welcome to philosophy of science ingo böbel / hans mühlbacher
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Welcome to
Philosophy of Science
Ingo Böbel / Hans Mühlbacher
Scientific Research
• What is science?
• Ontology & Epistemology
• Goals of scientific work
• Ways of producing new knowledge
Group work: What is Science ?20 Minutes
Please form 3 groups and discuss the following questions:
1. What is science (compared to practice)?
2. What is a scientific problem (compared to a practical problem)?
Please prepare your answers for a plenary presentation.
What is Science ?
Science may be conceptualized as
1. An institution = certain people and organizations
2. The activity of that institution
= systematic effort to create coherent knowledge
by applying specific methods
vs.
the search for truth about reality
3. The result of that activity= publications, conferences, consulting, ....
How is new scientific knowledge created ?
Structure of the Scientific Knowledge Production Processes
Ontology Assumptions about the nature of the experienced world (reality)
Epistemology Assumptions about our potential to recognize the real world (= nature of knowledge generated)
Selection of substantive (object- related) theory
Selection of philosophy of science approach
Research methods
Research results
e.g. Learning theory
vs.
Social network theory
vs.
Actor network theory
e.g. Empiricism vs. Realism vs. Constructivism
Axiology Assumptions about the goals of research
Ontologyis a metaphysical perspective concerning reality
What is the substantial nature of the world ?
Spiritualism vs Materialism there is only spiritual existence vs all existence is materiel
Idealism vs Realism we produce reality through perception vs reality exists independent of us
Determinism vs Indeterminism vs Voluntarism all natural phenomena follow strict laws vs with a certain probability vs there are phenomena depending on our will
Logical structure vs Symbolic structure of the world the world is logically structured vs we structure the world using symbols
Epistemology
= Assumptions about the capability of humans to recognize reality
Can we find out about the (real) world independent of subjective perceptions?
Realism - Skepticism - Constructionism - Solipsism
• Passive affection vs active construction
• Empiricism vs Rationalism Mind vs Speech (Sentences)
• Biologically inherited vs individually learned culturally agreed vs inter-subjectively approachable transmitted across generations
Level of involvement
Medium of knowledgecreation
Acquisition of knowledge creation potential
Goals of Research ?
• Discover
• Describe
• Understand
• Explain
• Predict
• Control
• Criticize
• Prescribe
• Self-emancipation
= Having a specific cognitive interest
Main Paradigms of the Social Sciences
• Positivism
• Realism
• Constructivism
• Pragmatism
are different
from each
other in
terms
of
Ontology (Assumptions about reality)
Epistemology (Assumptions about the relationship between reality and researcher)
Axiology(Assumptions about the goals of research)
Methods (Preferred methods to discover reality)
Group work: 30 minutesPlease form 3 groups.
Each group please focus on one of the following couples of paradigms:- positivism and critical rationalism - interpretative approach and critical realism- rationalism and critical theory.
Point out and compare the paradigms´ assumptions about- reality- a researcher´s capability to find out about reality- the goals of research- causality- the proper research process.
Naturalist Perspective
Ontological Assumptions
• There is one reality.
• Reality exists in a world independent of people.
• Reality is absolute, stable, independent of time.
Epistemological Assumptions
• The source of all human knowledge is empirical observation.
• We can detect regular conjunctions between phenomena in the
varying multitude of our observations.
• Such regularities are both a necessary and a sufficient condition for
causality.
• Scientific research produces general truth.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative and absolute.
• Science is objective.• Scientific methods guarantee objectivity.• Knowledge develops in a way independent of the researcher.
Naturalist Perspective
Naturalist Perspective
Axiological Assumptions
Science serves the purpose of
- detecting reality
- explaining, forecasting and controlling phenomena in that reality.
Assumptions concerning the knowledge creation process:
• Distinction between facts and values: Values affect the choice of the research domain and the research problem. But measurement processes and data are free of values.
• Scientists observe, describe and explain the causes of given ends and the means for achieving them. But they do not help to choose ends or determine the desirability of ends.
• Measurement does not influence the research object/subject.
Naturalist Perspective
Assumptions concerning the research object:
• Individuals are independent.
• Individuals act in a rational purposive manner.
• Social processes are partly intended, partly unintended outcomes of
individuals´ purposive conduct.
Consequences for the selection of methods:
Research methods are mainly quantitative, manipulative/experimental.
Naturalist Perspective
Alternative Ways of Generating New Knowledge
A and B = Justification via
deduction
C = Discovery via Induction
Hypotheses Observations
Substantive domain
C1B1A2
C2
B2
Research design
Theory
B1
A1 A1
C1
A2C2 B2 Methodology
Deduction versus Induction
Deductive Logic: general -> specific
Critical questions ?
• How can science progress, when every new research builds on existing knowledge?• Do we run the danger of increasingly focalized knowledge?
• Are there other ways to describe reality than the ones known so far ?
• How can an „objective“ interpretation of data and results be secured?
• How to treat measurement error?
Key epistemological process of critical rationalists
Deduction versus Induction
Inductive Logic: specific -> general
Critical questions?
• Can we detect and interpret regularities without any theoretical basis?
• Are the choice of data gathering techniques and data gathered consequences
of a pre-existing but not explicitly acknowledged theory ?
• To what extent does the researcher influence the research object?
• How can the quality of inductively determined propositions be tested?
• Can propositions gained from a specific case be generalized?
Key epistemological process of empiricists
Abduction/Retroduction
Recursive Logic: from the specific via the general to the specific and back to the general
• Observation of a new (surprising) empirical phenomenon / that does not fit expectations / a problem arises
• Search for, selection and application of a theory (a rule of interpretation)
• Analysis of the phenomenon by the use of the interpretation rule / theory
• Extension/correction/specification of the theory (rule of interpretation) to end the surprise
Key epistemological process of critical realists
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
• There is one reality.
• Reality exists in a world independent of people.
• Reality is absolute, independent and stable, independent of time.
• There are many realities.
• Reality emerges through interactive
interpretation and enactment.
• Reality is relative, time dependent
and changing.
• Scientific reality is only one specific
form of socially constructed reality.
Ontological Assumptions
• The source of all human knowledge is empirical
observation.
• We can detect regular conjunctions between
phenomena in the varying multitude of our
observations.
• Such regularities are both a necessary and a
sufficient condition for causality.
• Scientific research produces generalizable truth.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative and absolute.
• The source of human knowledge is interpretation.
• We can observe discourses and frames for the way people talk about a particular issue, and therefore, understand and act with respect to that issue.
• People (scientists) make sense of something.
• Truth is relative and is not generalizable.
• Scientific knowledge depends on situational and local contexts.
Epistemological Assumptions
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
• Science serves the purpose of - detecting reality - explaining, forecasting and controlling phenomena in that reality.
• Science serves the purpose of
- understanding how particular realities are socially constructed; i.e. enacted and interactively endowed with meaning;
- reconstructing those realities.
Axiological Assumptions
• Individuals are independent actors.
• Individuals act in a rational purposive manner.
• Social processes are partly intended, partly unintended, outcomes of individuals´ purposive conduct.
Assumptions Concerning the Research Object
Individuals interact and are embedded in processes of structuration.
There is always a relation between individuals and their context.
Individuals enact their situational realities and collaboratively endow them with meaning.
Social processes serve the purpose of interactive sense-making, enactment and structuration.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
• Science is objective.
• Scientific research produces generalizable truth.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative and absolute.
• Scientific methods guarantee objectivity.
• Knowledge develops in a way independent of the researcher.
• Science is subjective.
• Scientists use shared practices of interpretation.
• Scientific methods are bundles of rules for „proper work.“
• Knowledge and researchers are tightly related to each other.
Assumptions Concerning the Knowledge Generation Process
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
• Distinction between facts and values:
Values affect the choice of the research domain and the research problem.
But measurement and data are free of values.
• Scientists observe, describe and explain.
They do not help to choose ends or determine the desirability of ends.
• Measurement does not influence the research object/subject.
A distinction between facts and values is impossible:
Values affect the choice of the research domain and the research problem.
Measurement and data are value-ladden.
Scientists observe, describe and explain.
They are critical concerning inequalities in articulation and legitimation potentials. Measurement changes the observed phenomenon.
Differences Between Naturalist and Constructionist Paradigms
Assumptions Concerning the Knowledge Generation Process
Group Work: 20 minutes
Please form different groups than last time and discuss thefollowing question:
What are quality criteria- of scientific research ?- of theories ?
Quality Criteria of Scientific Research
Naturalists/realists strive for:
* A realistic research context
* Generalizability concerning people and situations
* Precision in measurement and control of most relevant
factors of influence
What is the problem?
There is no research design what so ever,
which can reach these goals simultaneously !
Quality Criteria of Scientific Research
Interpretive researchers strive for:
* A natural setting
* Empathy concerning people and their interpretations of contexts
* Detailed descriptions of the studied phenomenon including contextual and historical aspects
* Use of the language of people investigated
What is the problem?
There is no totally reliable way of understanding
the meanings others attribute to events!
• empirical validity• explanatory power• low number of conditional assumptions• many rigorous but failed falsification attempts
• usefulness for a purpose• social agreement
Quality of theories ?
Potential Solution ?
Triangulation • Different theoretical approaches, same method
• Same theoretical approach, different methods
• Different theoretical approaches, different methods
Combination of various theoretical approaches and methods
across several studies to counter-balance the different weaknesses
of each of the combinations.
Please form 3 groups in a way to create a different mix of members than
for the other group assignments.
Please answer the following questions :
Based on the central ideas of pragmatism,
1. What are the similarities of pragmatism with the other discussed approaches?
2. What are the specific differences to each of these approaches?
3. What advantages and disadvantages of pragmatism do you see?
Please prepare a summary statement.
Group work 30 minutes
• Aim: Explaining + predicting (instrumentalist) vs. understanding (representational) vs.
criticizing + being normative (political) vs. having a specific cognitive interest
(self-emancipation)• Reality: One reality (empirical “facts” we observe) vs. layers of reality vs. co-constructed reality
• Knowledge creation: induction vs. deduction vs. retroduction/abduction
• Objectivity: value laden vs. value free research vs. research reflecting its presuppositions
• Research unit: methodological individualism vs. methodological holism vs. both
• Explanations: functional vs. intentional vs. self-referential
• Causality: scientific laws vs. underlying mechanisms (“semi-regularities”) vs. sense-making
• Methodology: Unified across all sciences vs. unified across social sciences vs. situational
depending on nature of research object and cognitive interest of researcher
• Quality of theories: empirical validity vs. explanatory power vs. usefulness/agreement vs.
successful consequences (change the way of thinking)
Some Important Differences in the Approaches
Structure of the Scientific Knowledge Production Processes
Ontology Assumptions about the nature of the experienced world (reality)
Epistemology Assumptions about our potential to recognize the real world (= nature of knowledge generated)
Selection of substantive (object- related) theory
Selection of philosophy of science approach
Research methods
Research results
Axiology Assumptions about the goals of research
Group work: 30 minutes Please form 3 new groups and discuss the following question:
What are the consequences of the differences in ontology, epistemology and axiology of
- naturalism - constructivism
- pragmatism for the selected research approach in terms of
- chosen research objects and - research methods used?
Take an example to illustrate.
• Mainly quantitative
manipulative/
experimental
• Individualistic
• Mainly qualitative
hermeneutic/dialectic/
interpretative
• Individualistic or social
Research Methods Used
Both
Both
Both
Naturalism Constructionism/Constructivism Pragmatism
Different Approaches to a Research Domain and their Effects
Example of research domain: Strategy development
Approach of a Naturalist:
• Research object: Organizational process (steps, duration) and its result (strategy as a formulated document leading to
coordinated action)
• Research interest: What are the factors of influence on the effectiveness of the process and the process outcomes? How can the process and the outcome be
improved?
• Research subjects: participating individuals (hierarchical level, intensity of participation, satisfaction with process and
outcome,...)
• Measurement: production of quantitative data by individual interviews (scales), protocols, deductive content analysis
-> modeling
Different Approaches to a Research Domain and their Effects
Example of research domain: Strategy development
Approach of a Constructionist:• Research object: Strategy as sense giving and sense making process;
strategy as social practice
• Research interest: How does the ongoing “strategy”-discourse evolve (participants, roles,
initiatives,..)? How do shared meanings, roles of
participants, rituals, objectifications develop over time?
• Research subjects: participating individuals as members of as social entity
• Measurement: production of qualitative data by narrative interviews, observation, inductive content analysis
-> reconstruction of strategy-related reality construction
Different Approaches to a Research Domain and their Effects
Example of research domain: Strategy development
• What would be the approach of a pragmatist?
Guidance for systematic combined research
- Two-studies designs
sequential (aim: preparation of other study or explanation of findings)
concurrent (cross-validation of findings)
- Integrated designs integrated elaboration (qualitative analysis of quantitative data)integrated generalization (quantitative analysis of qualitative
data)
Pragmatic Research Approaches
Rigor in qualitative versus quantitative research?
• Reliability (internal consistency of tool, replicability of measures)
• Validity (construct, external, nomological, generalizability of results)
Vs.
• Precision
• Credibility (triangulation of investigator, methods and data)
• Transferability
Incommensurability of research paradigms?
philosophical problems vs practical benefits
Pragmatic Research Approaches
Important Hints for your Doctoral Work:
Clearly indicate and defend why you have selected a certain
theory and a specific method /combination of methods
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of potential
approaches
• Show that you are aware of the weaknesses of your approach
• But show the advantages of your approach (conscious choice) and
why the weaknesses appear to be acceptable
Individual Homework:
What do you learn for your doctoral project from what has been discussed so far?
How does your problem formulation change if you change the selected philosophy of science approach?
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