenon and among the many
factors affecting quality levels, the following will be analyzed as reviewed in Chapter
two(2) of previous research taken in the Zambian context.
(a) Adherence to Design Specifications
(b) Availability of Appropriate Technology
(c) Availability of Skills and Competence
(d) Customer Feedback
(e) Inclusion of Quality Control Systems
Using Ishikawa approach to analyze the effect of the above mentioned factors, the study
looked at the following attributes;
(i) Methods
(ii) Machines or Equipment
(iii) Workers(Human resource)
(iv) Materials – Although not considered in this study
This is shown in the cause-and-effect diagram below.
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Figure 3.1: Cause –and-effect-diagram (Ishikawa) Source: (Author, 2020 )
Further, the analysis of Figure 3.1 above resulted in the model below to explain how the
identified inputs affect the product that goes to a customer. The customer response in terms of
accepting or rejecting the product gives the feedback. At the helm of all these factors is the
quality. Quality is what the customer wants in order to accept the product. The illustration is
shown in Figure 3.2 below.
Figure 3.2: Conceptual Model; Source (Author, 2020 )
The depicted conceptual model is not static due to the fact that there are technological
changes and workers will not always be in one company as they are dynamic together with
design specifications. The factors indicated are subject to constant change that induce or
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reduce customer acceptance or rejection of the product depending on the process that take
place. As it takes time to examine if and how the changes on the side of the methods,
Workers or Machines affect customer reaction, the empirical part would deal with the static
model and the factors that affected customers at a specific point in time.
3.1 Methods
3.1.1 Adherence to Design Specifications
Adherence to design specification is a key to remain competitive in the manufacturing
industry as this will enable a product remain in the boundaries of its originality. Like
any engineering discipline, design is the activity that allows engineers to invent a
solution to a problem. The input to the design activity consists of various
requirements and constraints. The result of a design activity is a solution in which all
major architectural and technical problems have been addressed. Design is an
important activity since it allows engineers to invent solutions stepwise and in an
organized manner. It makes engineers consider solutions and trade various system
functions against each other. (Svend Frølund, Jari Koistinen, 1998). Design starts out
from user requirements – which are customers for which an entrepreneur or
manufacturing company sees a solution, or from user needs, that have to be satisfied,
subject to a cost function. The task of the designer is to maximize the number of
requirements that are satisfied by the design or better and to minimize the cost during
the design process, given these boundary conditions. User requirements normally
include requirements related to functionality and requirements related to non-
functional aspects, such as performance, availability, etc. However, every design
needs to be efficient as the most important quality of a design. The efficiency of a
design is concerned with the performance of product – which is fitness for use from
quality definitions. Ease of use of a design denotes the acceptable quality of the
design to be used in a straightforward way. A design has different types of users.
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As explained above, all manufactured products should meet the original specifications
and more advanced in order to continuously meet the customer requirements, exceed
their expectations and become more user friendly with time. This adherence will
enable manufacturing industries remain competitive.
3.1.2 Inclusion of Quality Control Systems
Quality Control (QC) is a system of routine technical activities, to measure and
control the quality of the product as it is being developed. The QC system is designed
to:
(i) Provide routine and consistent checks to ensure data integrity,
correctness, and completeness;
(ii) Identify and address errors and omissions;
(iii) Document and archive inventory material and record all QC activities.
QC activities include general methods such as accuracy checks on data acquisition
and calculations and the use of approved standardized procedures for emission
calculations, measurements, estimating uncertainties, archiving information and
reporting. Higher tier QC activities include technical reviews of source categories,
activity and emission factor data, and methods.
Quality Assurance (QA) activities include a planned system of review procedures
conducted by personnel not directly involved in the inventory
compilation/development process. Reviews, preferably by independent third parties,
should be performed upon a finalized inventory following the implementation of QC
procedures. Reviews verify that data quality objectives were met, ensure that the
inventory represents the best possible estimates of emissions and sinks given the
current state of scientific knowledge and data available, and support the effectiveness
of the QC programme.
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3.2 Machines
3.2.1 Availability of Appropriate Technology
The word “technology” encompasses essentially three meanings: tools and
instruments to enhance human ability to shape nature and solve problems (such as a
hammer and nail), knowledge of how to create things or how to solve problems (such
as to brew beer or to make an atomic bomb), and culture (our understanding of the
world, our value systems). Historically, the emergence of human civilization has been
closely connected to the development of tools for hunting, agriculture, irrigation and
water management, and navigation. In the second meaning, knowledge, technology
becomes reflexive in that understanding of how to make and use tools and instruments
becomes encoded and transmissible as technological knowledge and know-how.
Related to this second meaning of technology is the development of modern scientific
knowledge, based on empirical observations, hypotheses, and generalizations on the
natural laws concerning the behavior of materials and the living environment. In the
third sense, culture, technology has permeated society to such an extent that
separation between technology and culture is no longer meaningful. All human
activities, like housing, nutrition, transportation, work, leisure, even art and
imagination, become heavily enmeshed with technology. We “own” products of
technology by a process of “cultural appropriation”, in which the use of technologies
is learned, interpreted, and given meaning in everyday life. (Hard and Jamison, 2005).
Appropriate technology, or AT, is difficult to define and its development and
implementation have been a source of debate for some time (1). There is general
agreement, however, that AT only requires small amounts of capital, emphasizes use
of local materials, is relatively labor intensive and should be small scale and
affordable. AT should also be understandable, controllable and maintainable without
high levels of education and training and AT should be adaptable and include local
communities in innovation and implementation without adverse impacts on the
environment (2). An earlier paper (Vandana, 2002) provided a broad over view of
appropriate technologies available for water collection, treatment and storage has
critically examined water rights where she has argued that the “market paradigm” for
water use and distribution is flawed, and that corporate control over water erodes not
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only the water resources but also democratic structures that have historically governed
community water use.
3.3 Workers (Human Resource)
3.3.1 Availability of Skills and Competence
In quality management, skills and competence are to be handled simultaneously as
you cannot talk of skills alone. Competency is the ability to apply knowledge and
skills to produce a required outcome. It is the ability to perform activities within an
occupation; to function as expected for employment; and the ability to do a job under
a variety of conditions, including the ability to cope with contingencies (John C
Trinder) Competency cannot be directly observed and hence it has to be inferred from
indirect evidence and hence is performance based. Competency is defined by a set of
standards, which define the level of attainment at various levels. The benefits of
competency standards are that they can test the effectiveness of training, improve
recruitment, identify training gaps, lead to improved efficiency, productivity, worker
safely and employee retention.
Universities also provide some level of skills training, but in most cases, these skills
will become out-of-date within a relatively short time period. Examples of such skills
are instrument use and software operations which must be taught to students to enable
them to function in their profession when their education has been completed, but due
to the development of technologies, will become obsolete in a short time. Vocational
training institutions will devote more time to skills training or skills formation and
less time on the provision of background knowledge. Skills development has shorter
term aims than education. The proof of the adequacy and effectiveness of education
and training systems are the competency of the graduates when they enter the
profession. However, since education has long term aims, the proof of the efficiency
of education will be whether the graduate can adapt to new technologies over several
decades while he/she is employed in the workforce.
Competency is expected to develop from the three components over an employee’s
lifetime, comprising education, training and experience Employees will bring to their
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employment, their basic education and skills, but their ‘competency’ will be based on
their education and the experiences that they gain from working within the profession.
Competency is developed from on-the-job training, based on an exposure to a range
of activities that test the employees’ ability to cope with a variety of different
situations. Such experience improves an employee’s ability to handle new problems
and situations. As employees gain experiences, their ability to cope with unusual
circumstances improves and therefore they reach a higher level of competency.
Developing competency is typically based on a prescribed level of training and aims
to describe skills that enable individuals to perform quality development competently.
Figure 3.3: Steps to professional competence (adapted from Wildt 2006)
The Quality Profession must be seen to hold the right competencies in order to be
valued as people who can truly enable delivery of this success. Many of the traditional
competencies, focused on product and service quality are still relevant but the future
Quality Professional will need to supplement these with other, broader business skills
and knowledge, including:
• Business Management
• Performance Measurement and Improvement
•Organizational Governance
•Risk and Opportunity Management
•Commercial and Financial Understanding
•Systems Thinking
•Assuring Corporate Social Responsibility, Safety, Security and Business
Continuity
Skills and competence, if applied and adhered to, contributes positively to increasing
quality levels in a manufacturing industry.
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3.4 Customer Feedback
Customer feedback plays a very big and major role in ensuring that the quality of our
products is maintained. It is, however, important to understand the difference between
a compliment, a complaint and feedback as this may affect the way it is handled and
what you can expect from this process.
3.4.1 What is a compliment?
A compliment may relate to an appreciation of the design, (which can be in
technical terms, physical appearance or portability, etc.) or to the timeliness of
supply/delivery, either way, it would be lovely to hear it for action purposes.
3.4.2 What is a complaint?
A complaint is “An expression of dissatisfaction about service, action or lack
of action, however made, provided directly by the manufacturer or by a
contractor or partner, affecting a customer or a group of customers, that
requires a response.” A complaint is not a request for a service or product that
is made for the first time. However, for example, if there is a reported defect
of unsatisfactory service for the first time and it is not attended to, then it
becomes a complaint.
In any case, if views are given on a matter regarding the quality that has already been
agreed or not yet agreed by the manufacturer in accordance with requirements, this
will be treated as feedback and passed to the relevant production area. Feedback may
also include suggestions. Customer feedback seeking behaviors can be defined as
actions taken to assess customer perceptions of quality effectiveness. These actions
range from explicitly asking the customer for evaluations to passively observing
customer reactions to service encounters. (Barnard, 2002)
Managers at all levels need to stay close to the customer. Product/service quality is
the driving force in the battle to stay competitive, without continuous improvement
and lifelong learning; there can be no true economic progress for individuals and
organizations alike.
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Figure 3.4: Conceptual Framework; Source (Author, 2020 )
3.5 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The conceptual frame work as depicted in Figure 3.4 above shows the relationship of
the factors under investigation and levels of quality in industry. This has given the
following hypotheses;
H1; Availability of appropriate technology leads to good quality level of products
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H1a; Availability of appropriate technology does not lead to good quality level of
products.
H2; There is a relationship between skills and competence in a manufacturing
company and good quality.
H2a; There is no relationship between skills and competence in a manufacturing
company and good quality.
H3; There is a positive relationship between availability of quality control systems in
a manufacturing organization and customer acceptance of the product.
H3a; There is no relationship between availability of quality control systems in a
manufacturing organization and customer acceptance of the product
3.6 Operationalization of Concepts
Operationalization is the process of strictly defining the variables into measurable
factors. It refer to the process of specifying the extension of a concept and describing
what it is in order to undertake a proper investigation and meaning of the variable in
the research.
In the context of this study, frequency was used as a measure based on the following;
a) Quality Control Systems: Measures taken by an organization to
monitor and avoid any variations and deviations in a production process.
b) Skills and Competence: These are measures to ensure that the
ability to follow instructions, paying attention to machine settings, etc. are
available in human resource so that functionality is obtained.
c) Appropriate Technology: This measures the level or extent to
which an organization has committed itself in ensuring that the product
comes out in conformity to the customer and employees are able to use.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.0 Introduction
This section outlines the methodology on how data and information relevant to the
research will be gathered and analyzed in order to achieve the objectives of the study.
It also looks at the research design, population, sampling size, sampling procedure
and limitation of the study. In this research, information gathered from the survey will
be used to generalize findings from a drawn sample back to a population, within the
limits of random error. However, when critiquing business education research,
Wunsch (1986) stated that “two of the most consistent flaws included (1) disregard
for sampling error when determining sample size, and (2) disregard for response and
non-response bias” (p. 31) and these will be taken into consideration.
4.1 The target Population
Sekaran (2000), defined population as the entire group of people, events or things of
interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. In research, target population is the
entire set of units for which the survey data is to be used to make inferences. It can
also be defined as the eligible population that is included in research work (Hayward,
2006). A “population” consists of all the subjects you want to study. “Southern
Baptist missionaries” is a population. So is “ministers of youth in SBC churches in
Texas.” So is “Christian school children in grades 3 and 4.” A population comprises
all the possible cases (persons, objects, events) that constitute a known whole.
4.2 The Sample size
A sample is a group of people or events drawn from a population. A research study is
carried out on a sample from a population. The goal is to be able to find out true facts
about the sample that will also be true of the population. In order for the sample to
truly reflect the population, there is need to have a sample that is representative of the
population. The best method to use to obtain a representative sample is to randomly
select your sample from the population. A study that has a large, randomly selected
sample or a carefully matched sample is said to have external validity (Denzin, 1989).
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When carrying out a quantitative survey design, determination of sample size and
dealing with non-response bias is essential. “One of the real advantages of
quantitative methods is its ability to use smaller groups of people to make inferences
about larger groups that would be prohibitively expensive to study” (Holton &
Burnett, 1997, p.71). The question then is; “How large a sample is required to infer
research findings back to a population?”
4.2.1 Methods of Determining a Sample
There are various methods of determining sample size like the use of
Cochran’s (1977) sample size formula for both continuous and categorical
data. Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) formula for determining sample size for
categorical data which provides identical sample sizes in all cases where the
researcher adjusts the ‘t’ value used based on population size, which is
required when the population size is 120 or less. Likewise, during research,
caution must be used when using any of the widely circulated sample size
tables based on Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) formula as they have
assumptions on alpha values. Cochran (1977) addressed this issue by stating
that “One method of determining sample size is to specify margins of error for
the items that are regarded as most vital to the survey.
Another method of sampling is purposive sampling technique, also called
judgment sampling. This is the deliberate choice of an informant due to the
qualities the informant possesses. It is a nonrandom technique that does not
need underlying theories or a set number of informants. Simply put, the
researcher decides what needs to be known and sets out to find people who
can and are willing to provide the information by virtue of knowledge or
experience (Bernard 2002, Lewis & Sheppard 2006). Purposive sampling is
especially exemplified through the key informant technique (Bernard 2002,
Garcia 2006, Gustad et al. 2004, Jarvis et al. 2004, Lyon & Hardesty 2005),
wherein one or a few individuals are solicited to act as guides to a culture. Key
informants are observant, reflective members of the community of interest
who know much about the culture and are both able and willing to share their
knowledge (Bernard 2002, Campbell 1955, Seidler 1974, Tremblay 1957).
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Purposive sampling can be used with a number of techniques in data gathering
(Godambe 1982). A study may be started with a survey, and then purposive
sampling done based on the survey (Brown 2005). Robbins et al. (1969) used
a questionnaire as a systematic way to find informants in a study about
acculturation. The researchers asked the respondents what would denote
acculturation and ran their responses through a data reduction technique to
determine which qualities acculturated people were likely to have.
This study will look at the companies in Zambia who are involved in manufacturing
and, with the help of Zambia Association of Manufacturers; the industry has sixteen
(16) categories as shown in Table 4.1 below with a total membership of One hundred
and twenty (125) based on the 2014 membership register (The Zambian
Manufacturer,2014). The categories and the number of registered companies will
form part of the population and the sample will be drawn from there. The
manufacturing industries to be considered will be along the line of rail for
convenience.
4.3 Research Instrument
A descriptive type of questionnaire was used and to measure the extent of the
relationships, a Likert approach was made by assigning weights to responses that
were specific on factors under investigation. A questionnaire was used for all the
study respondents. The questionnaire had closed-ended questions. Kombo and Denzin
(2006) reveal that the closed-ended question format in questionnaire is easy to analyze
statistically.
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Table 4.1 – Categories of Manufacturing Industries in Zambia
Sno. CATEGORIES OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
1 Agro Processing
2 Metal Engineering
3 Gemstones
4 Edible Oils
5 Plastics
6 Wood & Wood Products
7 Beverages (Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic)
8 Petroleum
9 Paints
10 Explosives
11 Asbestos Processing
12 Leather and Leather Products
13 Electrical Engineering
14 Soaps and Chemicals
15 Cement/Refractory
16 Rubber and Rubber Products
Source (ZAM, 2013)
4.4 Validity of Instrument
The research instrument will be validated by the supervisor as an expert who will
examine and determine its face and content validity. The supervisor shall give advice
on necessary corrections which the researcher will make according to the supervisor's
advice. Qualitative research and the process of analysis in particular, involve
continuous reflexivity and self-scrutiny. Reflexivity is an encompassing, continual
evaluation of subjective responses; inter subjective dynamics, and the research
process itself. Turner (2009), pointed out that the process analysis, interpretations will
be further tested by cross examination and checking, including the examination of the
researcher’s role in the construction of meaning.
4.5 Data
The study collected primary and secondary data to ensure that the objectives of the
study were met.
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4.5.1 Primary data
This data was collected by way of administering closed-ended questionnaires
to the respondents who comprised Management and Shop floor employees
4.5.2 Secondary Data
This data was collected from Zambia Association of Manufacturers, Zambia
Chamber of Commerce and Industry, individual companies visited as well as
previously submitted unpublished dissertations, journals, magazines and books
as a comparison.
4.6 Data Analysis Procedure
The process of evaluating data using analytical and logical reasoning to examine each
component of the data was provided. This form of analysis was just one of the many
steps that were done to complete the research experiment. Data from various sources
was gathered, reviewed, and then analyzed to form finding and conclusion using
Microsoft Excel. There were a variety of specific data analysis method, some of
which included data mining, text analytics, business intelligence, and data
visualizations. Further, in this study, data was collected, coded and analyzed using
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 2.0. Analysis was done using
descriptive statistics and Pearson Correlation Coefficients. The research data was be
presented in form of figures and tables.
4.7 Limitations
Due to the diversity of industries as identified in Table 4.1 above of the
manufacturing industry, the study was limited to companies in few sectors that were
within the reach of the researcher along the line of rail. The actual sectors studied are
shown in the next chapter. This helped the study come up with realistic conclusions
concerning the factors affecting quality in such a sector of the industry under
investigation. The study could not design a questionnaire for customers as this would
have been very difficult to target which customer use the products under
investigations.
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4.8 Ethical considerations
The researcher wrote to Zambia Association of Manufacturers (ZAM) and Kabwe
Chamber of Commerce and Industry (KCCI) and sought permission to conduct a
research with their members and permission was granted. The researcher introduced
himself to the respondents explaining clearly the purpose of the research, no names
were appended on the questionnaires and the information was treated with utmost
confidentiality.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
5.0 Introduction
This section outlines the methodology which was used on how data and information
relevant to the research was gathered and analyzed in order to achieve the objectives
of the study. It also looked at the research design, population, sampling size, sampling
procedure and limitation of the study and discusses these results for conclusions and
recommendations.
The population of the manufacturing companies, as given by ZAM from the
secondary data was 125 including associate members based on their register of 2014.
From the population, a sample of Fifty (50) companies was targeted with a view to
distribute One hundred (100) questionnaires.
This number is representative of 40% of the population, which gave a realistic result
that could be generalized.
5.1 Questionnaire Design
Two (2) sets of questionnaires were designed; Management and Employee
questionnaires.
5.1.1 Management Questionnaire
The management questionnaire had questions that required the firm to
categorize the actual segment in which their product(s) fall, state if the
company faces competition from imported goods as well as the company
policy towards factors of quality and customers.
5.1.2 Employee Questionnaire
The employee questionnaire was structured as a control to the management
questionnaire so as to prove whether the company policies are followed by
line or shop floor employees. It also tried to bring out the worker’s attitude
towards the factors of quality. Finally, the questionnaire tried to check the
reliability of the management responses.
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5.2 Challenges Encountered
Data collection phase was quite successful generally, however, a number of problems
were encountered, for example, only 82 questionnaires were administered instead of
the projected hundred (100), some companies declined to participate for fear that
information may be used against them.
In some instances, management was responding to both sets of questionnaires – hence
leading to biasness of the results.
5.1 Responses of the Respondents
With the help and guidance from ZAM and KCCI, a total of Eighty Two (82)
questionnaires were administered. Sixty Seven (67) were collected from thirty two
(32) respondent companies and after data cleaning, all the collected questionnaires
were found suitable for analysis. The responses are summarized in Table 5.1
Table 5.1: Responses of the Respondents
Accepted
Respondents
Received
Responses
Valid
Responses
Response
Rate
Sample 82 67 67 82%
Source: (Author, 2020 )
The response from the sample selected was 64%. These results are within the
acceptable analytical results.
From the companies that responded to the survey, the categorical grouping of the
manufacturing sectors were as shown in Table 5.2 and illustrated in Figure 5.1 below.
Page | 52
Table 5.2 Sector Response
Sno. CATEGORIES OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY TOTAL
1 Agro Processing 3
2 Metal Engineering 13
3 Gemstones 0
4 Edible Oils 5
5 Plastics 4
6 Wood & Wood Products 0
7 Beverages (Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic) 0
8 Petroleum 1
9 Paints 0
10 Explosives 0
11 Asbestos Processing 0
12 Leather and Leather Products 1
13 Electrical Engineering 3
14 Soaps and Chemicals 4
15 Cement/Refractory 1
16 Rubber and Rubber Products 0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Figure 5.1 Manufacturing Sector Response, Source (Author, 2020 )
As part of the challenges that these companies are facing, Figure 5.2 below shows the
amount of competition the Zambian industry faces from imported products.
Page | 53
The survey showed that 85% of the Zambian manufacturing industries, which
participated in the study, face competition from imported goods. The pie chart below
gives the details of what was found;
Figure 5.2 Competition from Imported Products
5.2 Findings and Analysis
5.2.1 Availability of Appropriate Technology
In order to address the presence of useful technology to meet design
specifications that will lead to the desired quality levels, the response was as
follows;
5.2.1.1 Line Employees
Table 5.3: Showing Response to Question: “Is the Technology being used in the
company giving desired benefits?”
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percentage
Yes 33 94.3 94.3 94.3
No 2 5.7 5.7 100
Total 35 100 100
Source (Author, 2020 )
Page | 54
Table 5.3, shows that a total of 33 i.e. 94.3% of the respondents agreed that the
technology being used by their companies gave desired benefits.
Table 5.4: Response Pattern on the benefits that the technology has brought.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Improved Product Quality 21 60 60 60
Made Job Easy 11 31.4 31.4 91.4
Nothing…No Change 3 8.6 8.6 100
Total 35 100 100
Source (Author, 2020 )
The Table shows that a total of 21 respondents out of 35, representing 60%, were of
the opinion that the technology improved product quality. 11 respondents were of the
view that the technology made their job easier while only three noticed no change.
Therefore, technology in product design improved the product quality.
Page | 55
Table 5.5: Response patterns on how Technology has helped Job Performance
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Easy to work now than before 10 28.6 28.6 28.6
Has increased Productivity 20 57.1 57.1 85.7
Can’t Tell 5 14.3 14.3 100
Total 35 100 100
Source (Author, 2020 )
The table indicates that a total of 20 employees interviewed, representing 57.1 %
supported the claim that the technology had increased productivity. 10 of the
respondents were of the view that it is easy to work now than before thereby
representing 28.6 % of the respondent and only 5 employees, representing 14.3%
were not certain. It is therefore concluded that the coming in of technology has helped
in job performance.
Page | 56
5.2.1.2 Management
Table 5.6: Response Pattern on whether Technology being used had given desired
benefits to the company
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Yes 33 94.3 94.3 94.3
No 2 5.7 5.7 100
Total 35 100 100
Source (Author, 2020 )
According to Table 5.6, 33 respondents agreed that the technology that their company
was using met their desired benefits. That represents 94.3% of the total.
Table 5.7: Pattern on what kind of technology the organization has put in place to
manufacture their products.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
State-of-the-art Equipment 2 6.1 6.1 6.1
CNC Operated 9 27.3 27.3 33.3
Mechanized 20 60.6 60.6 93.9
Own Innovation 2 6.1 6.1 100.0
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
The results show that 20 respondents, representing 60%, were of the view that they
used mechanized type of technology to manufacture their products. 9 of the
respondents stated that they use state-of-the-art equipment for the same purpose,
representing 27.3%, while only 6.1 % used their own innovations to manufacture
Page | 57
products. It can therefore be deduced that mechanized technologies is the most
commonly used methods of producing the products.
Table 5.8: Response Pattern on whether the technology used meet the product design
specifications.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Yes 32 97.0 97.0 97.0
No 1 3.0 3.0 100
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Table 5.8 shows that a total of 32 respondents, representing 97%, was of the view that
the technology currently in use meets their product design specifications.
5.2.2 Quality Control Tools
5.2.2.1 Line Employees
Table 5.9: Response Patterns on whether a particular Company has quality control
tools at their place of work
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Yes 30 85.7 85.7 85.7
No 5 14.3 14.3 100
Total 35 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Table 5.9, indicates that most of the employees, i.e. 30, representing 85.7% indicated
that quality control tools are used.
Page | 58
Table 5.10: Patterns on the usefulness of these tools
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
No Response 2 5.7 5.7 5.7
Help Reduce Defects 19 54.3 54.3 60.0
Help to increase production 7 20.0 20.0 80.0
Not at all(none) 2 5.7 5.7 85.7
Helps to teach you how to work 5 14.3 14.3 100.0
Total 35 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
In Table 5.10, 19 respondents, representing 54.3% were of the view that the tools are
useful in helping reduce defects. 20% viewed that the tools help increase production.
Therefore, the main usefulness of the tools is to help reduce defects in products.
Page | 59
Table 5.11: Response Patterns on how Products are rejected during manufacturing
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
By visual Inspection 14 40.0 40.0 40.0
By taking measurements 18 51.4 51.4 91.4
The machine does everything 2 5.7 5.7 97.1
None of the Above 1 2.9 2.9 100.0
Total 35 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Table 5.11 shows that 18 employees, representing 51.4% were of the view that they
reject a product during manufacturing by taking measurements. 14 respondents,
representing 40%, reject the product using visual inspection. It is, therefore,
concluded that the product is rejected during manufacturing by taking measurements.
Page | 60
5.2.2.2 Management
Table 5.12: Response Pattern on what tools are used to check for quality.
Source (Author, 2020 )
The most commonly used tool to check for quality was the ‘process flow chart’
accounting for 45.5%, while scatter diagrams, cause and effect diagrams and graphs
only accounted for 3% each. Therefore, process flow charts are the most commonly
used methods for controlling quality in these organizations.
Table 5.13: Response Pattern on how often quality audit is conducted.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
No Response 3 9.1 9.1 9.1
Twice a week 12 36.4 36.4 45.5
Once a week 13 39.4 39.4 84.8
Once a month 2 6.1 6.1 90.9
Quarterly 2 6.1 6.1 97.0
Semi-Annual 1 3.0 3.0 100
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
According to Table 5.13, audit of quality control tools is not often conducted. The
table shows that 13 and 12 respondents concluded that they carry out quality control
audit twice and once a week. This represent 36.4% and 39.4% respectively. It is
Page | 61
therefore concluded that, in most of these organizations, quality control is rarely
conducted.
Table 5.14: Response Pattern on whether the quality control tools have helped to
increase sales volumes.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
No Response 1 3.0 3.0 3.0
Yes 28 84.8 84.8 87.9
No 4 12.1 12.1 100.0
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Table 5.14 shows that 28 respondents, representing 84.8%, agreed to the fact that the
quality control tools help to increase sales volumes. Those holding a different view
stood at only 12.1%. With these results, it is concluded that quality control tools help
increase sales volumes of an organization.
Table 5.15: Patterns on whether a particular employees/organization find it easy to produce
their products.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Yes 28 80.0 80.0 80.0
No 7 20.0 20.0 100
Total 35 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
In Table 5.15, 28 employees, represents 80%, were of the view that they found it easy
to produce their products. 20% of the respondents said they found it difficult to
produce their product. It can therefore be concluded that many of the respondents find
it easy to produce their products.
Page | 62
5.2.3 Skills and Competence
5.2.3.1 Line Employees
The tables that follow below shows response patterns that relate to skills and
competence as given by shop floor employees. Some explanations follow these
results.
Table 5.16: Response Patterns on the type of training received.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid 1 2.9 2.9 2.9
Short seminars & Workshops 10 28.6 28.6 31.4
On-Job Training 20 57.1 57.1 88.6
Learned through Experienced
Workers
4 11.4 11.4 100
Total 35 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
According to Table 5.16, “on-job training” is the most common way of training used
in organizations. The table illustrates that 20 respondents, representing 57 % receive
their training while on the job. This is followed by short seminars or workshops which
recorded 10 respondents, representing 28.65% while the others who learn through
observations only accounted for 11.4 %. With the above statistics, it is concluded that
most of the employees interviewed receive their training through “on-job training”.
Page | 63
5.2.3.2 Management
Table 5.17: Pattern on whether the organization have training policy in place.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Yes 25 75.8 75.8 75.8
No 8 24.2 24.2 100.0
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Table 5.17 above indicate that 75.8% of the respondents had the training policies in
their organizations. Only 24 % of the respondents did not have training policies in
place. Therefore, it is concluded that over 75% of the organizations have training
policies in place for their employees.
Table 5.18: Pattern on how management impart knowledge and skills in their
employees
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Employ Qualified Personnel 8 24.2 24.2 24.2
Annual Training 1 3.0 3.0 27.3
Seminars & Workshops 1 3.0 3.0 30.3
On – Job Training 23 69.7 69.7 100.0
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
The table shows that at most 69.7% of management impart skills and knowledge to
their employees through “on-the job” training. 24.2% of the respondents stated that
they just employ qualified personnel’s while only 3% imparted knowledge to their
employees through workshops and seminars. It is therefore concluded that most
organizations impart knowledge and skills to their employees through “on-the-job”
training and, not through the other specified methods.
Page | 64
Table 5.19: Pattern on how competence is ensured to the employees
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
By Introducing Key Performance
Indicators(KPIs)
10 30.3 30.3 30.3
By Practical Tests 6 18.2 18.2 48.5
End of Year Evaluations 9 27.3 27.3 75.8
Introducing Awards 7 21.1 21.1 97.0
Honour Employee with least Defects 1 3.0 3.0 100
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
According to the above table, we can conclude that there is no single organization that
ensures competence attainment among employees. All the percentages of the
respondents are evenly distributed and there is no one that is above 50%.
Table 5.20: Pattern on whether skills and competence are important in improving
quality
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Yes 32 97.0 97.0 97.0
No 1 3.0 3.0 100
Total 33 100.0 100.0
Source (Author, 2020 )
Table 5.20 shows that if well implemented, skills and competence can help to
improve quality according to the 32 respondents representing 97%.
Page | 65
5.3 Discussions
As seen from the results and analysis above, the research findings are discussed and
interpreted to answer the research questions that were raised in chapter one of this
research and meet the objectives of the study. The research questions were as follows;
1. How relevant is technology, being used in the company, to the liking and
acceptance by employees in the production process in order to improve quality
of products?
2. How does the company attain the relevant skills and competences in the
improvement of quality for the manufactured products?
3. To what extent does the company use quality control tools to improve the
quality of the product?
Table 5.21: Descriptive Statistics (Employee)
Mean Std. Deviation N
What benefits has this
technology brought? 1.49 .658 35
How has this technology
helped your job
performance?
1.86 .648 35
How useful are these tools? 1.79 1.111 33
What training have you
received? 1.82 .626 34
Source (Author, 2020 )
The descriptive data in Table 5.21 shows each response’s mean and standard
deviation. According to SPSS software used for the computations, the means vary
from 1.49 to 1.89 and the standard deviations range from 0.626 to 1.111. These results
indicate that there is an existence of normality for all the items.
This means that employees accepted the usefulness of the quality control tools while
they strongly indicated a lack of training to match the available equipment.
Page | 66
Table 5.22: Descriptive Statistics (Management)
Mean Std. Deviation N
What technology have
you put in place to
manufacture your
product?
2.48 .996 31
How often do you audit
quality control tools? 1.90 1.029 30
How do you impart
skills to your
employees?
3.18 1.310 33
How do you ensure
competence is attained
in your employees?
2.58 1.205 31
Source (Author, 2020 )
Further, Table 5.22 shows management mean responses ranging from 1.90 to 3.18 and
the standard deviation from 0.996 to 1.310. These results indicate that moderate
deviations from normality exist for all the items.
Page | 67
Table 5.23: Correlations (Employee)
What benefits
has this
technology
brought?
How has this
technology
helped your job
performance?
How useful are
these tools?
What training
have you
received?
What benefits has
this technology
brought?
Pearson Correlation 1 .443** .177 .206
Sig. (2-tailed) .008 .325 .242
N 35 35 33 34
How has this
technology helped
your job
performance?
Pearson Correlation .443** 1 .223 .303
Sig. (2-tailed) .008 .212 .081
N 35 35 33 34
How useful are
these tools?
Pearson Correlation .177 .223 1 .270
Sig. (2-tailed) .325 .212 .129
N 33 33 33 33
What training have
you received?
Pearson Correlation .206 .303 .270 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .242 .081 .129
N 34 34 33 34
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source (Author, 2020 )
5.3.1 Research Question One (1)
The research question wanted to establish whether the technology the company is
using is able to meet the design specifications of the product and if it had given the
company the desired benefits. In answering this question, the technology ranged from
state-of-the-art equipment, mechanized, CNC and own innovation. The results of
these equipment is as follows:
(a) From the companies investigated, it was observed that 94.3% of the
responses have put up a mechanized system of technology for the
equipment being used while the shop floor employees indicated
satisfaction for this technology. This means that the equipment is user
friendly and gives workers a lot of flexibility.
(b) Further, management in these organizations indicated that this technology
met design specifications of the product being manufactured whilst shop
floor employees said it had helped to improve product quality.
Page | 68
(c) Further, many shop floor employees in these companies said that the
availability of this technology had helped them to improve productivity.
The Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.443(0.886) shown in Table 5.23 at a
significance level of 0.01 for a 2-tailed analysis shows that there is a strong
relationship between the technology being used and job performance of the
employees. This supports the hypothesis;
H1; Availability of appropriate technology leads to good quality level of
products
5.3.2 Research Question Two (2)
The research question wanted to find out if the approach the organizations take to
attain the requisite skills and competence in their employees as well as appreciate the
organizational perception of skills and competence to the improvement of quality of
the product.
(a) 70% of management response in these manufacturing organizations
indicted that they have a training policy. This means that most of the
organizations believe and acknowledge that training is very important to
an organization for the purpose of skill and competence enhancement.
(b) On how skills are given or imparted to employees, 70% of management
response indicated that this is done through ‘on-the-job training’. This is
supported by shop floor employee’s response who also indicated that the
skills training received is ‘on-the-job training’. It is clear that most of these
organizations do not employ skilled or trained personnel and despite
having a training policy, no commitment is made to it.
(c) To ensure that competence is attained by their employees, management in
all the organizations studied did not indicate any realistic steps that they
have taken to ensure that this is done. Shop floor employees, however,
indicated that they work well all the time. This is so because management
has never taken the rightful steps to ensure that there is competence from
their employees and monitor it.
(d) Nevertheless, management acknowledges that skills and competence are
very important in improving product quality. Hence, these results show
Page | 69
that the training policy is not adhered to and skills and competence are not
a priority in these manufacturing industries.
Another comparison is with the results from management shown in Table 5.24
Table 5.24: Correlations (Management)
Source (Author, 2020 )
The Pearson correlation value of 0.887 from Table 5.24 at 0.05 level of significance,
shows that there is relationship between technology in place with the imparting of
skills and competence. Further, the Pearson correlation value of 0.688 from the same
table shows that a relationship exist between use audit of quality control tools and
technology being used. However, the Pearson correlation value of 0.160 shows that
there is no relationship between attainments of competence in the employees with the
technology available. This means that there is lack of training and competence
monitoring in the organizations.
Thus the hypothesis below is supported;
H2; There is a relationship between skills and competence in a manufacturing
company and good quality.
What technology
have you put in
place to
manufacture
your product?
How often do
you audit quality
control tools?
How do you
impart skills to
your
employees?
How do you
ensure
competence is
attained in your
employees?
What technology have you
put in place to manufacture
your product?
Pearson Correlation 1 .078 .027 -.263
Sig. (2-tailed) .688 .887 .160
N 31 29 31 30
How often do you audit
quality control tools?
Pearson Correlation .078 1 -.217 .241
Sig. (2-tailed) .688 .249 .199
N 29 30 30 30
How do you impart skills to
your employees?
Pearson Correlation .027 -.217 1 -.069
Sig. (2-tailed) .887 .249 .713
N 31 30 33 31
How do you ensure
competence is attained in
your employees?
Pearson Correlation -.263 .241 -.069 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .160 .199 .713
N 30 30 31 31
Page | 70
The Pearson correlation value of 0.270 from Table 5.23 shows that management in all
the companies know that having a training policy is very important to their
organization but are unable to enforce it. Management also indicated that skills and
competence were prerequisites to improving quality levels of their manufactured
products yet employees were only receiving on-the-job training and there were no
parameters in place to monitor and encourage competence. This finding is supported
by secondary data; “While Zambia has made strides in developing skilled labor, the
relevance of skills to the demands and needs of industry remains an issue of
contestation. The OECD (2012) notes the huge shortfall in skills for Zambia to
effectively meet industry demands and effectively support industrial development. It
further observes that underdevelopment of science education which can provide a
strong foundation for technical training, stating that the Zambian curriculum does not
generally reflect industry demands”. (The Zambian Manufacturer, 2014)
5.3.3 Research Question Three (3)
The research question wanted to establish the presence of quality control tools in the
manufacturing industries and find out which quality control tools are used. It further
wanted to find out how often these tools are audited and the contribution these tools
have made in increasing the sales volumes (through quality improvement).
(a) The results, from management perspective, showed that the use of quality
control tools helped to increase sales volume while shop floor employees
indicated that the use of these tools helped reduce defects on the product.
(b) On the auditing of the tools, the response from management of 36.4 %( for
twice a week) to 39.4 %( for once a week) were very low to support the
use of quality control tools. It is interpreted that in all these organizations,
quality control is not often conducted.
(c) Management’s response showed that the mostly used tool is the ‘flow
chart and shop floor employees supported the presence of quality control
tools in these organizations. Employees also indicated that the commonly
used tool was the flow chart.
The Pearson correlation value of 0.223 from Table 5.23 shows that there is
minimal relationship between quality control tools and job performance,
Page | 71
meaning that these tools are rarely used, hence affecting quality levels. Thus
the hypothesis below is proved:
H3; There is a positive relationship between availability of quality
control systems in a manufacturing organization and customer
acceptance of the product
From the discussions above, all the three (3) alternative hypotheses are hereby
rejected.
Further to the conclusions above, the research showed that most of the companies
investigated are facing competition from imported products while the approach to
getting customer feedback is done at a small scale. The other method used to get
feedback was email and this method is very difficult because it is rare that a customer
will take time to send an email in order to give feedback. These observations show
that besides the three (3) factors looked at in this study, a lot needs to be done to save
and promote our manufacturing industry. Recommendations to achieve this are given
in the following chapter below.
Page | 72
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents conclusions of all the findings as well as recommendations to
various stakeholders according to the findings of the study. The conclusion answered
the research questions that looked at the analysis of factors affecting quality levels in
the manufacturing industry in Zambia.
6.1 Conclusion
The study concluded that factors of quality affect quality levels in the manufacturing
industry in Zambia. The conclusion is in line with findings by the Zambia Association
of Manufacturers and other results from studies done in Libya and Russia.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on the foregoing, the following recommendations have been made which will
see a shift in our manufacturing industry towards full implementation of quality
standards.
Manufacturing industry should move from solely mechanized equipment to
computerized ‘fool proof’ equipment to minimize the rate of defects and
reduce on down time of taking measurements as a way of rejecting or
accepting a product.
Management of these manufacturing industries must invest so much in skills
training for this is one of the answers to addressing the levels of quality and
hence improve on the competitiveness with imported products. Further,
competence monitoring systems must be implemented and enhanced so that
the shop floor employees are consistent in their work culture.
The manufacturing industry should embrace quality control tools, despite
being time consuming and tedious, as they are very important because they
help the organization to identify areas of improvement so that continuous
improvement (Kaizen) is practised.
Page | 73
6.3 Recommendation for Further Research
The researcher recommends that further research should be undertaken to establish
why local customers prefer imported products to those that are manufactured locally
as well do a case study on one or two manufacturing companies to establish the full
adherence to improving and maintaining quality
The main objectives of this research will be:
To determine the customer perception on locally produced products in terms
of quality
To establish whether customers have an opportunity to give feedback and
advice on the local products
To investigate management implementation and adherence to quality
To investigate employee compliance with the organizational policy on quality
6.4 Summary
This chapter concludes the study findings as discussed in the earlier chapter in
relation to the research objectives and shows how our manufacturing industry is
affected by factors of quality. It is evident that the selected few factors have a
considerable impact on the quality levels and management of these organizations need
to address them.
Page | 74
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product quality.pdf
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1.0: SPSS DATA ANALYSIS
Appendix 1.1: Line Employees
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Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
What benefits has this technology brought? 1.49 .658 35
How has this technology helped your job performance? 1.86 .648 35
How useful are these tools? 1.79 1.111 33
What training have you received? 1.82 .626 34
Correlations
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What benefits
has this
technology
brought?
How has this
technology
helped your job
performance?
How useful are
these tools?
What training
have you
received?
What benefits has this
technology brought?
Pearson Correlation 1 .443** .177 .206
Sig. (2-tailed) .008 .325 .242
N 35 35 33 34
How has this technology
helped your job
performance?
Pearson Correlation .443** 1 .223 .303
Sig. (2-tailed) .008 .212 .081
N 35 35 33 34
How useful are these tools?
Pearson Correlation .177 .223 1 .270
Sig. (2-tailed) .325 .212 .129
N 33 33 33 33
What training have you
received?
Pearson Correlation .206 .303 .270 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .242 .081 .129
N 34 34 33 34
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Appendix 1.2: Management
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Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
What technology have you put in place to manufacture your product? 2.48 .996 31
How often do you audit quality control tools? 1.90 1.029 30
How do you impart skills to your employees? 3.18 1.310 33
How do you ensure competence is attained in your employees? 2.58 1.205 31
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Correlations
What technology
have you put in
place to
manufacture
your product?
How often do
you audit quality
control tools?
How do you
impart skills to
your
employees?
How do you
ensure
competence is
attained in your
employees?
What technology have you
put in place to manufacture
your product?
Pearson Correlation 1 .078 .027 -.263
Sig. (2-tailed) .688 .887 .160
N 31 29 31 30
How often do you audit
quality control tools?
Pearson Correlation .078 1 -.217 .241
Sig. (2-tailed) .688 .249 .199
N 29 30 30 30
How do you impart skills to
your employees?
Pearson Correlation .027 -.217 1 -.069
Sig. (2-tailed) .887 .249 .713
N 31 30 33 31
How do you ensure
competence is attained in
your employees?
Pearson Correlation -.263 .241 -.069 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .160 .199 .713
N 30 30 31 31
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Appendix 2.0: QUESTIONNAIRE
Appendix 2.1: Management Questionnaire
Please tick appropriately
Specify the category in which your company fits from the following list (√)
Agro Processing Explosives Leather and Leather Products Paints
Metal Engineering Asbestos Processing Electrical Engineering Beverages
Gemstones Edible Oils Soaps and Chemicals Petroleum
Wood & Wood Products Cement/Refractory Rubber and Rubber Products Plastics
1. Do you face competition from imported products?
YES NO
SECTION A: APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
1. What technology have you put in place to manufacture your product
a) State of the art equipment
b) CNC operated equipment
c) Mechanised
d) Own innovation
2. Does your technology meet the product design specifications?
YES NO
3. Has this technology offered you the desired benefits to your organisation?
YES NO
4. In what areas has this technology helped you?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
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SECTION B: QUALITY CONTROL TOOLS
1. Which tools do you use to check quality from the following?
a) Process flow charts
b) Check sheets
c) Graphs
d) Pareto analysis
e) Cause and effect diagrams
f) Scatter diagrams
g) Control charts
2. How often do you audit the quality control tools?
a) Twice a week
b) Once a week
c) Once a month
d) Quarterly
e) Semi-annual
3. Has your quality control tools helped to increase sales volumes?
YES NO
SECTION C: SKILLS AND COMPETENCE
1. Do you have a training policy in your company?
YES NO
2. How do you impart skills to your employees?
a) Employ qualified personnel
b) Annual training
c) Seminars/workshops
d) On the job training
e) Other
(specify)……………………………………………………………………
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3. How do you ensure competence is attained in your employees?
a) By introducing KPIs
b) By introducing practical tests
c) By introduction of ‘end of year evaluations’
d) By introduction of award systems
e) By honoring employees with least defective products
4. Do you think skills and competence are important in improving quality?
YES NO
SECTION D: DESIGN SPECIFICATION
1. Does your manufactured product meet design specifications?
YES NO
2. Do the design specifications meet the customer’s needs?
YES NO
3. Have you made procedural manuals for your design specifications?
YES NO
4. Specify the manuals which are used
………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Based on design specifications, is your organisation satisfied with these manuals?
YES NO
6. Give reasons to your answer above
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..
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SECTION E: CUSTOMER FEEDBACK
1. Do you request customers for their feedback on your products?
YES NO
2. What do you do with the feedback?
a) Deal with specific problems
b) Meet the customer
c) Use the information to improve the product
d) Do all the above
e) Do nothing
3. How do customers give you feedback?
a) Through suggestion box
b) Through sale points and distributors
c) Through seminars/workshops
d) Through email
e) By walk-ins
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Appendix 2.2: Employee Questionnaire
SECTION A: APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
1. Is the Technology being used in the company giving desired benefits?
YES NO
2. What benefits has this technology brought?
a) Improved product quality
b) Made job easy
c) Nothing……no change
3. How has this technology helped your job performance?
a) It is easy to work now than before
b) Has increased productivity
c) Can’t tell.
SECTION B: QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Do you have a quality control tool to follow?
YES NO
2. Which tool do you use from the following?
a) Process flow charts
b) Check sheets
c) Graphs
d) Pareto analysis
e) Cause and effect diagrams
f) Scatter diagrams
g) Control charts
h) Other (specify)………………………………………………….
3. How useful are these tools?
a) Help reduce defects
b) Help to increase production
c) Not at all (None)
d) Helps to teach you how to work
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4. How do you reject or condemn a product during manufacture?
a) By visual inspection
b) By taking measurements
c) The machine does everything
d) None of the above
SECTION C: SKILLS AND COMPETENCES
1. Do you find it easy to produce your products?
YES NO
2. What training have you received?
a) I go for short seminars/workshops
b) ‘On-job’ training
c) Learned through watching experienced workers
d) I go for ‘off-job’training every year
3. Are you able to make the product without supervision?
YES NO
4. When do you think you work properly?
a) When I am with my workmates
b) When my boss is around
c) When I refer to manuals
d) Every time
SECTION D: DESIGN SPECIFICATION
1. Are you involved in the design of the product?
YES NO
2. At what stage are you involved?
a) Preliminary
b) When the company has already decided
c) When there is a problem with the product
d) Not involved
3. Does the product come out exactly as desired?
YES NO
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4. If your answer at (3) above was ‘NO’, what do you think is the cause of
departure?
a) The machine is not good
b) There is a problem with the design
c) We just try
Any other? (Specify)
………………………………………………………………………………………