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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

CRITICAL PERIOD FOR WEED CONTROL IN SATURATED AND FLOODED FIELD, AND CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN DIRECT

SEEDED RICE UNDER SATURATED CONDITION

MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF FP 2009 27

CRITICAL PERIOD FOR WEED CONTROL IN SATURATED AND

FLOODED FIELD, AND CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN

DIRECT SEEDED RICE UNDER SATURATED CONDITION

By

MOHAMAD NAJIB BIN MOHD YUSOF

Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in

Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

August 2009

ii

Dedicated

To

My Parents and Siblings

And Not Forgetting

My Wife, daughter and All My Sincere Friends

For their understanding, encouragement and inspiration.

iii

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of

the requirement for the degree of Master of Science

CRITICAL PERIOD FOR WEED CONTROL IN SATURATED AND FLOODED

FIELD, AND CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN DIRECT SEEDED RICE

UNDER SATURATED CONDITION

By


August 2009

Chairman: Abdul Shukor Juraimi, PhD

Faculty: Agriculture

Two field experiments were conducted at MARDI station, Seberang Perai, Penang. The

experiments were: 1) Critical period in saturated and flooded field (off season 2005 and

main season 2005/2006); 2) Chemical weed control in saturated field (main season

2005/2006 and off season 2006). The objectives of the study were: a) to determine the

critical period of weed competition under saturated and flooded field conditions; b) to

determine the efficacy of herbicides in controlling weed and their subsequent effect on

rice productivity under saturated field. The first study consisted of different weeding

periods under saturated and flooded field conditions. Meanwhile, the second experiment

evaluated ten widely used herbicides which were available in the market either

individually or as mixture, and sequentially applied in direct seeded rice fields during

the critical period of weed competition under saturated field condition.

iv

Results from the first experiment indicated that Summed Dominance Ratio (SDR) of

weed composition was different under saturated condition compared with flooded

condition for both seasons. The dominance ranking of weed groups in off season 2005

under saturated condition was sedges followed by grasses and broadleaved weeds, while

in main season 2005/2006, grassy weeds was the most dominant followed by sedges and

broadleaved weeds. Under flooded condition the dominance ranking of weed groups was

broadleaved followed by grasses and sedges where the trend was the same in both

seasons. The numbers of tillers, along with rice grain yield were significantly affected

by weed competition in both saturated and flooded condition. Yield loss due to weed

competition was higher in saturated condition (54.5%) than in flooded condition

(35.2%). Based on the 5% level of yield loss, the critical period in off season 2005 was

at 2-71days after sowing (DAS) under saturated condition, and 15-73 DAS under

flooded condition. In the main season 2005/2006, the critical periods were at 1-72 DAS

in saturated condition and 2-98 DAS in flooded condition.

Results from the second study indicated that in main season 2005/2006, the hierarchical

position of 4 dominant weeds out of 10 species were Fimbristylis miliacea > Ludwigia

hyssopifoli > Leptochloa chinensis > Echinochloa crus-galli., This was completely the

reverse to that of off season 2006 where the dominant species were Echinochloa crus-

galli > Leptochloa chinensis > Fimbristylis miliaceae > Limnocharis flava. Seven of the

eighteen treatments over the two cropping seasons showed better broad spectrum weed

control, increased grain yields and better yield component indicators. Due to variation of

the dominant weed infestation between seasons the potential treatments were

v

pretilachlor followed by bentazon/MCPA (T2), cyhalofop-butyl + bensulfuron followed

by bentazon/MCPA (T4), bispyribac-sodium followed by bentazon/MCPA (T6),

benthiocarb/propanil followed by bentazon/MCPA (T8), penoxsulam + benthiocarb

followed by bentazon/MCPA (T10), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl/safener + benthiocarb/propanil

followed by bentazon/MCPA (T12) and quinclorac + benthiocarb/propanil followed by

bentazon/MCPA (T14) in main season and pretilachlor followed by bentazon/MCPA

(T2), bispyribac-sodium followed by bentazon/MCPA (T6) and penoxsulam +

benthiocarb follow by bentazon/MCPA (T10) in off season 2006. Rice yield losses due

to weed competition in unweeded treatments were 60% in main season 2005/2006 and

54% in off season 2006. This experiment also showed that sequential herbicide

application would give a better result compared with a single herbicide application.

vi

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains

TEMPOH KRITIKAL BAGI KAWALAN RUMPAI PADA KEADAAN TANAH

TEPU DAN BANJIR, DAN KAWALAN KIMIA RUMPAI TANAMAN PADI

TABUR TERUS DALAM KEADAAN TANAH TEPU AIR

Oleh


Ogos 2009

Pengerusi: Abdul Shukor Juraimi, PhD

Fakulti: Pertanian

Dua kajian di ladang telah dilaksanakan di stesen MARDI Seberang Perai, Pulau Pinang.

Kajian tersebut adalah: 1) Kajian penentuan tempoh kritikal persaingan rumpai dalam

keadaan tanah tepu dan banjir (luar musim 2005 dan musim utama 2005/2006); 2)

Kajian kawalan kimia rumpai dalam keadaan tanah tepu air (musim utama 2005/2006

dan luar musim 2006). Objektif kajian adalah: a) untuk mengenalpasti tempoh kritikal

bagi mengawal rumpai dalam keadaan tanah tepu air dan banjir; b) untuk menentukan

keberkesanan racun herba bagi mengawal rumpai dan kesannya kepada hasil padi.

Kajian pertama merangkumi tempoh kritikal tanaman perlu bebas dari rumpai, dan

tempoh kritikal rumpai boleh bersaing dengan tanaman dalam keadaan tanah tepu air

dan banjir. Manakala, kajian kedua merangkumi sepuluh jenis racun rumpai sawah padi

yang digunakan secara meluas dan terdapat dipasaran diuji penggunaanya samada secara

semburan berkala, campuran dan sekali semburan dalam tanaman padi tabur terus

semasa tempoh kritikal persaingan rumpai dalam keadaan tanah tepu air.

vii

Hasil dari kajian pertama mendapati nilai SDR menunjukkan komposisi rumpai berbeza

antara keadaan tanah tepu berbanding keadaan air bertakung untuk kedua-dua musim.

Di luar musim 2005, didapati kumpulan rumpai yang paling utama pada keadaan tanah

tepu adalah dari jenis rusiga, diikuti dari kumpulan rumput dan rumpai daun lebar. Pada

musim utama 2005/2006 pula, rumpai dari jenis rumput merupakan kumpulan rumpai

utama diikuti oleh rumpai dari jenis rusiga dan daun lebar. Pada keadaan air yang

bertakung, kumpulan rumpai utama mengikut hirarki pada kedua-dua musim ialah

rumpai daun lebar diikuti rumpai dari jenis rumput dan rusiga. Bilangan anak pokok

padi dan hasil padi dipengaruhi dengan bererti oleh tempoh saingan rumpai pada kedua-

dua keadaan tanah tepu dan air bertakung. Pengurangan hasil padi disebabkan

persaingan rumpai adalah lebih tinggi pada keadaan tanah tepu (54.5%) berbanding pada

keadaan air bertakung (35.2%). Berdasarkan 5% pengurangan hasil padi, tempoh kritikal

mengawal rumpai pada luar musim 2005 adalah 2–71 Hari Selepas Tabur (HST) pada

keadaan tanah tepu, dan 15 – 73 HST pada keadaan air bertakung. Pada musim utama

2005/2006 pula, tempoh kritikal adalah 1-72 HST pada keadaan tanah tepu dan 2-98

HST bagi keadaan air bertakung.

Hasil dari kajian kedua pula mendapati pada musim utama 2005/2006, 4 spesis rumpai

dari 10 spesis yang dominan mengikut hirarki adalah Fimbristylis miliacea > Ludwigia

hyssopifolia > Leptochloa chinensis > Echinochloa crus-galli, namun pada luar musim

2006 hirarki ini terbalik iaitu Echinochloa crus-galli > Leptochloa chinensis >

viii

Fimbristylis miliaceae > Limnocharis flava. Tujuh daripada lapan belas perlakuan yang

diuji selama dua musim menunjukkan kawalan rumpai yang meluas disamping

meningkatkan hasil padi dan komponen hasil. Disebabkan kepelbagaian serangan

rumpai yang dominan antara musim, perlakuan yang berpotensi diguna pada musim

utama adalah pretilachlor diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T2), cyhalofop-butyl + bensulfuron

diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T4), bispyribac-sodium diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T6),

benthiocarb/propanil diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T8), penoxsulam + benthiocarb diikuti

bentazon/MCPA (T10), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl/safener + benthiocarb/propanil diikuti

bentazon/MCPA (T12) dan quinclorac + benthiocarb/propanil diikuti bentazon/MCPA

(T14). Manakala pada luar musim pretilachlor diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T2), bispyribac-

sodium diikuti bentazon/MCPA (T6) dan penoxsulam + benthiocarb diikuti

bentazon/MCPA (T10). Kerugian hasil disebabkan persaingan rumpai dalam perlakuan

tanpa kawalan rumpai ialah 60% pada musim utama 2005/2006 dan 54% pada luar

musim 2006. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan ulangan semburan racun pada kali kedua

pada tempoh kritikal persaingan rumpai dapat memberi keputusan lebih baik berbanding

sekali semburan sahaja.

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise to Almighty Allah for His blessings, kindness and giving me proper guidance,

strength, and will to complete this study.

I wish to express my gratitude, indebtedness and deep respect to Assoc.Prof. Dr. Abdul

Shukor Juraimi, the Chairman of the Supervisory Committee for his sincere support,

guidance, encouragement, valuable suggestions and generous help throughout the study

period. I am also much indebted and grateful to Dr Azmi Man and Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Anuar Abdul Rahim members of the supervisory committee, for their encouragement,

constructive suggestions and guidance in formulation and execution of the research

projects and critical review of the manuscript.

I thankfully acknowledge my sincere appreciation to Dr. Mahfuza Begum, Mr

Muhammad Saiful Ahmad Hamdani, Mr. Erwan Shah, Mr. Chew See Eng, Mr. Hamid,

Mr Shaharudin and all MARDI Seberang Perai officers for their assistance in the

experiments. I also wish to express my appreciation to all my postgraduate friends. I

respectfully acknowledge the blessings and good wishes of my parents, sisters, brothers

and relatives.

x

Last but not least lots of thanks to my beloved wife Liza Haryani for her undying

support and encouragement and not forgetting her patience and understanding during the

entire course of the study.

I would also like to express my humble apology to all those , who have helped me in one

way or anther but may not find their names in my narration here.

xi

I certify that an Examnation Committee has met on 27 August 2009 to conduct the final

examination of Mohamad Najib bin Mohd Yusof on his Master of Science thesis entitled

“ Critical period for weed control in saturated and flooded condition” in accordance with

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian

Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Commitee recommends that candidate

be awarded the relevent degree. Members of theExamination Committee are as follows:

Prof. Dr. Mohd Razi Ismail

Department of Crop Science

Faculty of Agriculture

University Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Dr. Adam Puteh

Depatment of Crop Science



(Internal Examiner)

Prof. Dr. Rosli Mohamad

Department of Crop Science



(Internal Examiner)

Prof. Dr. Ismail Sahid

School of Environmental and Natural Resources Sciences

Faculty of science and technology

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

(External Examiner)

_______________________________

BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor/Deputy Dean (Thesis)

School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date:

xii

This thesis was submitted to Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted

as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the

Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Abdul Shukor Juraimi, PhD

Associate Professor



(Chairman)

Anuar Abd Rahim, PhD

Associate Professor



(Member)

Azmi Man, PhD

Rice and Industrial Crops

Malaysia Agriculture Research and Development Institute

(Member)

_______________________________

HASANAH MOHD GHAZALI,PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date: 14 January 2010

xiii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and

citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare it has not been previously

or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.

____________________________________


Date:

xiv

TABLE OF CONTENT

DEDICATION

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

APPROVAL

DECLARATION

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER

Page

ii

iii

vi

ix

xi

xiii

xvii

xx

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Malaysian rice industry

2.2 Weeds in direct seeded rice culture

2.3 Rice field weed succession

2.4 Water-plant relationship

2.5 Yield loss due to weeds

2.6 Critical period of weed competition

2.7 Weed management practices in rice fields

2.7.1 Weed control using herbicides

2.7.2 Nature and mode of action of selected

herbicides

2.7.3 Water as weed control

5

5

8

14

20

22

23

27

27

36

42

3. CRITICAL PERIOD OF WEED COMPETTION

UNDER SATURATED AND FLOODED CONDITION

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Materials and methods

3.3 Result and discussion

3.3.1 Effect of water regime (flooded and saturated) on

the number of weed in off season 2005 and main

47

47

48

52

xv

season2005/2006

3.3.2 Effect of water regime (flooded and saturated) on

weed the weed dry weight in off season 2005 and

main season 2005/2006

3.3.3 Effect of water regimes on summed dominance ratio

3.3.4 Effect of water regime (flooded and saturated) and

weeding interval on rice plant height

3.3.5 Effect of water regimes and weeding interval on

number of tillers per meter square

3.3.6 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated) and

weeding interval on yield component and yield of rice

3.3.7 Critical period of weed competition

3.4.0 Conclusion

52

56

60

68

72

77

85

89

4. CHEMICAL CONTROL IN DIRECT SEEDED RICE

UNDER SATURATED FIELD CONDITION

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Materials and methods

4.3 Result and discussion

4.3.1 Effect of herbicides on number of major weed group

communities

4.3.2 Effect of weed control on the weed dry weight

4.3.3 Effect of herbicide application on summed

dominance ratio of major weeds.

4.3.4 Weed control

4.3.5 Rice plant height

4.3.6 Rice number of tillers.

4.3.7 Yield component

4.3.8 Rice grain yield

4.4.0 Conclusion

90

90

92

97

97

102

107

111

115

115

120

121

128

xvi

5. CONCLUSION

5.0 General conclusion

129

129

6. REFERENCES 132

7. BIODATA OF STUDENT 153

xvii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) and

weeding interval on weed density(plant/m2) in off season 2005 at 30,

60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.

55


weeding interval on weed density(plant/m2) in main season

2005/2006 at 30, 60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.

55


weeding interval on weed dry weight(g/m2) in off season 2005 at 30,

60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.

59


weeding interval on weed dry weight(g/m2) in main season

2005/2006 at 30, 60 and 90 DAS taken from unweeded treatment.

59

5 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) on summed

dominance ratio of major weeds during off season 2005 at 30, 60 and

90 DAS.

63

6 Effect of water regimes (flooded and saturated condition) on summed

dominance ratio of major weeds during main season 2005/2006 at 30,

60 and 90DAS.

64

7 Effect of water regimes and weeding interval on rice plant height

(cm) in off season 2005 70

8 Effect of water regimes and weeding interval on rice plant height

(cm) in main season 2005/2006 71


weeding interval on number of tiller in off season 2005 75


weeding interval on number of tiller in main season 2005/2006 76

11a Yield and yield component in off season 2005 79

11b Yield and yield component in off season 2005 80

xviii

12a Yield and yield component in main season 2005/2006 81

12b Yield and yield component in main season 2005/2006 82

13 Estimated critical period of weeds-crop competition according to

percent yield loss 86

14 Herbicide treatments 96

15 Effect of herbicide on the number of major groups of weed

communities per meter square in direct seeded rice under saturated

condition at 30 DAS. 99







18 Effect of herbicide on the dry weight of major groups of weed








condition at 90 DAS 106

21 Effect of different treatments on summed dominance ratio of major

weeds during main season 2005/2006 at 60 DAS. 109

22 Effect of different treatments on summed dominance ratio of major

weeds during off season 2006 at 60 DAS. 110

23 Effect of treatment on number of tillers per meter square and rice

plant height at 30 DAS 117



xix



26 Yield and yield components in main season 2005/2006 124

27 Yield and yield components in off season 2006 125

xx

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Time of weed removal treatments in saturated and flooded condition 51

2a Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in off season 2005 under saturated


2b Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in main season 2005/2006 under

saturated condition at 60 DAS. 67

2c Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in off season 2005 under flooded


2d Summed dominance ratio (SDR) in main season 2005/2006 under

flooded condition at 60 DAS. 68

3a Critical period of weed competition under saturated condition in off

season 2005 87

3b Critical period of weed competition under saturated condition in

season 2005/2006 87

3c Critical period of weed competition under flooded condition in off

season 2005 88

3d Critical period of weed competition under flooded condition in main

season 2005/2006 88

4 Percentage of weed control based on weed dry weight in main

season 2005/2006 at 60 DAS 113

5 Percentage of weed control based on weed dry weight in off season

2006 at 60 DAS 114

6 Canonical correspondent analysis ordination diagram denoting the

relationships between weed species at 60 DAS, treatments, yield and

yield component in Main season 2005/2006. 126

7 Canonical correspondent analysis ordination diagram denoting the

relationships between weed species at 60 DAS, treatments, yield and

yield component in Off season 2006. 127

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Rice is a major source of carbohydrate for more than 60% of the world’s population,

most of whom live in Asia and about 80% of it is grown under irrigated conditions

(Roger and Watanabe 1986). Food security in Asia is therefore strongly dependent on an

adequate, available supply of affordable rice. Experts estimated that global rice supply

would need to increase at an average of 1.7% per annum for the next 20 years, and

average rice yields must roughly doubled in the next 20 years, if a global shortage is to

be avoided. At the same time the need to increase total production, and unit area

productivity is being felt, society is also demanding that agricultural practices be

environment friendly and be part of a sustainable agricultural system (Chin 2005).

Water is becoming more valuable with increasing competition among agriculture,

urbanization, and industry. Water use in agriculture is generally considered to be

relatively low in value, less efficient and highly subsidized (FAO 2000). Though trading

affects water supply and demand, constraints on supply will be the dominant factor

determining future use.

Water-saving irrigation practices have been one of China’s basic national policies.

Chinese farmers use ponds to capture rainfall, store surplus water from the Zhanghe

Irrigation System, and conserve water from other sources (Loeve et al. 2001). The used

of ponds in China was not driven by farmers desire but rather imposed on them due to

increasing water scarcity (Shahbaz et al. 2006).

2

There is a wrong conviction that, standing water of higher depth all throughout the life

period of the plant is essential for growing a good crop of rice. It has been observed that

standing water is necessary only to a depth of 5cm and only needed to a certain period

of the life of the plant (Dastane 1967). It also proved that the rice yield was similar

among three water regimes (saturated condition, alternate flooding and draining, and

continuous flooding) when the full rate of herbicide was applied (Janiya and Johnson

2005).

Weeds are potentially the most severe and widespread biological constrain to rice

production. In Malaysia, the unweeded plot of rice usually recorded 10-35% yield loss

(Lo et al. 1990). Although difficult to measure, average rice yield losses specifically due

to weeds has ranged beween 5 and 72%, but they vary considerably (Kuan et al. 1990).

This loss depends mainly on the season of crop sowing, weed species, weed density, rice

cultivar, growth rate and density of weed and rice (Rezaul Karim et al. 2004), and soil

moisture status following planting is the major factor influencing weed flora

composition (Drost and Moody 1982). For example, the dominance of Echinocloa

species is favored by saturated condition, while Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees emerges

best when the soil moisture is below saturation (Bhagat et al. 1999). A review done by

Bhagat et al. (1996) found that moist or saturated soils favor the emergence of grasses

and sedges. Once established, these weeds are difficult to control by flooding.

The critical period of weed competition (CPWC) is an important consideration in the

development of alternative weed management strategies (Swanton and Weise 1991). The

3

critical period indicates appropriate timing for weed management and aids in

understanding the impact of weed populations on the crop. This is because the duration

of weed presence along with the crop and the time of weed emergence, relative to the

crop, both affect weed/crop competition (Hall et al. 1992).

Evidence of the need for improved weed management practices in rice production comes

from the observations that weed species shifts have occurred towards species that are

more difficult to control, including weedy rice (Moody 1995; Casimero et al. 2005), the

evolution of herbicide resistance in rice weeds (Gressel and Baltazar 1996), in addition

to the overall requirement to reduce yield loss due to weeds.

Since, no single weed control technique is perfect and because the weed population

constantly adapts to its physical environment, a multilateral approach is required for

sustainability and control of weeds. There is a growing need for the development of

technically sound, economically feasible and environmentally friendly weed

management strategies. Therefore, this research was done to solve the weed problem in

irrigated direct seeded rice fields under minimal water condition.

The general objective of this study is to determine chemical weed control during the

critical period under saturated soil condition in direct seeded rice.

The specific objectives are:

1. To determine the critical period of weed competition in direct seeded rice under

saturated and flooded field conditions.

4

2. To evaluate and determine the suitable herbicides used for weed control in direct

seeded rice under saturated soil condition.

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