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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
CRITICAL PERIOD FOR WEED CONTROL IN SATURATED AND FLOODED FIELD, AND CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN DIRECT
SEEDED RICE UNDER SATURATED CONDITION
MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF FP 2009 27
CRITICAL PERIOD FOR WEED CONTROL IN SATURATED AND
FLOODED FIELD, AND CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN
DIRECT SEEDED RICE UNDER SATURATED CONDITION
By
MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF
Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in
Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
August 2009
ii
Dedicated
To
My Parents and Siblings
And Not Forgetting
My Wife, daughter and All My Sincere Friends
For their understanding, encouragement and inspiration.
iii
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of
the requirement for the degree of Master of Science
CRITICAL PERIOD FOR WEED CONTROL IN SATURATED AND FLOODED
FIELD, AND CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN DIRECT SEEDED RICE
UNDER SATURATED CONDITION
By
MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF
August 2009
Chairman: Abdul Shukor Juraimi, PhD
Faculty: Agriculture
Two field experiments were conducted at MARDI station, Seberang Perai, Penang. The
experiments were: 1) Critical period in saturated and flooded field (off season 2005 and
main season 2005/2006); 2) Chemical weed control in saturated field (main season
2005/2006 and off season 2006). The objectives of the study were: a) to determine the
critical period of weed competition under saturated and flooded field conditions; b) to
determine the efficacy of herbicides in controlling weed and their subsequent effect on
rice productivity under saturated field. The first study consisted of different weeding
periods under saturated and flooded field conditions. Meanwhile, the second experiment
evaluated ten widely used herbicides which were available in the market either
individually or as mixture, and sequentially applied in direct seeded rice fields during
the critical period of weed competition under saturated field condition.
iv
Results from the first experiment indicated that Summed Dominance Ratio (SDR) of
weed composition was different under saturated condition compared with flooded
condition for both seasons. The dominance ranking of weed groups in off season 2005
under saturated condition was sedges followed by grasses and broadleaved weeds, while
in main season 2005/2006, grassy weeds was the most dominant followed by sedges and
broadleaved weeds. Under flooded condition the dominance ranking of weed groups was
broadleaved followed by grasses and sedges where the trend was the same in both
seasons. The numbers of tillers, along with rice grain yield were significantly affected
by weed competition in both saturated and flooded condition. Yield loss due to weed
competition was higher in saturated condition (54.5%) than in flooded condition
(35.2%). Based on the 5% level of yield loss, the critical period in off season 2005 was
at 2-71days after sowing (DAS) under saturated condition, and 15-73 DAS under
flooded condition. In the main season 2005/2006, the critical periods were at 1-72 DAS
in saturated condition and 2-98 DAS in flooded condition.
Results from the second study indicated that in main season 2005/2006, the hierarchical
position of 4 dominant weeds out of 10 species were Fimbristylis miliacea > Ludwigia
hyssopifoli > Leptochloa chinensis > Echinochloa crus-galli., This was completely the
reverse to that of off season 2006 where the dominant species were Echinochloa crus-
galli > Leptochloa chinensis > Fimbristylis miliaceae > Limnocharis flava. Seven of the
eighteen treatments over the two cropping seasons showed better broad spectrum weed
control, increased grain yields and better yield component indicators. Due to variation of
the dominant weed infestation between seasons the potential treatments were
v
pretilachlor followed by bentazon/MCPA (T2), cyhalofop-butyl + bensulfuron followed
by bentazon/MCPA (T4), bispyribac-sodium followed by bentazon/MCPA (T6),
benthiocarb/propanil followed by bentazon/MCPA (T8), penoxsulam + benthiocarb
followed by bentazon/MCPA (T10), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl/safener + benthiocarb/propanil
followed by bentazon/MCPA (T12) and quinclorac + benthiocarb/propanil followed by
bentazon/MCPA (T14) in main season and pretilachlor followed by bentazon/MCPA
(T2), bispyribac-sodium followed by bentazon/MCPA (T6) and penoxsulam +
benthiocarb follow by bentazon/MCPA (T10) in off season 2006. Rice yield losses due
to weed competition in unweeded treatments were 60% in main season 2005/2006 and
54% in off season 2006. This experiment also showed that sequential herbicide
application would give a better result compared with a single herbicide application.
vi
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains
TEMPOH KRITIKAL BAGI KAWALAN RUMPAI PADA KEADAAN TANAH
TEPU DAN BANJIR, DAN KAWALAN KIMIA RUMPAI TANAMAN PADI
TABUR TERUS DALAM KEADAAN TANAH TEPU AIR
Oleh
MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF
Ogos 2009
Pengerusi: Abdul Shukor Juraimi, PhD
Fakulti: Pertanian
Dua kajian di ladang telah dilaksanakan di stesen MARDI Seberang Perai, Pulau Pinang.
Kajian tersebut adalah: 1) Kajian penentuan tempoh kritikal persaingan rumpai dalam
keadaan tanah tepu dan banjir (luar musim 2005 dan musim utama 2005/2006); 2)
Kajian kawalan kimia rumpai dalam keadaan tanah tepu air (musim utama 2005/2006
dan luar musim 2006). Objektif kajian adalah: a) untuk mengenalpasti tempoh kritikal
bagi mengawal rumpai dalam keadaan tanah tepu air dan banjir; b) untuk menentukan
keberkesanan racun herba bagi mengawal rumpai dan kesannya kepada hasil padi.
Kajian pertama merangkumi tempoh kritikal tanaman perlu bebas dari rumpai, dan
tempoh kritikal rumpai boleh bersaing dengan tanaman dalam keadaan tanah tepu air
dan banjir. Manakala, kajian kedua merangkumi sepuluh jenis racun rumpai sawah padi
yang digunakan secara meluas dan terdapat dipasaran diuji penggunaanya samada secara
semburan berkala, campuran dan sekali semburan dalam tanaman padi tabur terus
semasa tempoh kritikal persaingan rumpai dalam keadaan tanah tepu air.
vii
Hasil dari kajian pertama mendapati nilai SDR menunjukkan komposisi rumpai berbeza
antara keadaan tanah tepu berbanding keadaan air bertakung untuk kedua-dua musim.
Di luar musim 2005, didapati kumpulan rumpai yang paling utama pada keadaan tanah
tepu adalah dari jenis rusiga, diikuti dari kumpulan rumput dan rumpai daun lebar. Pada
musim utama 2005/2006 pula, rumpai dari jenis rumput merupakan kumpulan rumpai
utama diikuti oleh rumpai dari jenis rusiga dan daun lebar. Pada keadaan air yang
bertakung, kumpulan rumpai utama mengikut hirarki pada kedua-dua musim ialah
rumpai daun lebar diikuti rumpai dari jenis rumput dan rusiga. Bilangan anak pokok
padi dan hasil padi dipengaruhi dengan bererti oleh tempoh saingan rumpai pada kedua-
dua keadaan tanah tepu dan air bertakung. Pengurangan hasil padi disebabkan
persaingan rumpai adalah lebih tinggi pada keadaan tanah tepu (54.5%) berbanding pada
keadaan air bertakung (35.2%). Berdasarkan 5% pengurangan hasil padi, tempoh kritikal
mengawal rumpai pada luar musim 2005 adalah 2–71 Hari Selepas Tabur (HST) pada
keadaan tanah tepu, dan 15 – 73 HST pada keadaan air bertakung. Pada musim utama
2005/2006 pula, tempoh kritikal adalah 1-72 HST pada keadaan tanah tepu dan 2-98
HST bagi keadaan air bertakung.
Hasil dari kajian kedua pula mendapati pada musim utama 2005/2006, 4 spesis rumpai
dari 10 spesis yang dominan mengikut hirarki adalah Fimbristylis miliacea > Ludwigia
hyssopifolia > Leptochloa chinensis > Echinochloa crus-galli, namun pada luar musim
2006 hirarki ini terbalik iaitu Echinochloa crus-galli > Leptochloa chinensis >
viii
Fimbristylis miliaceae > Limnocharis flava. Tujuh daripada lapan belas perlakuan yang
diuji selama dua musim menunjukkan kawalan rumpai yang meluas disamping
meningkatkan hasil padi dan komponen hasil. Disebabkan kepelbagaian serangan
rumpai yang dominan antara musim, perlakuan yang berpotensi diguna pada musim
utama adalah pretilachlor diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T2), cyhalofop-butyl + bensulfuron
diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T4), bispyribac-sodium diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T6),
benthiocarb/propanil diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T8), penoxsulam + benthiocarb diikuti
bentazon/MCPA (T10), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl/safener + benthiocarb/propanil diikuti
bentazon/MCPA (T12) dan quinclorac + benthiocarb/propanil diikuti bentazon/MCPA
(T14). Manakala pada luar musim pretilachlor diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T2), bispyribac-
sodium diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T6) dan penoxsulam + benthiocarb diikuti
bentazon/MCPA (T10). Kerugian hasil disebabkan persaingan rumpai dalam perlakuan
tanpa kawalan rumpai ialah 60% pada musim utama 2005/2006 dan 54% pada luar
musim 2006. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan ulangan semburan racun pada kali kedua
pada tempoh kritikal persaingan rumpai dapat memberi keputusan lebih baik berbanding
sekali semburan sahaja.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise to Almighty Allah for His blessings, kindness and giving me proper guidance,
strength, and will to complete this study.
I wish to express my gratitude, indebtedness and deep respect to Assoc.Prof. Dr. Abdul
Shukor Juraimi, the Chairman of the Supervisory Committee for his sincere support,
guidance, encouragement, valuable suggestions and generous help throughout the study
period. I am also much indebted and grateful to Dr Azmi Man and Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Anuar Abdul Rahim members of the supervisory committee, for their encouragement,
constructive suggestions and guidance in formulation and execution of the research
projects and critical review of the manuscript.
I thankfully acknowledge my sincere appreciation to Dr. Mahfuza Begum, Mr
Muhammad Saiful Ahmad Hamdani, Mr. Erwan Shah, Mr. Chew See Eng, Mr. Hamid,
Mr Shaharudin and all MARDI Seberang Perai officers for their assistance in the
experiments. I also wish to express my appreciation to all my postgraduate friends. I
respectfully acknowledge the blessings and good wishes of my parents, sisters, brothers
and relatives.
x
Last but not least lots of thanks to my beloved wife Liza Haryani for her undying
support and encouragement and not forgetting her patience and understanding during the
entire course of the study.
I would also like to express my humble apology to all those , who have helped me in one
way or anther but may not find their names in my narration here.
xi
I certify that an Examnation Committee has met on 27 August 2009 to conduct the final
examination of Mohamad Najib bin Mohd Yusof on his Master of Science thesis entitled
“ Critical period for weed control in saturated and flooded condition” in accordance with
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Commitee recommends that candidate
be awarded the relevent degree. Members of theExamination Committee are as follows:
Prof. Dr. Mohd Razi Ismail
Department of Crop Science
Faculty of Agriculture
University Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Dr. Adam Puteh
Depatment of Crop Science
Faculty of Agriculture
University Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)
Prof. Dr. Rosli Mohamad
Department of Crop Science
Faculty of Agriculture
University Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)
Prof. Dr. Ismail Sahid
School of Environmental and Natural Resources Sciences
Faculty of science and technology
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
(External Examiner)
_______________________________
BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD
Professor/Deputy Dean (Thesis)
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
xii
This thesis was submitted to Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted
as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the
Supervisory Committee were as follows:
Abdul Shukor Juraimi, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Anuar Abd Rahim, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
Azmi Man, PhD
Rice and Industrial Crops
Malaysia Agriculture Research and Development Institute
(Member)
_______________________________
HASANAH MOHD GHAZALI,PhD
Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 14 January 2010
xiii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and
citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare it has not been previously
or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
____________________________________
MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF
Date:
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENT
DEDICATION
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
APPROVAL
DECLARATION
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER
Page
ii
iii
vi
ix
xi
xiii
xvii
xx
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Malaysian rice industry
2.2 Weeds in direct seeded rice culture
2.3 Rice field weed succession
2.4 Water-plant relationship
2.5 Yield loss due to weeds
2.6 Critical period of weed competition
2.7 Weed management practices in rice fields
2.7.1 Weed control using herbicides
2.7.2 Nature and mode of action of selected
herbicides
2.7.3 Water as weed control
5
5
8
14
20
22
23
27
27
36
42
3. CRITICAL PERIOD OF WEED COMPETTION
UNDER SATURATED AND FLOODED CONDITION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials and methods
3.3 Result and discussion
3.3.1 Effect of water regime (flooded and saturated) on
the number of weed in off season 2005 and main
47
47
48
52
xv
season2005/2006
3.3.2 Effect of water regime (flooded and saturated) on
weed the weed dry weight in off season 2005 and
main season 2005/2006
3.3.3 Effect of water regimes on summed dominance ratio
3.3.4 Effect of water regime (flooded and saturated) and
weeding interval on rice plant height
3.3.5 Effect of water regimes and weeding interval on
number of tillers per meter square
3.3.6 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated) and
weeding interval on yield component and yield of rice
3.3.7 Critical period of weed competition
3.4.0 Conclusion
52
56
60
68
72
77
85
89
4. CHEMICAL CONTROL IN DIRECT SEEDED RICE
UNDER SATURATED FIELD CONDITION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and methods
4.3 Result and discussion
4.3.1 Effect of herbicides on number of major weed group
communities
4.3.2 Effect of weed control on the weed dry weight
4.3.3 Effect of herbicide application on summed
dominance ratio of major weeds.
4.3.4 Weed control
4.3.5 Rice plant height
4.3.6 Rice number of tillers.
4.3.7 Yield component
4.3.8 Rice grain yield
4.4.0 Conclusion
90
90
92
97
97
102
107
111
115
115
120
121
128
xvi
5. CONCLUSION
5.0 General conclusion
129
129
6. REFERENCES 132
7. BIODATA OF STUDENT 153
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and
weeding interval on weed density(plant/m2) in off season 2005 at 30,
60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.
55
2 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and
weeding interval on weed density(plant/m2) in main season
2005/2006 at 30, 60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.
55
3 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and
weeding interval on weed dry weight(g/m2) in off season 2005 at 30,
60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.
59
4 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and
weeding interval on weed dry weight(g/m2) in main season
2005/2006 at 30, 60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.
59
5 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) on summed
dominance ratio of major weeds during off season 2005 at 30, 60 and
90 DAS.
63
6 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) on summed
dominance ratio of major weeds during main season 2005/2006 at 30,
60 and 90DAS.
64
7 Effect of water regimes and weeding interval on rice plant height
(cm) in off season 2005 70
8 Effect of water regimes and weeding interval on rice plant height
(cm) in main season 2005/2006 71
9 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and
weeding interval on number of tiller in off season 2005 75
10 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and
weeding interval on number of tiller in main season 2005/2006 76
11a Yield and yield component in off season 2005 79
11b Yield and yield component in off season 2005 80
xviii
12a Yield and yield component in main season 2005/2006 81
12b Yield and yield component in main season 2005/2006 82
13 Estimated critical period of weeds-crop competition according to
percent yield loss 86
14 Herbicide treatments 96
15 Effect of herbicide on the number of major groups of weed
communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated
condition at 30 DAS. 99
16 Effect of herbicide on the number of major groups of weed
communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated
condition at 60 DAS. 100
17 Effect of herbicide on the number of major groups of weed
communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated
condition at 90 DAS. 101
18 Effect of herbicide on the dry weight of major groups of weed
communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated
condition at 30 DAS. 104
19 Effect of herbicide on the dry weight of major groups of weed
communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated
condition at 60 DAS. 105
20 Effect of herbicide on the dry weight of major groups of weed
communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated
condition at 90 DAS 106
21 Effect of different treatments on summed dominance ratio of major
weeds during main season 2005/2006 at 60 DAS. 109
22 Effect of different treatments on summed dominance ratio of major
weeds during off season 2006 at 60 DAS. 110
23 Effect of treatment on number of tillers per meter square and rice
plant height at 30 DAS 117
24 Effect of treatment on number of tillers per meter square and rice
plant height at 60 DAS 118
xix
25 Effect of treatment on number of tillers per meter square and rice
plant height at 90 DAS 119
26 Yield and yield components in main season 2005/2006 124
27 Yield and yield components in off season 2006 125
xx
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Time of weed removal treatments in saturated and flooded condition 51
2a Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in off season 2005 under saturated
condition at 60 DAS. 66
2b Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in main season 2005/2006 under
saturated condition at 60 DAS. 67
2c Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in off season 2005 under flooded
condition at 60 DAS. 67
2d Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in main season 2005/2006 under
flooded condition at 60 DAS. 68
3a Critical period of weed competition under saturated condition in off
season 2005 87
3b Critical period of weed competition under saturated condition in
season 2005/2006 87
3c Critical period of weed competition under flooded condition in off
season 2005 88
3d Critical period of weed competition under flooded condition in main
season 2005/2006 88
4 Percentage of weed control based on weed dry weight in main
season 2005/2006 at 60 DAS 113
5 Percentage of weed control based on weed dry weight in off season
2006 at 60 DAS 114
6 Canonical correspondent analysis ordination diagram denoting the
relationships between weed species at 60 DAS, treatments, yield and
yield component in Main season 2005/2006. 126
7 Canonical correspondent analysis ordination diagram denoting the
relationships between weed species at 60 DAS, treatments, yield and
yield component in Off season 2006. 127
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Rice is a major source of carbohydrate for more than 60% of the world’s population,
most of whom live in Asia and about 80% of it is grown under irrigated conditions
(Roger and Watanabe 1986). Food security in Asia is therefore strongly dependent on an
adequate, available supply of affordable rice. Experts estimated that global rice supply
would need to increase at an average of 1.7% per annum for the next 20 years, and
average rice yields must roughly doubled in the next 20 years, if a global shortage is to
be avoided. At the same time the need to increase total production, and unit area
productivity is being felt, society is also demanding that agricultural practices be
environment friendly and be part of a sustainable agricultural system (Chin 2005).
Water is becoming more valuable with increasing competition among agriculture,
urbanization, and industry. Water use in agriculture is generally considered to be
relatively low in value, less efficient and highly subsidized (FAO 2000). Though trading
affects water supply and demand, constraints on supply will be the dominant factor
determining future use.
Water-saving irrigation practices have been one of China’s basic national policies.
Chinese farmers use ponds to capture rainfall, store surplus water from the Zhanghe
Irrigation System, and conserve water from other sources (Loeve et al. 2001). The used
of ponds in China was not driven by farmers desire but rather imposed on them due to
increasing water scarcity (Shahbaz et al. 2006).
2
There is a wrong conviction that, standing water of higher depth all throughout the life
period of the plant is essential for growing a good crop of rice. It has been observed that
standing water is necessary only to a depth of 5cm and only needed to a certain period
of the life of the plant (Dastane 1967). It also proved that the rice yield was similar
among three water regimes (saturated condition, alternate flooding and draining, and
continuous flooding) when the full rate of herbicide was applied (Janiya and Johnson
2005).
Weeds are potentially the most severe and widespread biological constrain to rice
production. In Malaysia, the unweeded plot of rice usually recorded 10-35% yield loss
(Lo et al. 1990). Although difficult to measure, average rice yield losses specifically due
to weeds has ranged beween 5 and 72%, but they vary considerably (Kuan et al. 1990).
This loss depends mainly on the season of crop sowing, weed species, weed density, rice
cultivar, growth rate and density of weed and rice (Rezaul Karim et al. 2004), and soil
moisture status following planting is the major factor influencing weed flora
composition (Drost and Moody 1982). For example, the dominance of Echinocloa
species is favored by saturated condition, while Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees emerges
best when the soil moisture is below saturation (Bhagat et al. 1999). A review done by
Bhagat et al. (1996) found that moist or saturated soils favor the emergence of grasses
and sedges. Once established, these weeds are difficult to control by flooding.
The critical period of weed competition (CPWC) is an important consideration in the
development of alternative weed management strategies (Swanton and Weise 1991). The
3
critical period indicates appropriate timing for weed management and aids in
understanding the impact of weed populations on the crop. This is because the duration
of weed presence along with the crop and the time of weed emergence, relative to the
crop, both affect weed/crop competition (Hall et al. 1992).
Evidence of the need for improved weed management practices in rice production comes
from the observations that weed species shifts have occurred towards species that are
more difficult to control, including weedy rice (Moody 1995; Casimero et al. 2005), the
evolution of herbicide resistance in rice weeds (Gressel and Baltazar 1996), in addition
to the overall requirement to reduce yield loss due to weeds.
Since, no single weed control technique is perfect and because the weed population
constantly adapts to its physical environment, a multilateral approach is required for
sustainability and control of weeds. There is a growing need for the development of
technically sound, economically feasible and environmentally friendly weed
management strategies. Therefore, this research was done to solve the weed problem in
irrigated direct seeded rice fields under minimal water condition.
The general objective of this study is to determine chemical weed control during the
critical period under saturated soil condition in direct seeded rice.
The specific objectives are:
1. To determine the critical period of weed competition in direct seeded rice under
saturated and flooded field conditions.
4
2. To evaluate and determine the suitable herbicides used for weed control in direct
seeded rice under saturated soil condition.
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