susan gal 1. introduction - linguistic society of …...susan gal 1. introduction the historic...

BETWEEN SPEECH AND S ILENCE:The p rob lema t i cs o f r esea rch on l anguage and gende r l

S u s a n G a l

1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n

T h e h i s t o r i c s i l e n c e o f w o m e n i n p u b l i c l i f e , a n dwomenrs a t t e rnp t s t o ga in a vo i ce i n po l i t i c s and l i t e ra tu re ,have been ma jo r t hemes o f r ecen t f em in i s t scho la r sh ip . I thas become c lea r t ha t gende r re l a t i ons a re c rea ted no t on l yb y a s e x u a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r a n d a s e t o f s y m b o l i c i m a g e s ,b u t a l s o t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f s p e a k i n g a n dc o n t r a s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n f o r m e n a n d w o m e n .F e m i n i s t s h a v e e x p l i c i t l y w r i t t e n a b o u t s c h o l a r s h i p ' srespons ib l i t y t o r r hea r womenr s wo rds r r and have r i gh t l ya r g u e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f r r r e d i s c o v e r I i n g ] w o m e n r sv o i c e s ' r ( S r n i t h - R o s e n b e r g 1 9 8 5 : 1 1 , 2 6 ) .

f n t h e s e w r i t i n g s , s i l e n c e i s g e n e r a l l y d e p l o r e d ,because i t i s t aken t o be a resu l t and a sy rnbo l o f pass i v i t yand power l essness : Those who a re den ied speech canno t makethe i r expe r i ence known and t hus canno t i n f l uence t he cou rseo f t h e i r l i v e s o r o f h i s t o r y . 2 f n a t e l l i n g c o n t r a s t ,o the r scho la r s have emphas i zed t he pa radox i ca l power o fs i l e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n c e r t a i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g s . I nre l i g i ous con fess ion , mode rn psycho the rapy , bu reauc ra t i ci n te r v i ews and i n po l i ce i n te r roga t i on , t he re l a t i ons o fcoe rc i on a re reve rsed : Where se l f - exposu re i s r equ i red , i t i st he s i l en t l i s t ene r who j udges , and who the reby exe r t s powero v e r t h e o n e w h o s p e a k s ( F o u c a u l t 9 7 8 2 6 I - 6 2 ) . S i m i l a r l y ,s i l ence i n Amer i can househo lds i s o f t en a weapon o f mascu l i nep o w e r ( S a t t e l 1 9 8 3 ) . B u t s i l e n c e c a n a l s o b e a s t r a t e g i cde fense aga ins t t he power fu l , as when Wes te rn Apache men usei t t o b a f f l e , d i s c o n c e r t a n d e x c l u d e w h i t e o u t s i d e r s ( B a s s o) , 9 7 9 ) . A n d t h i s d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e m e a n i n g s o f s i l e n c e . F o rthe Eng l i sh Quake rs o f t he 17 th cen tu ry , bo th men and women ,the re fusa l to speak when others expected them to marked anideo log i ca l commi tmen t . I t was t he oppos i t e o f . pass i v i t y ,i n d e e d a f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l p r o t e s t ( B a u m a n 1 9 8 3 ) . r

T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s o fs i l e n c e h i q h l i g h t s t h e t h r e e i s s u e s I w o u l d l i k e t o r a i s e i nt h i s p a p e r . F i r s t , a n d m o s t g e n e r a l l y , t h e e x a m p l e o fs i l e n c e s u g g e s t s a c l - o s e I i n k b e t w e e n g e n d e r , t h e u s e o fs p e e c h ( o r s i l e n c e ) a n d t h e e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r . B u t i t a l s o

I P r A P a p e r s i n P r a g m a t i c s 3 , l { o . f ( l g i ; o ) " l - 3 8

f . Tt ! 'f,

s h o w s t h a t t h e l i n k i s n o t d i r e c t . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i ta p p e a r s t h a t s i l e n c e , I i k e a n y l i n g u i s t i c f o r m , g a i n sd i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s a n d h a s d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l e f f e c t s w i t h i ns p e c i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s . S i l e n c e a n di n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s a r e n o t , i n t h e m s e l v e s , n e c e s s a r i l y s i g n s o fp o w e r l e s s n e s s . I n d e e d , m y f i r s t g o a l i s t o d r a w o n at rad i t i on o f cu l t u ra l ana l ys i s t o show how the l i nks be tweenl i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s , p o w e r , a n d g e n d e r a r e t h e m s e l v e sc u l t u r a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d .

Ye t t hese cu l t u ra l cons t ruc t i ons a re no t a lways s tab le ,no r pass i ve l y accep ted and rep roduced by speake rs . Thee x a m p l e s o f s i l e n c e a s s u b v e r s i v e d e f e n s e a n d e v e n p o i i t i c a lp r c t e s t s u g g e s t t h a t l i n g u i s t i c f o r n s , e v e n t h e m o s ta p p a r e n t l y g u i e s c e n t , a r e s t r a t e g i c a c t i o n s , c r e a t e d a sresponses t o cu l t u ra l and i ns t i t u t i ona l - con tex t s (Gumperz1 - 9 8 2 ) . A l t h o u g h s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s h a v e I o n g n o t e dd i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s e v e r y d a y l i n g u i s t i cf o rms , much ea r l y r esea rch cons ide red t a l k t o be s imp l y anindex o f i den t i t y : me re l y one o f t he many behav iou rs l ea rnedt h r o u g h s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t f o r m e d p a r t o f m e n r s a n d w o m e n r sd i f f e r e n t s o c i a l r o l e s . R e c e n t r e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o fgende r re j ec t t h i s imp l i c i t r o l e t heo ry and p rom ise a deepe runde rs tand ing o f t he genes i s and pe rs i s tence o f gende rd i f f e rences i n speech . They a rgue t ha t gende r i s be t t e r seenas a sys tem o f cu l t u ra l l y cons t ruc ted re l a t i ons o f power ,produced ar ld reproduced in in teract ion between and among menand women ' r . I d raw on soc io l i ngu i s t i c s tud ies o f eve rydayta l -k to prov ide ev idence that i t is in par t through verba lp rac t i ces i n soc ia l i n te rac t i on t ha t t he s t ruc tu ra l r e l a t i onso f gende r and dom inance a re pe rpe tua ted , and some t imessubve r ted : I n soc ia l i ns t i t u t i ons such as schoo l s , cou r t sa n d p o l i t i c a l a s s e m b l i e s , t a l k i s o f t e n u s e d t o j u d g e , d e f i n eand l eg i t i r na te speake rs . Thus , sma l l i n t e rac t i ona l sk i rm isheshave s t r i k i ng ma te r i a l consequences . My second goa l i s t oshow how ve rba l i n te rac t i on , wha teve r e l se i t accomp l i shes ,i s o f t en t he s i t e o f s t r ugg le abou t gende r de f i n i t i ons andpower ; i t conce rns who can speak whe re abou t wha t .

F i n a l l y , s u c h s t r u g g l e s a b o u t g a i n i n g a v o i c e , a n d m ye a r l - i e r e x a r n p l e o f w o m e n r s s i l e n c e i n p u b l i c 1 i f e , d r a wa t ten t i on t o a cu r ren t l y w idesp read and i n f l uen t i a l r ne tapho ri n bo th f em in i s t and non - fem in i s t soc ia l sc i ence . Te rms suchas r rwomenrs l anguage t t t t vo i ce r r o r r rwo rds r r a re r cu t i ne l y usedno t on l y t o des igna te eve ryday t a l k bu t a l so , much moreb r o a d l y , t h e p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e o ns e f f a n d s o c i a l - l i f e , t h e e f f o r t t o r e p r e s e n t o n e r s o w ne x p e r i e n c e , r a t h e r t h a n a c c e p t i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f m o r ep c w e r f u l o t h e r s .

A n d s i m i l a r l y , t ' s i l e n c e r r a n d I t m u t e d n e s s r l

( A r d e n e r , E . 1 9 7 5 ) a r e u s e d n o t o n r y i n t h e i r o r d i n a r y s e n s eo f a n i n a b i l i t y o r r e L u c t a n c e t o c r e a t e u t t e r a n l e s i nc o n v e r s a t i o n a l e x c h a n g € , b u t r e f e r a s w e f l t o t h e f a i l u r e t op r o d u c e o n e ' s o w n s e p a r a t e , s o c i a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c o u r s e .I t i s i n t h i s b r o a d e r s e n s e t h a t i e m i n i s t h i s t o r i a n s h a v ered i scove red womenrs wo rds . He re , .wo rd r becomes a synecdochef o r ! r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . r l

Ye t , desp i t e t h i s me tapho r i ca l l i nk , eve ryday t a l k andthe b roade r no t i on o f a gende red consc iousness have on ryra re l y been i nves t i ga ted t oge the r , o r by t he same scho la rs .S tud ies o f gende r d i f f e rences i n eve ryday t a l k have t ended tofocus on t he f o rma l p rope r t i es o f speech i n tona t i ona r ,p h o n o l o g i c a l , s y n t a c t i c a n d p r a g m a t i c a i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m e nand women , and t he i ns t i t u t i ona l and i n te rac t i ona l con tex t si n w h i c h t h e y o c c u r . I n c o n t r a s t , s t u d i e s o f r r w o m e n t s v o i c e r thave f ocused more on va lues and be l i e f s : whe the r o r no t womenhave d i f f e ren t cu r tu ra l concep t i ons o r symbor i c sys temsc o n c e r n i n g s e l f , m o r a l i t g o r s o c i a l r e a l i t y , t h a n t h o s e o ft he dom inan t d i scou rse . 5 Tha t t he two a re i nex t r i cab l yI i nked becomes ev iden t when we v i ew bo th k i nds o f r esea rch ass tud ies o f symbo l i c do rn ina t i on .

As my d i scuss ion o f t he cu l t u ra l l y de f i ned l i nks be tweenspeech and power w i r r show , some l i ngu i s t i c s t r a teg ies andgenres are more h iqh ly va lued and carry more author i ty thano the rs . r n a c rass i c case o f symbo l i c don ina t i on , even t hosewho do no t con t ro l t hen cons ide r t hen more c red ib l - e o rpe rsuas i ve (Bou rd ieu r977b ) . A rche typa l exampres i nc rudestandard languages and r i tua l speech. But these respectedr i ngu i s t i c p rac t i ces a re no t s i np ry f o rms ; t hey aL r i ve rcha rac te r i s t i c cu l t u ra r de f i n i t i ons o f soc ia l l i t e wh i ch ,embod ied i n d i v i s i ons o f l abo r and t he s t ruc tu re o fi ns t i t u t i ons , se rve t he i n te res t s o f some g roups be t t e r t hano the rs . r ndeed , i t i s i n pa r t t h rough such r i ngu i s t i cp rac t i ces t ha t speake rs w i t h i n i ns t i t u t i ons impose on o the rst h e i r g r o u p ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f e v e n t s , p e o p l e a n d a c t i o n s . T h i sab i l i t y t o make o the rs accep t and enac t one rs rep resen ta t i ono f t he wo r rd i s ano the r aspec t o f sy rnbo l i c dom ina t i on . Bu tsuch cu l t u ra l power ra re l y goes uncon tes ted . Res i s tance t o adonr inant cur tura l order occurs when devalued l ingu is t ics t ra teg ies and gen res a re p rac t i ced and ce leb ra ted desp i t ew idesp read den ig ra t i on ; i t occu rs as we l -1 when these deva luedp rac t i ces p ropose o r embody a l t e rna te mode l s o f t he soc ia lwo r l d .

s e v e r a l i n f l u e n t i a l s o c i a r t h e o r i e s t h a t d i f f e rinportantry in other respects have in one way or anotherar t i cu la ted th is ins igh t . whether we use Gramsc i rs te rm

c u l t u r a l h e g e m o n y , o r s y m b o l i c d o m i n a t i o n ( B o u r d i e u I 9 7 7 a ) ,o p p o s i t i o n a l , e m e r g e n t a n d r e s i d u a l c u L t u r e s ( w i l 1 i a m s 1 - 9 7 3 ) |o r s u b j u g a t e d k n o w l e d g e s ( F o u c a u l t 1 9 8 0 ) , t h e c e n t r a l n o t i o nr e m a i n s : T h e c o n t r o l o f d i s c o u r s e o r o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o fr e a l i t y o c c u r s i n s o c i a f i n t e r a c t i o n , l o c a t e d i ni n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f s o c i a l p o w e r ; i t m a y b " ,t h e r e f o r e , t h e o c c a s i o n f o r c o e r c i o n , c o n f l i c t o r c o m p l i c i t y . b

M i s s i n g f r o m t h e s e t h e o r i e s i s a c o n c e p t o f g e n d e r a s as t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( s e p a r a t e f r o m c l a s s o re t h n i c i t y ) , r e p r o d u c e d b u t a l s o c h a l l e n g e d i n e v e r y d a yp r a c t i c e . T h e s e t h e o r i e s n e i t h e r n o t i c e n o r e x p l a i n t h es u b t l e t y , s u b v e r s i o n a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o d o m i n a n t d e f i n i t i o n stha t f e rn in i s t s have d i scove red i n many womenrs gen res , ands o m e t i m e s e m b e d d e d i n w o m e n r s e v e r y d a y t a l k . f n d e e d , e v e n t h ea u t h o r i t y o f s o m e ( m a I e ) l i n q u i s t i c f o r m s a n d t h e i r d o m i n a n c eo f s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h a s m e d i c i n e , o r p o l i t i c a lp r o c e s s , r e m a i n s m y s t e r i o u s w i t h o u t a t h e o r y o f g e n d e r .

T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n o f g e n d e r a n d d i s c o u r s e h a s b e e ne x p l o r e d b y r e c e n t f e m i n i s t a n a l y s e s i n l i t e r a t u r e a n dan th ropo logy ; some have sugges ted t ha t womenrs r r vo i ces r l

o f t en d i f f e r s i gn i f i c . an t l y i n f o rm as we l I as con ten t f r omdominan t d i scou rse . i The impo r tance o f i n teg ra t i ng t hes tudy o f eve ryday t a l k w i t h t he s tudy o f r rwomenrs vo i ce ' lb e c o m e s a p p a r e n t : T h e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d e t a i l s o f l i n g u i s t i cf o rm and con tex t t yp i ca l o f r esea rch i n to eve ryday t a l k i si n d i s p e n s a b l e i n o r d e r t o g a i n a c c e s s t o w o m e n r s o f t e n v e i l e dgen res and mu ted r rwo rds ' r . And bo th k i nds o f s tud ies mus ta t t end no t on l y t o wo rds bu t t o t he i n te rac t i ona l p rac t i cesa n d t h e b r o a d e r p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n t e x t o fcommun ica t i on i n o rde r t o unde rs tand t he p rocess by wh i chwomenrs vo i ces - - i n bo th senses - -a re rou t i ne l y supp ressed ,o r nanage to emerge . My f i na l a im i s t o show tha t , i f weunde rs tand womenrs eve ryday t a l k and l i ngu i s t i c gen res asfo rms o f r es i s tance , we hea r , i n any cu l t u re , no t so much ac Iea r , au tonomous and he re to f o re neg lec ted r rwoman I s vo i ce , r l

o r sepa ra te cu l t u re , bu t more amb iguous , o f t en con t rad i c to r yl i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s , d i f f e r i n g a m o n g s / o m e n o f d i f f e r e n tc l asses and e thn i c g roups and rang ing f r om accomoda t i on t oo p p o s i t i o n , s u b v e r s i o n , r e j e c t i o n o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o fr e i g n i n g c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s .

Thus , my theme i s t he l i nk be tween gende r , speech andpower , and t he ways t h i s can be concep tua l i zed on t he bas i sc f r ecen t emp i r i ca l r esea rch . I w i I l f i r s t exp lo re wha tcoun ts , c ross -cu l t u ra l I y , ds power fu l speech ; t hen show theC i f f e r e n t i a l p o w e r o f m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s l i n g u i s t i c s t r a t e g i e si n s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ; a n d f i n a l l y r e i n t e r p r e t w o m e n r ss t ra teg ies and l i ngu i s t i c gen res as f o rms o f r es i s tance t o

symbo l - i c dom ina t i on .

C u l t u r a l C o n s t r u c t i o n s

Many cu l t u res pos i t a c l ose connec t i on be tween the useo f l a n g u a g e a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s e l f . T h i s i s w e l li l l u s t ra ted by t he Laym i f nd ians o f H igh land Bo I i v i a , a g roupo f se t t l ed peasan ts engaged i n subs i s tence ag r i cu l t u re . Theyr e p r e s e n t a n e w - b o r n i n d i v i d u a l r s p r o g r e s s i o n t o a f u l l ys o c i a l i z e d h u m a n i n t e r m s o f t h e c h i l d t s r e L a t i o n t oIanguage : a baby becomes a ch i l d when i t s t a r t s t o say wo rds ;t he passage f r o rn ch i l dhood to young adu l t hood i s sa id t ooccu r when the i nd i v i dua l can speak and unde rs tand f u I l y( H a r r i s : 1 9 8 O 2 7 2 ) . S o m e c u l t u r a l c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h I i n k p e r s o nand l anguage appea r no t t o be f ocussed on gende r a t a IL . Fo ri n s t a n c e , t h e m e t a l i n g u i s t i c d i s c o u r s e o f t h e K a I u I i i n N e wG u i n e a c l a s s i f i e s s p e a k e r s l a r g e l y o n t h e b a s i s o f c l a n o rv i l l a g e o r i g i n ( S c h i e f f e l i n 1 9 8 7 ) . S i m i l a r l y , i n S a r n o a r a n kseems much more impor tant in ideas about speech than gender( O c h s 1 9 8 7 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e m a n y c a s e s i n w h i c h n o tj u s t p e r s o n h o o d , b u t g e n d e r a s w e l l a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i nt e r m s o f l a n g u a g e . S u c h c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s d e f i n e t h es y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s s p e e c h f e a t u r e s :wha t i s power fu l and weak , beau t i f u l o r exec rab le , mascuL inea n d f e m i n i n e , i n t h e r e a l m o f t a l k . M e n r s a n d w o m e n r sI i ngu i s t i c p rac t i ces a re p ro found l y shaped by such cu l t u ra li r nages . o

P e r h a p s t h e b e s t e x a m p l e i s K e e n a n r s ( L 9 7 4 ) s t u d y o f t h eM a l a g a s y o f M a d a g a s c a r , w h o e x p l i c i t l y a s s o c i a t e d i f f e r e n ts t y l es o f t a l k w i t h men and women . Acco rd ing t o t he Ma lagasy ,men cha rac te r i s t i ca l l y use an i nd i rec t , o rna te and respec t f u ls t y l e t ha t avo ids con f ron ta t i on and d i sag reemen t w i t h o the rs ;women use a d i r ec t s t y l e o f speak ing assoc ia ted w i t hexc i t ab leness and ange r , t ha t i s seen as a sou rce o f con f l i c tand t h rea t i n i n te rpe rsona l r e l a t i ons . Women a re exc ludedf rom the ma jo r f o rma l gen re o f o ra to r y t ha t i s r equ i red f o rp a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s . A n d m e n a v o i d a s e r i e s o fspeech ac t i v i t i es t ha t women engage i n , such as accusa t i ons ,m a r k e t h a g g l i n g a n d g o s s i p . f m p o r t a n t l y , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e sa re l i nked t o no t i ons abou t power . F i r s t , bo th men and womenc o n s i d e r n e n r s s p e e c h f a r s u p e r i o r . S e c o n d , i t i s w o m e n r sd i r e c t n e s s , d e f i n e d a s i n e p t , t h a t i s s a i d t o b a r t h e m f r o mp o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y a n d f r o m s p e a k i n g a t p o l i t i c a l m e e t i n g sw h e r e t h e e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i a l s y s t e m r e q u i r e s t h a t t h ee x i s t e n c e o f c o n f l i c t b e s k i l l f u l l y h i d d e n .

Y e t , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n d i r e c t n e s si s n o t a l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a s c u l i n i t y , n o r c o n f r o n t a t i o n

w i th women . The case o f Amer . r can gende r s te reo t ypes p rov idesan i n fo rma t i ve con t ras t . The cu l t u ra l eva lua t i on o f Amer i canm i d d l e c l a s s s p e e c h i s r e v e a l e d i n s t u d i e s o f m i d w e s t e r nt e e n a g e r s w h o t h i n k o f m e n r s s p e e c h a s t t a g g r e s s j . v e r lI t f o r c e f u l , t r t r b l u n t r t a n d r r a u t h o r i t a r i a n , r r w h i l e w o m e n r s s p e e c hi s c o n s i d e r e d t t g e n t l e r ' I ' t r i v i a l t ' r r c o r r e c t r r a n d " p o I i t e .

On Iy ca re fu l emp i r i ca l r esea rch can documen t t he sub t l ed i f f e r e n c e s t h a t a c t u a l l y e x i s t b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n m e n r s a n dw o m e n r s s p e e c h , b u t t h e s e s t e r e o t y p e s p r o v i d e t h ee x p e c t a t i o n s a n d i d e a l s a g a i n s t w h i c h s p e a k e r s a r e r o u t i n e l yj u d g e d , ( K r a m a r a e 1 9 B 0 ) . f n d e e d , t h e r e j , s a n e n t i r eL i t e r a t u r e o f a d v i c e b o o k s , € t i q u e t t e m a n u a l s a n dp h i l o l o g i c a l a n d l i n g u i s t i c t r a c t s , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e U n i t e dS ta tes and Wes te rn Eu rope wh i ch have f o r seve ra l cen tu r i esc o n s t r u c t e d , w i t h o u t b e n e f i t o f e v i d e n c e , i m a g e s o f n a l e a n dfema le f r na tu res r r l i nked t o t he i r supposed speech pa t t e rns( K r a m a r a e 1 9 8 0 : 9 1 ) . 9

F r o m t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e M a l a g a s y a n d A m e r i c a ns te reo t ypes i t n i gh t appea r t ha t , whe the r b l un t o r i nd i r ec t ,ve rba l sk i l l - s o f some k ind a re assoc ia ted w i t h au tho r i t y andp o w e r . A c o n t r a s t t o b o t h i s p r o v i d e d b y I r v i n e r s ( I 9 7 9 )d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e W o l o f o f S e n e g a l , w h o a r e o r g a n i z e d i n t o as t ra t i f i ed cas te sys te rn . H igh cas te nob les de r i ve t he i r powerf rom an i nhe r i t ed gua l i t y r nan i f es ted as a sense o f r ese rve i na l l a c t i v i t i e s . D i f f i d e n c e a n d i n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s a r e s o m u c h apa r t o f nob le demeano r , t ha t e l i t e men o f t en h i r e l ow s ta tusp ro fess iona l - o ra to r s t o speak f o r t hem in o rde r t o avo idshow ing ve rba l f l uency i n pub l i c . Thus , cu l t u ra l concep t i onsdemand tha t o rd ina ry men and women be more a r t i cu la te t hanmen w i t h h i gh s ta tus .

W h i l e i n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s i s a t r a i t t h a t i s a s i g n o f aW o l - o f m a n r s e l i t e i d e n t i t y , i t i s e x a c t l y i n a r t i c u l a t e n e s sw h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s w o m e n r s d e f i n i n g a n d d e b i l i t a t i n gcond i t i on i n r u ra l G reece . The image o f women i s no t un i t a r yi n Greece : t hey a re seen as bo th ga r ru lous and s i l en t . Bu t i nb o t h m o d e s w o m e n a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s i n c a p a b l e o fc o n t r o l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e r e f o r e o f a c h i e v i n g t h ea r t i c u l a t e a n d s w a g g e r i n g s e l f - d i s p l a y t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h ec u l t u r a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d i m a g e o f p o w e r f u l m e n ( H e r z f e l d 1 9 8 5 ) .

These examp les f r om d i spa ra te g roups p rov ide a use fu ldemons t ra t i on t ha t t he l i nks be tween gende r , power andl i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s a r e n o t r r n a t u r a l r r a n d c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e di n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t w a y s . B u t t h e s e e x a m p l e s a r e s t a t i c , a n dseem to imp l y t ha t speake rs pass i ve l y f o l l ow abs tac t cu l t u ra ld i c t a t e s . A h i s t o r i c a l c a s e i s h e l p f u l t h e n , b e c a u s e i tcha r t s changes i n concep tua l i za t i ons , and shows how i dea l s

c o m e t o r e s t r i c t w o m e n r s p o s s i b i f i t i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n .O u t r a m ( 1 9 8 7 ) c o n s i d e r s t h e d i l e m m a o f e l i t e w o m e n d u r i n g t h eF r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . T h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ,g l o r i f y i n g m a l e r v e r t u r , i d e n t i f i e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f w o m e nw i t h t h e s y s t e m o f p a t r o n a g e , s e x u a l f a v o r s , a n d c o r r u p t i o no f p o w e r u n d e r t h e O l d R e g i m e , i n w h i c h e l i t e w o m e n h a da c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d . T h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n , i nd e l i b e r a t e c o n t r a s t , w a s c o m m i t t e d t o a n a n t i - f e m i n i n e l o g i c :p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n c o u l d o n l y t a k e p l a c e i f w o m e n a n d t h e i rco r rup t i ng i n f l uence we re exc luded f r om pub l i c speak ing andf rom the exe rc i se o f power . Ou t ra rn a rgues t ha t , i n pa r t as ar e s u l t o f t h i s n e w c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , t h e f a m o u s a n d p o w e r f u lp o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f u p p e r c l a s s w o m e n i n t h e O I dR e g i m e w a s r e p l a c e d , i n t h e e r a o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n , w i t hv i g o r o u s a t t a c k s o n f e m a l e p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t s . B y t h e n e wl o g i c , e l i t e w o m e n r s p u b l i c s p e e c h a n d a c t i v i t i e s b r o u g h tt h e i r s e x u a l v i r t u e i n t o g u e s t i o n . F o r a w o m a n , t o b ep o l i t i c a l - w a s t o b e c o r r u p t ; t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y d i s c o u r s e o fu n i v e r s a l e q u a l i t y a p p l i e d o n l y t o m e n . W o m e n w h o w a n t e d t ob e b o t h r e s p e c t a b l e a n d p o l i t i c a l h a d v e r y f e w c h o i c e s : O n eo f t he bes t - known f i gu res o f t he Revo lu t i on , who was l a te ri m p r i s o n e d f o r h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p r o v i d e s a t e l l i n g e x a m p l e .M m e R o l a n d r s p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y i n c l u d e d p r o v i d i n g a f o r u m i nwh i ch men deba ted t he i ssues o f t he day . He r memo i res andle t t e r s revea l t ha t i t demanded a pa in fu l comprom ise : t h i swe l l - i n fo rmed woman re ta i ned respec t by l i s t en ing t o t hem e n r s p o l i t i c a J . d i s c u s s i o n s b u t r e m a i n i n g u t t e r l y s i l - e n t .

The h i s to r i ca l d imens ion i n ou t ramrs s tudy a l l ows us no ton l - y t o cha r t t he a f f ec t o f chang ing d i scou rse , bu t t ospec i f y t he soc ia l sou rce o f t he cu l t u ra l cons t ruc t i ons i n away no t poss ib l e i n t he more s ta t i c desc r i p t i ons o f non -W e s t e r n c a s e s . T h e s e p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s w e r e n o ts imp l y t he p roduc t o f some age -o Id and rnono l i t h i c ma led o n i n a n c e , b u t e m e r g e d a r t i c u L a t e l y i n t h e i d e a s o fr e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r i s t s a n d E n l i g h t e n m e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s .Pe rhaps o the r pa t t e rns o f i deas abou t gende r d i f f e rences i nspeech cou ld be t r aced t o s im i l a r l y spec i f i c t imes and soc ia lcon tex t s . Fo r examp le , i t i s a recu r ren t and unexp la inedf i nd ing o f r ecen t soc io l i ngu i s t i c su rveys t ha t i n no r thA m e r i c a n , B r i t i s h a n d s o m e o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c i t i e s ,m i d d l e a n d w o r k i n g c l a s s w o m e n m o r e f r e q u e n t l y u s ephono log i ca l f o rms assoc ia ted w i t h t he h ighes t r ank ingsoc ioceonomic c l asses t han men o f t he i r c l ass . M idd Ie andw o r k i n g c l a s s m e n m o r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e p r o n u n c i a t i o n scha rac te r i s t i c o f t he wo rk ing c l ass t han t he i r f ema lecoun te rpa r t s . And a l I men eva lua te wo rk ing c l ass f ea tu resm o r e p o s i t i v e l y t h a n w o m e n d o ( e . 9 . L a b o v I 9 7 4 , T r u d g i l lL 9 8 3 ) . C l e a r l y t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s y m b o l i z a t i o n o f g e n d e r a n d

o f s o c i a l c l a s s a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y ] i n k e d . T h e u n i v e r s a l i z i n ge x p l a n a t i o n s o f f e r e d s o f a r c r e d i t w o m e n i n g e n e r a l w i t hg r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o l a n g u a g e a n d p r e s t i g e . B u t t h e s et h e o r i e s f o u n d e r o n c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e s f r o m o t h e r s o c i e t i e s .I n s t e a d , I s u g g e s t t h e s e f i n d i n g s g a i n m e a n i n g w i t h i n ab r o a d e r c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n . T h e I i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e f o r m s p a r to f a g e n e r a l s y m b o l i c s t r u c t u r e I i n k i n g m a n L i n e s s w i t hr r t o u g h r r w o r k i n g c l a s s c u l t u r e a n d f e m a l e n e s s w i t ht r r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , t t t r g e n t i l i t y r f a n d " h i g h c u l t u r e " t h a t , s o m ea n a l y s e s s u g g e s t , e m e r g e d o n b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c i nthe Lg th cen tu ry and con t i nues t o be one componen t o f cu r ren tg e n d e r i m a g e s . 1 0

f n s h o r t , t h e c u l t u r a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d I i n k b e t w e e n t y p e so f v e r b a l s k i l 1 , g e n d e r i d e n t i t y a n d p o w e r i s n o t o n l yv a r i a b l e , b u t d e p e n d e n t o n a n e n t i r e w e b o f r e l a t e dc o n c e p t i o n s a n d , a s t h e f i n a l e x m a p l e s h i n t , o n h i s t o r i c a la n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s a s w e I 1 .

3 . Power i n Eve ryday Ta l k

M m e R o I a n d ' s s i l e n c e w a s n e i t h e r n a t u r a l n o r a nau toma t i c acgu iescence t o Revo lu t i ona ry cu l t u ra l concep t i ons .I n s t e a d , h e r } e t t e r s a n d m e m o i r s a l I o w u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h efo rums she c rea ted and he r pub l i c s i l - ence as s t ra teg i cresponses t o a cu l t u ra l doub le b i nd t ha t o f f e red he r e i t he rspeech o r r espec t , bu t no t bo th . Ne i t he r who l I y de te rm ined bycu l t u ra l i -mages and chang ing soc ia l s t r uc tu res , no r en t i r e l ya ma t te r o f he r own agency , Mme Ro land rs speech andi n t e r a c t i o n a r e e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e s o f p r a c t i c e s t h a trep roduce gende r images and re l a t i ons oE , as l a te r examp lesw i l l s h o w , s o m e t i m e s t a c i t l y c r i t i c i z e a n d r e s i s t t h e m .

In te rac t i onaL soc io l i ngu i s t i c s p rov ides t he t oo l s f o rana l yz ing speech s t ra teg ies as p rac t i ces ac t i ve l y cons t ruc tedb y s p e a k e r s i n r e s p o n s e t o c u l t u r a l a n d s t r u c t u r a lcons t ra i n t s . I f speech enac t s a d i scou rse s t ra tegy and i s no ts i np l y a re f l ex o r s i gna l o f soc ia l i den t i t y , t hen a t t en t i onmust be pa id not on ly to the gender ident i ty o f the speakerbu t a l so t o t he gende r o f t he aud ience and t he va ry i ngcu l t u ra l sa l i ence o f gende r i n d i f f e ren t soc ia l - con tex t s .Ma Ie - fema le d i f f e rences i n speech have been found i n eve rysoc ie t y s tud ied ; bu t t he na tu re o f t he con t ras t s i ss tagge r i ng l y d i ve rse , occu r r i ng i n va ry i ng pa r t s o f t hel i ngu i s t i c sys ten : phono logy , p ragma t i cs , syn tax , r no rpho logya n d l e x i c o n ( s e e P h i l i p s l - 9 8 7 ) . H e r e I w i l l p a y s p e c i a la t t en t i on t o co -occu r r i ng f ea tu res o f speech wh i ch f o rmpa t te rns , ca l l ed s t y l es , gen res . - o r ways o f speak ing t ha t a rel i nked , i n some wdy , t o gende r . r r

r . aII

U n I i k e t h e e a r l i e s t s t u d i e s t h a t n o t e d o n l y o b l i g a t o r yI i n g u i s t j . c d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n , c u r r e n tresea rch d i s t i ngu i shes be tween cases whe re a speech f o rm i sno rma t i ve l y r equ i red f o r men o r women , f r om cases whe re i t i sa f avo red s t ra tegy f o r one gende r because i t enac t s ,c o n s c i o u s l y o r n o t , m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s c o n t r a s t i n g v a l u e s o ri n t e r a c t i o n a l g o a l s , ( M c C o n n e l I - G i n e t 1 9 8 8 ) . S u c h d i f f e r e n c e sin va lues and goa l s emerge w i t h f o r ce when the d i v i s i on o fI abo r c rea tes l a rge l y sepa ra te wo r l ds f o r men and women , Sotha t r rmembers o f each sex l ea rn t o be p ro f i c i en t i n d i f f e ren tl i ngu i s t i c sk i l I s and t o do d i f f e ren t t h i ngs w i t h wo rds ,( B o r k e r 1 9 8 0 : 3 1 ) . r r I n d e e d , c o n s i d e r a b l e e t h n o g r a p h i cev idence sugges ts t ha t d i f f e rences i n ve rba l gen res be tweenmen and women a re w idesp read , espec ia l l y whe re menrs andw o n e n r s a c t i v i t i e s a r e d i s t i n c t l y d e f i n e d ( S h e r z e r 1 9 8 7 ) .

Fo r exa rnp le , among the Kuna fnd ians o f Low land Panama,speech gen res emerge f r om the d i v i s i on o f Labo r . Gen resassoc ia ted w i t h pub l i c po l i t i ca l mee t i ngs and r i t ua l - i zeda t t emp ts t o cu re i l - I ness a re l a rge l y res t r i c t ed t o men , wh i l ethe more p r i va te l y pe r fo rmed gen res o f l u I l ab ies and t une fu lm o u r n i n g a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o w o m e n ( S h e r z e r L 9 B 7 ) . S i n i l a r l y ,among the Ka lu l i , l i v i ng i n t he Sou the rn H igh lands o f PapuaNew Gu inea , i t i s t he men who te I I seve ra l t ypes o f s to r i es ,rec i te rnagica l formulae for hunt ing and per fonn songs anddances i n na jo r po l i t i ca l and ce remon ia l con tex t s . Womenc o n p o s e m o r e l i n i t e d c e r e m o n i a l s o n g s a n d e n g a g e i nexp ress i ve pub l i c weep ing on occas ions o f p ro found l - oss( S c h i e f f e l i n 1 9 8 7 ) . A m o n g t h e L a y m i I n d i a n s o f B o I i v i a ,women cont ro l and create genres o f pub l ic ly per formed songand mus i c t ha t a re essen t i a l t o cou r t i ng and t o t he r i t ua lcyc le ; men con t ro l speak ing i n t he 1oca1 po l i t i ca l assemb lyand speak ing d i r ec ted t o t he sp i r i t s i n cu r i ng r i t ua l s( H a r r i s 1 9 8 0 ) .

These s tud ies unde r l i ne t he f ac t t ha t i n many soc ie t i esw o m e n a c t i v e l y c r e a t e a n d p e r f o r m n a j o r e x p r e s s i v ea c t i v i t i e s , o f t e n i n p u b l i c , a p o i n t a l s o e r n p h a s i z e d b yf e m i n i s t f o l k l o r i s t s ( J o r d a n a n d d e C a r o L 9 B 6 ) . S u c h e v i d e n c ee f fec t i ve l y coun te rs t he pe rs i s ten t bu t e r roneous i n rage o fwomen as un i ve rsa l l y s i l en t i n pub l i c , o r r es t r i c t ed t odomes t i c ac t i v i t i es . I t h i gh l i gh t s as we l l one f unc t i on o fspeech i n a gende r sys tem: gen re d i f f e rences c rea te t he k i ndo f pe rvas i ve behav iou ra l con t ras t t ha t t r ans fo rms g rad ien t so f h u m a n d i f f e r e n c e i n t o c u l t u r a l l y s a l i e n t d i c h o t o m i e s o fr n a s c u l i n i t y a n d f e r n i n i n i t y . B u t , a s i m p l e c a t a l o g u e o f ' h i s

and he rs r gen res obscu res t he impo r tan t i ns i gh t t ha t womenrss p e c i a l v e r b a l s k i l l s a r e o f t e n s t r a t e g i c r e s p o n s e s - - m o r e o r

I e s s s u c c e s s f u l - - t o p o s i t i o n s o f r e l a t i v e p o w e r l e s s n e s s .

F o r e x a m p l e , i r r a H u n g a r i a n - G e r m a n b i l i n g u a l t o w n i nA u s t r i a , w o m e n u s e G e r m a n m o r e t h a n m e n d o . W o m e n r s u s e o fGe rman co r responds t o t he i r gene ra l r e j ec t i on o f t he peasan tway o f L i f e assoc ia ted w i t h t he Hunga r i an l anguage and t he i raccep tance o f t he wage l abo r symbo l i zed by German . I t i s , i np a r t , w o m e n r s r e l a t i v e p o w e r l e s s n e s s i n t h e p e a s a n t s o c i a lo rde r t ha t makes t he escape to wo rke r s ta tus so a t t r ac t i ve

fg t - t h " I : . qqd t hus exp la i ns t he ve rba l s t r a teg ies t hey use

( G a l I 9 7 B ) . "

S t ra teg ies a re no t a lways d i r ec ted t oward change . I n aT e n e j a p a n v i l l a g e o f s o u t h e r n M e x i c o , w o m e n a r e m o r e p o l i t ethan men i n two ways . They use many more l i ngu i s t i c pa r t i c l est h a t e r n p h a s i z e s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n a l p a r t n e r ,a n d a l s o u s e m o r e o f a c o n t r a s t i n g s e t o f p a r t i c l e s t h a ta v o i d i m p o s i t i o n a n d s t r e s s t h e l - i s t e n e r ' s s e p a r a t e n e s s a n dau tonomy . I ndeed , womenrs i n ten t t o i r npose by reques t i ng ,command ing o r c r i t i c i z i ng i s o f t en couched i n i r ony . Becausei r o n y r e g u i r e s t h e l i s t e n e r t o i n f e r t h e s p e a k e r r s i n t e n t , i ta l l ows t he speake r t o d i sc l a i r n t he i n ten t i f i t r esu l t s i ncha l l enge o r t h rea t . Men use l ess i r ony and f ewer pa r t i c l eso f e i t he r k i nd , show ing cons ide rab l y l ess sens i t i v i t y t o t hed e t a i l s o f s o c i a L r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d c o n t e x t . W o m e n r s u s a g e i san i n te rac t i ona l s t r a tegy , an accomoda t i on a r i s i ng f r om the i rsoc ia l and even phys i ca l vu lne rab i l i t y t o men , and t heconsequen t necess i t y t o show de fe rence t o men on t he onehand , and ma in ta in s t rong ne two rks o f so l i da r i t y w i t h o the rwomen . Th i s sugges ts t ha t l eve l s and t ypes o f po l i t enesss t ra teg ies used by women to men and t o o the r women nay we l lbe a sens i t i ve measu re o f womenrs s t ruc tu ra l - power i n manys o c i e t i e s ( B r o w n 1 9 8 0 ) .

Bu t womenrs responses t o power ) -essness may a l so bea t t e m p t s t o s u b v e r t m a l e a u t h o r i t y , o n l y t o e n d b yr e p r o d u c i n g i t . A s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e i s H a r d i n g ' s ( L 9 7 4 )a n a l y s i s o f a p e a s a n t v i l l a g e i n S p a i n . W o m e n a n d m e nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y o c c u p y d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l s p a c e s ( t h eh o u s e a n d s h o p s v s . t h e p l a z a a n d t h e f i e l d s ) ; h a v ed i f f e r e n t w o r k a n d c o n c e r n s ( f a m i l y a n d n e i g h b o r s v s . I a n d ,p o l i t i c s , e c o n o m i c s ) ; a n d d i f f e r e n t s p e e c h g e n r e s . W h i t e m e na rgue i n pub l i c , as a f o rm o f ve rba l p l ay requ i r i ng ana p p r e c i a t i v e a u d i e n c e ; w o m e n t a l k i n s m a I l , c l o s e d g r o u p s o fk i - n , o f t e n p r a c t i c i n g ' r g o s s i p ' r - - t h e g a t h e r i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n go f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p e o p l e - - a s t h e i r o n l y m e a n s o f s o c i a lc o n t r o l . H a r d i n g a r g u e s t h a t i t i s w o m e n r s s u b o r d i n a t ep o s i t i o n t o m e n , a n d n o t s i r n p l y s e p a r a t i o n , t h a t l e a d s w o m e nt o d e v e l o p s p e c i a l r f m a n i p u l a t i v e r r v e r b a l s k i I I s s u c h a s

t e a s i n g o u t i n f o r m a t i o n , c a r e f u l l y w a t c h i n g o t h e r s s o a s t oa n t i c i p a t e t h e i r n e e d s , a n d u s i n g i r o n y o r s e l f - e f f a c i n gme thods o f pe rsuas ion . G o s s i p i t s e l f i s w o m e n r s m o s tpower fu l ve rba l - t oo l , , bu t i t i s two -edged . I t t ends t osubve r t ma le au tho r i t y , by j udg ing peop le i n t e rms o f va luesthe ma le -dom inan t sys tem re jec t s . Bu t pa r t l y as a resu l t o ft h i s subve rs ion i t i s condemned and dec r i ed by t he dom inan tcu l t u re . Moreove r , i t i s seen by a l l as a nega t i ve f o rm o fpower t ha t makes o r b reaks repu ta t i ons , causes con f l i c t andd i s r u p t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t i s n e g a t i v e i n a n o t h e r s e n s e t o o .As Ha rd ing revea l s , women deve top t h i s gen re f o r l ack o fo the r f o rms o f power , bu t t hey a re t r apped by i t t hemse l ves :t t T h I e ] s e n s e , i f n o t f a c t , o f b e i n g u n d e r c o n s t a n t v e r b a lsu rve i l l ance res t r i c t s t he behav io r o f women and he lps keepthe rn i n t he i r p l ace , r r ( I 97 5 : 103 ) .

A l t hough the re i s no pa ra l l e l sepa ra t i on o f t he sexes i nthe Un i t ed S ta tes , Amer i can men and women a l so seem to usesomewha t d i f f e ren t ve rba l - s t r a teg ies i n conve rsa t i on . f n ap rovoca t i ve syn thes i s o f r ecen t r esea rch f i nd ings , Ma l t z andB o r k e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r g u e t h a t s e x - s e g r e g a t e d c h i l d r e n r s p t a yg roups , common i n Amer i can soc ie t y , c rea te gende r - spec i f i cv e r b a l c u l t u r e s w h o s e p r a c t i c e s s p e a k e r s r e t a i n i n t oadu l t hood . Bu t t he gende r d i f f e rences a re so sub t l e peop lea re aware on l y o f t he i r r esu l t : f r equen t m iscommun ica t i onbetween men and women who otherwise c la im to be f r iends ands ta tus egua l s . Ma l t z and Bo rke r r e l y i n pa r t on Goodw in t sca re fu l s t ud ies o f ch i l d ren ' s p l ay g roups i n an u rban b lackneighborhood, but in format ion on whi te ch i ldren and adul ts o fva r i ous c l asses and e thn i c g roups a l so seems to suppo r t t he i rg e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s s t r a t e g i e s .

Fo r i ns tance , boys and men o rgan i ze i n to re l a t i ve l yIa rge h ie ra rch i ca l g roups , us ing d i r ec t commands and vy ingw i th each o the r f o r l eade rsh ip pos i t i ons by ho ld i ng f o r t h i nco rnpe t i t i ve ve rba l d i sp lay . S ide commen ts and cha l l enges a rethe proper responses by those who do not have the f loor .G i r l s , oD the o the r hand , p l ay i n sma l l e r g roups , f o rm inge x c l u s i v e c o a l i t i o n s . T h e r e i s p l e n t y o f c o n f l i c t i n a l I - g i r lg r o u p s , b u t t h e i r v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n s i m p l i c i t l y d e n ycon f l i c t and h ie ra rchy , ph ras ing commands as p roposa l s f o rf u tu re ac t i v i t y . G i r l s and women ca re fu l l y I i nk t he i ru t terances to the prev ious speakerrs cont r ibut ion and develope a c h o t h e r s t t o p i c s , a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s r a t h e r f o rconversat iona l rna in tenance than for in format ion or cha l - Ienge( e . 9 . G o o d w i n l - 9 8 0 ) . B u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t a sinnocen t as Ma l t z and Bo rke r r s image o f pa ra l l e l , mu tua l l yn i scomprehend ing gende r - cu l t u res wou ld sugges t .

O n e w a y o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e f e m a l e s t r a t e g i e s i s a s as e t o f p r a c t i c e s t h a t , w h e t e v e r t h e a c t u a l p o w e r r e l a t i o n sw i t h i n t h e g i r l s t o r w o m e n r s g r o u p , n e v e r t h e l e s s e n a c t v a l u e so f suppo r t and so l i da r i t y t ha t d i r ec t l y oppose and imp l i c i t l yc r i t i c i z e t h e b o y r s a n d m e n r s p r a c t i c e s o f h e r o i ci n d i v i d u a l i t y , c o m p e t i t i o n a n d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f h i e r a r c h y .I n t h i s s e n s e t h e t w o r c u l t u r e s t a r e n o t s e p a r a t e a t a I I , b u tde f i ned by each o the r , enac t i ng i n speech f o rms seve ra lf am i l i a r cu l t u ra l oppos i t i ons i n Amer i can d i scou rse abou tgende r . They a re a l so no t equa l i n power . Goodw in andGoodw in ' s ( 1987 ) mos t r ecen t r epo r t s i nd i ca te t ha t when boysand g i r l s a rgue t oge the r , t he boys r s t r a tegy i s emp loyed bya I I . Th i s sugges ts t ha t t he boys t s t r a tegy i s do rn inan t i n twosenses : t he g i r l s bu t no t t he boys mus t Lea rn bo th , and t heboys seem to be ab le t o impose the i r s on t he g i r l - s i n c ross -s e x i n t e r a c t i o n . T h i s k i n d o f d o m i n a n c e i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d b ya s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s o n p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r r u p t i o n i n c r o s s - s e xin te rac t i ons among s ta tus equa l s . Be tween pa i r s o f speake rswho knew each o the r we l l , ds we l l as be tween those t ha t we res t range rs , men i n te r rup ted women more t han e i t he r sexi n t e r r u p t e d i n s a m e - s e x i n t e r a c t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , t h eassu rnp t i on t ha t i n te r rup t i on i s a ges tu re o f dom inance i ssuppo r ted by t he f i nd ing t ha t adu l t s i n te r rup t ch i l d ren moret h a n t h e r e v e r s e ( W e s t a n d Z i m m e r m a n 1 9 8 3 ) t ' . A s t u d y o fna tu ra l l y occu r r i ng conve rsa t i on by young Amer i can mar r i edcoup les i n t he i r homes i s a l so sugges t i ve i n t h i s r ega rd .A l though the \domen ra ised a lmost tw ice as many top ics o fconve rsa t i on as t he men , t he t op i cs ra i sed by men we re t heones t ha t we re accep ted and e labo ra ted i n t he conve rsa t i on byboth men and women. Yet i t was the women who prov ided most o ft h e i n t e r a c t i o n a l r r w o r k r r l t he ques t i ons and n in i na lresponses ( r ruh-huhrr ) , that kept the conversat i -on go ing( F i s h n a n 1 9 7 8 ) .

More sys tema t i c ev idence i s needed , espec ia l l y abou t t hee f f ec t s o f soc ia l con tex t on t he de ta i l s o f eve ryday f r i end l yt a L k . 1 4 A n d w e n e e d r e p l i c a t i o n s a c r o s s c L a s s e s i n d e t h n i lg roups o f s tud ies re l y i ng on ve ry sma l l samp les o f wh i t em idd le - c l ass speake rs . Neve r the less , i n c ross -gende r t a l k , dsin t he c ross -e thn i c m iscommun ica t i on on wh i ch Ma l t z andBorke r mode l t he i r ana l ys i s (Gumperz 1 -982 ) , i t seems c lea rtha t t he d i f f e rences i n s t r a teg ies p rov ide an oppo r tun i t y f o rthe more power fu l group to enact and re in force i ts dominanceth rough the n i c rop rocesses o f ve rba l i n te rac t i on .

Bu t a rna jo r f l aw i n many o f t he s tud ies o f l i ngu i s t i cs t ra tegy I have d i scussed so f a r i s t he i r assump t i on t ha ts p e e c h a n d g e n d e r a r e b e s t i n v e s t i g a t e d i n i n f o r m a lc o n v e r s a t i o n s , o f t e n i n o n e - t o - o n e o r s m a l l - g r o u p

r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e f a m i l y o r n e i g h b o r h o o d . T h i s c r e a t e s t h ei l l u s i o n t h a t g e n d e r e d t a l k i s m a i n l y a p e r s o n a Lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r l i n i t e d t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y .Ye t , as much fem in i s t r esea rch has demons t ra ted , gende r as as t r u c t u r a r p r i n c i p l e a r s o o r g a n i z e s o t h e r s o c i a ri n s t i t u t i o n s : w o r k p l a c e s , s c h o o l s , c o u r t r s , p o l i t i c a lassemb l i es and t he s ta te show cha rac te r i s t i c pa t t e rns i n t herec ru i tmen t , a l l oca t i on , t r ea tmen t and mob i l i t y o f men asopposed to women . These a re i nsc r i bed i n t he o rgan i za t i on o ft he i ns t i t u t i on . Pa t t e rns o f t a r k and i n te rac t i on p lay animpo r tan t r o re i n na in ta i n i ng , l eg i t ima t i ng and o f t en h id i ngthe gende red aspec t o f t hese i ns t i t u t i ona l a r rangemen ts . Ther o r e o f m e n t s a n d w o m e n I s l i n g u i s t i c s t r a t e g i e s w i t h i ni ns t i t u t i ons dese rves cons ide rab l y more a t t en t i on t han i t hass o f a r r e c e i v e d . f w i l I d i s c u s s o n l y a f e w s u g g e s t i v eexamp les f r om schoo l s and bu reauc rac ies i n t he US , andp o l i t i c a l a s s e m b l i e s i n s e v e r a l s m a I l s c a l e s o c i e t i e s .

W i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n t e r v i e w s , m e e t i n g s a n d o t h e rcha rac te r i s t i c ve rba l encoun te rs a re o f t en c ruc ia r f o rd e c i s i o n m a k i n g . o n t h e b a s i s o f t a l k , s o m e i n d i v i d u a r s a r eh i r e d , c h o s e n t o p a r t i c i p a t e , r e c e i v e r e s o u r c e s , o rp romo t i ons and au tho r i t y , wh i l e o the rs a re den ied . f nconp lex , cap i t a l i s t soc ie t i es t he c l ass and e thn i c backg roundo f speake rs i s c ruc ia r i n such ga te -keep ing encoun te rs(E r i ckson and schu l t z r 9e2 ) . And gende r rou t i ne l y i n te rac t sw i t h c rass and e thn i c i t y . Fo r i ns tance , i n a s tudy o f speechin Amer i can cou r t s , t he t es t imony o f w i t nesses us ing t hel i ngu i s t i c f o rms cha rac te r i s t i c o f women w i t h no cou r t r oo rnexpe r i ence and o f l ow s ta tus men , was j udged by expe r imen ta ls u b j e c t s t o b e r e s s c r e d i b r e , r e s s c o n v i n c i n g a n d l e s st r u s t w o r t h y t h a n t e s t i r n o n y d e l i v e r e d i n a s t y r ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s p e a k e r s w i t h h i g h s t a t u s ( o ' B a r r a n dA t k i n s L 9 B 0 ) . I t a p p e a r s t h a t c o u r t s r e i n f o r c e t h e a u t h o r i t yo f f o rms assoc ia ted w i t h h i gh s ta tus speake rs , who tend t o beInen.

The I 'mee t i ng ' r i s a speech even t ub iqu i t i ous i n Amer i canbu reauc ra t i c , co rpo ra te and academic 1 i f e . r n a s tudy o ff a c u l t y m e e t i n g s , E d e l s k y ( 1 9 8 1 ) c o n s i d e r e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y a sa w o r k p r a c e , n o t a s a n e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . r n m e e t i n g sw i th egua r numbers o f ma le and f emare pa r t i c i pan ts o f equ i loccupa t i on s ta tus , she asked whe the r women \ , { e re as success fu la s m e n i n " g e t t i n g t h e f l o o r , r , t h a t i s i n g e t t i n g t h eoppo r tun i t y t o t a l k and t he reby con t r i bu te t o t he dec i s i ons .B u t a d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n o f m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s p a r t i c i p a t i o nwas no t poss ib l e . who spoke and how o f t en depended on t heimpr i c i t r u l - es by wh i ch speake rs pa r t i c i pa ted . And the re we rea t l e a s t t w o s e t s o f r u l e s , t w o k i n d s o f i l f 1 o o r . r ' f n

e p i s o d e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e f i r s t k i n d o f ' r f l o o r r r s p e a k e r stook l onge r and f ewer t u rns , f ewe r speake rs pa r t i c i pa tedo v e r a I l , t h e y d i d n o t o v e r l a p m u c h , t h e r e w e r e m a n y f a l s es ta r t s and hes i t a t i ons and speake rs used t he i r t u rns f o rr e p o r t i n g a n d v o i c i n g o p i n i o n s . T h e o t h e r k i n d o f r r f I o o r r loccu r red a t t he same mee t i ngs bu t du r i ng d i f f e ren t ep i sodes .I t was cha rac te r i zed by I o t s o f ove r l ap and s imu l t aneoust a I k , b u t 1 i t t l e h e s i t a t i o n i n s p e a k i n g , a n d m o r e g e n e r a lpa r t i c i pa t i on by many speake rs , co l l - abo ra t i ve l y cons t ruc t i ngr r $ / h a t I s - g o i n g - o n . " S e v e r a l s p e a k e r s d i d t h e s a m ecommun ica t i ve f unc t i ons such as sugges t i ng an i dea , a rgu ingo r a g r e e i n g ; j o k i n g , t e a s i n g a n d w i s e c r a c k i n g w e r e m o r ef requen t .

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s o fAmer i can men and women , ds ou t l i ned by Ma l t z and Bo rke r , a red i f f e r e n t l y s u i t e d t o t h e t w o k i n d s o f " f l o o r . r r I t w a s m e nw h o m o n o p o l i z e d t h e f i r s t k i n d o f f l o o r , b y t a k i n g l o n g e rtu rns , ho ld i ng f o r t h and dom ina t i ng t he cons t ruc t i on o f t hef l oo r t h rough the t i r ne t hey t ook t a l k i ng . I n t he second k i ndo f f l oo r , whe re eve ryone took sho r te r t u rns , men and woment o o k t u r n s o f a b o u t e q u a 1 l e n g t h ; a n d a l I s p e a k e r spa r t i c i pa ted as equa ) - s i n t he comrnun i ca t i ve f unc t i onsp e r f o n n e d ( l - 9 8 1 : 4 1 6 ) . I r n p o r t a n t l y , t h e f i r s t , m o r e f o r m a lk i nd o f f l oo r i n wh i ch women pa r t i c i pa ted 1ess , occu r redvas t l y more f r equen t l y , a t l eas t i n t h i s i ns t i t u t i ona lse t t i ng . Exp l i c i t and t ac i t s t r ugg les be tween speake rs abou thow mee t i ngs a re t o be conduc ted a re con f l i c t s abou t t hecon t ro l o f i ns t i t u t i ona l power . Even among s ta tus equa l s andin rn i xed sex g roups , t he i n te rac t i ona l cons t ra i n t s o fi ns t i t u t i ona l even ts such as nee t i ngs a re no t gende r neu t ra l ,bu t we igh ted i n f avo r o f ma le i n te rac t i ona l s t r a teg ies . Theo rgan i za t i on o f t he rnee t i ng masks t he f ac t t ha t speake rs a reexc luded on t he bas i s o f gende r , wh i l e accomp l i sh ing t ha tve ry excLus ion .

Pe rhaps more pe rvas i ve l y t han any o the r i ns t i t u t i on ,s c h o o l s j u d g e , d e f i n e a n d c a t e g o r i z e t h e i r c h a r g e s o n t h eb a s i s o f l i n g u i s t i c p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g i e s o fb o y s a n d g i r l s c a n a l s o a f f e c t t h e i r a c c e s s t o t h e o f t e nl i n g u i s t i c r e s o u r c e s , s u c h a s I i t e r a c y , t h a t s c h o o l i n go f f e r s . A s i n g l e e x a m p l e w i l l s u f f i c e t o s u g g e s t h o w e t h n i cd i f f e r e n c e s i n t e r a c t w i t h g e n d e r i n t h i s p r o c e s s . r n h e r f i n ec o m p a r i s o n o f l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g f o r l i t e r a c yi n t h r e e s o u t h e r n c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e U S , H e a t h ( 1 9 8 3 )ca re fu l 1y desc r i bes t he comp lex and a r t f u l ) - i ngu i s t i cp r a c t i c e s o f a b l a c k w o r k i n g c l a s s c o m m u n i - t y . c h i l d r e n m u s trnas te r r r ana logy " ques t i ons posed by t he i r e rde rs , i n wh i chthey a re encou raged to see t he pa ra l - r e r s and connec t i ons

a m o n g d i s p a r a t e e v e n t s a n d t e l l a b o u t t h e m c l e v e r l y , w i t h o u ts p e l l i n g o u t e x p l i c i t l y w h a t t h e l i n k s a r e . S u c h d e s c r i t i o n sd i f f e r f r om schoo l r equ i remen ts wh i ch ma tch m idd le c l assp a t t e r n s . A n d w h a t i s e x p e c t e d o f b l a c k g i r l s a t h o m e d i f f e r scons ide rab l y f r om the more ex tens i ve ve rba l sk i l I s demandedo f b o y s . W o r k i n g c l a s s b l a c k g i r I s , i n c o n t r a s t t o b o y s o ft he i r own g roup , a re ne i t he r expec ted no r encou raged top r a c t i c e a w i d e r a n g e o f s t o r y - t e l l i n g t a c t i c s i n c o m p e t i t i v er r o n - s t a g e r r p u b l i c a r e n a s w h e r e c o m m u n i t y a d u l t s a s w e I I a sc h i l d r e n w a t c h a n d j u d g e , ( 1 9 8 3 : 9 5 - 9 8 ; 1 0 5 - 1 1 2 ) .

T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e e m e r g e i n a p a r a l l e ls t u d y o f t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n i n a f i r s t - g r a d ec l a s s r o o n w i t h b o t h b l a c k a n d w h i t e s t u d e n t s ( M i c h a e l s 1 9 8 1 ) .When the wh i t e t eache rs - - a11 women- - i ns t i t u ted a i l sha r i ng

t i r n e r f ( r r s h o w a n d t e l l t ' ) a c t i v i t y , t h e y h a d t h e e x p l i c i t g o a lo f b r i dg ing t he gap be tween the o ra l d i scou rse t he ch i l d rena l ready knew and the I i t e ra te d i scou rse s t ra teg ies t hey wou l -deven tua l l y have t o use i n w r i t t en commun ica t i on . They askedt h e c h i l d r e n t o t e l l a b o u t a s p e c i f i c o b j e c t o r g i v e anarra t ive account about some i rnpor tant past event . For thewh i t e boys and g i r l s t h i s wo rked qu i t e we l l . They t o l d t op i c -f ocused s to r i es t ha t t he t eache rs unde rs tood ; and t heteache rs r ques t i ons and commen ts he lped t he s tuden ts makethe i r s t o r i es more exp l i c i t and deve lop t he more comp lexs t ruc tu res o f s tanda rd l i t e racy . The wo rk ing c l ass b lackg i r l s howeve r , o rgan i zed t he i r s t o r i es t o resemb le ch i l d ren t sresponses t o r r ana logy r r ques t i ons . They no ted abs t rac tpa ra l l e l s be tween d i spa ra te s i t ua t i ons and even ts and re l i edon t he } i s t ene r t o i n fe r t he i np l i c i t l i n ks . A l t hough thewh i t e t eache rs we re o f t he same gende r as t he b lack g i r l s andhad exce l l en t i n ten t i ons , t hey f a i l ed t o unde rs tand t h i sp r i nc ip l e and t hus we re unab le t o co l l abo ra te w i t h t he b lackg i r l s i n p roduc ing more e labo ra te , s t r uc tu ra l l y comp lexs to r i es . The b lack g i r l s f e l t f r us t ra ted ; t he i r s t o r i es we rerare ly even conple ted before the teachers cut then of f . As aresu l t , they cou ld not benef i t f rom the s teps towardl i t e ra te , s tanda rd d i scou rse t ha t t he c l ass room ac t i v i t yappa ren t l y accomp l i shed f o r t he wh i t e ch i l d ren . They wou ldno t be ab le t o use t h i s t i ngu i s t i c sk i l I as an economicresou rce l a te r i n } i f e . The t eache rs we re a l so f r us t ra ted .To t hen i t appea red t ha t t he g i r l s cou ld no t " s t i c k t o t hepo in t t t no r d i sce rn wha t was ! t i r npo r tan t . r r on t he bas i s o fnany such i n te rac t i ons t he b l - ack g i r l s wou ld be j udgedin te l l ec tua l l y i nadequa te .

Th i s ab i l i t y o f soc ia l i ns t i t u t i ons t o c rea te gende redde f i n i t i ons o f speake rs t h rough ta l k i s equa l l y i l l u s t ra tedby po l i t i ca l assemb l i es i n sma l l - sca1e soc ie t i es whe re adu l t

m e n c o n s i d e r e a c h o t h e r e q u a l s . I n m a n y s u c h s o c i e t i e s , a samong the Ma lagasy and t he Laym i f nd ians desc r i bed above ,o n l y m e n t a l k a t p u b l i c , p o l i t i c a l m e e t i n g s . E t h n o g r a p h e r shave repea ted l y desc r i bed men I s t a l k i . n t h i s con tex t asa l l u s i v e a n d i n d i r e c t , r n a k i n g u s e o f i m a g e s , p a r a b l e s , a n dme tapho rs t o h i de , ve i l o r anb igua te t he re fe ren t i a l message ,t h e r e b y d e n y i n g c o n f l i c t ( B r e n n e i s a n d M y e r s 1 9 8 4 ) . W o m e nare exc luded on t he g rounds t ha t t hey l ack t he necessa ryv e r b a l s u b t l e t y . T h i s s e e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a t s p e e c hd i f f e rences a re power fu l i ndeed , s i nce t hey seem to d i r ec t l yI i m i t w o m e n r s a c c e s s t o t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r ,e thnog raphe rs a l so repo r t t ha t t he mee t i ngs a re no t t he rna ins i t e o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , a n d i n d i r e c t s p e e c h i s n o t p r i m a r i l ya m e a n s o f p e r s u a s i o n o r c o e r c i o n . U s u a l l y d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d eand concensus reached be fo re and a f t e r t he rnee t i ng i ni n fo rma l d i scuss ions t ha t emp loy a more d i r ec t s t y l e and i nw h i c h w o m e n p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y , t h e r e b y h a v i n gc o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t o n d e c i s i o n s ( H a r r i s 1 9 8 0 : 7 3 ; K e e n a n1 - 9 7 4 ; L e d e r m a n f 9 B 4 ) . W h a t , t h e n , i s t h e r n e a n i n g a n d e f f e c to f w o m e n f s e x c l u s i o n f r o m s p e a k i n g a t m e e t i n g s ?

T h e I i n g u i s t i c f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l m e e t i n g s d e f i n e s n o thow dec i s i on - rnak ing ac tua l l y occu rs , bu t r a the r wha t can beshown ' r ons tage r r ; wha t can be f ocused on as t he l eg i t i r na terea l i t y . Compara t i ve ev idence sugges ts t ha t nee t i ngs a twh i ch o rde rs a re g i ven o r announced by I eade rs ra t i f y anideo logy o f h i e ra rchy , r ega rd less o f t he way dec i s i ons we reo r i g i na l l y r eached . Mee t i ngs i n wh i ch i nd i rec tness c rea tes aIack o f coe rc i on and h ie ra rchy be tween pa r t i c i pan ts ra t i f y ani d e o l o g y o f e g a l i t a r i a n r e l a t i o n s , a t I e a s t i n s o c i e t i e sw h e r e t h e r e a r e f e w o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n a L i z e d p o l i t i c a ls t r u c t u r e s ( f r v i n e I 9 7 9 ) . I f m e n I s i n d i r e c t o r a t o r ycons t ruc t s t he soc ia l - r ea r i t y o f an ega l i t a r i an ma le po l i t y ,t hen t he exc rus ion o f women c rea tes t he rea l i t y andleg i t i r na tes t he i deo logy o f womenrs subo rd ina t i on t o t ha tpo l i t y . As Lede rman (1984 ) po in t s ou t abou t t he Mend i o f NewGu inea , f o r t he wonen r i s t en ing i n s i l ence a t such a mee t i ng ,t h i s r ea l i t y i s a l - l - t he ha rde r t o cha l l enge s i nce i t i sf onna l l y ac ted ou t bu t neve r exp l i c i t l y a r t i cu la ted .

f n sum, soc ie ta l i ns t i t u t i ons a re no t neu t ra l . con tex t sfo r t a I k . They a re o rgan i zed t o de f i ne , demons t ra te anden fo rce t he l eg i t imacy and au tho r i t y o f l i ngu i s t i c s t r a teg iesused by one gende r o r men o f one c l ass o r e thn i c g roup - -wh i l e deny ing t he power o f o the rs . 15 Fo rms tha t d i ve ige u r "devau led by t he do rn inan t i deo log ies . ' rF roo rs " w i t h manyp a r t i c i p a n t s , b l a c k g i r l s t s t o r i e s , w o m e n r s g o s s i p i n s p a i n ,Mend i womenrs d i r ec tness , a I l a t t emp t t o con tes t t he hegemonyo f t he dom inan t f o rms . Bu t i t i s no t t he , f l oo r r t ha t i ;

' ' i l

j u d g e d i n a u s p i c i o u s , r a t h e r w o m e n a r e s e e n a s t i n i d o r u n a b l eto exp ress t hemse l ves ; i t i s no t t ha t t he b lack g i r l s haved i f f e ren t s to r y - t e l I i ng expe r i ences t han wh i t e ch i l d ren andless t r a i n i ng t han b lack boys , bu t t ha t t hey canno t t h i nkp rope r l y . Desp i t e t he res i s tance demons t ra ted i n women tsl i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s , B o u r d i e u f s ( L 9 7 7 b ) r e m a r k a b o u t t h ee f f e c t s o f t h i s k i n d o f l i n g u i s t i c d o m i n a t i o n a p p l i e s : b yau tho r i z rng some I i ngu i s t i c p rac t i ces and no t o the rs , t heins t i t u t i on appea rs t o demons t ra te t he i n fe r i o r i t y o f t hosewho use unau tho r i zed f o rms and o f t en i ncu l - ca tes i n t hemf e e l i n g s o f w o r t h l e s s n e s s .

Bu t no t i ce t ha t t he Mend i mee t i ng , I i ke Mme Ro land ' sf o r u m s , a n d s i n g l e - s p e a k e r r r f 1 o o r s , r r a l s o i l l u s t r a t e a n o t h e rso r t o f symbo l i c power I r nen t i oned a t t he s ta r t o f t h i spape r : t hey a re i n te rac t i ona l and l i ngu i s t i c f o rms , bu t no ton l y t ha t ; t hey a l so a t t emp t t o impose and l eg i t ima te ce r ta i nde f i n i t i ons o f women , men and soc ie t y . I now tu rn t o af u l l e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s s e c o n d a s p e c t o f s y n b o l i cdom ina t i on and t he way womenrs vo i ces a re some t imes ra i seda g a i n s t i t .

4 . G e n r e s o f R e s i s t a n c e

Desp i t e t he l ong -s tand ing Wes te rn emphas i s on l anguageas p r i na r i l y a means o f r ep resen t i ng an a l r eady ex i s t i ngrea l i t y , an th ropo log i s t s have l ong been aware o f t he ways i nwh i ch t he me tapho rs , I i t e ra r y gen res and i n te rac t i ona lar rangements readi ly ava i lab le in a communi ty shape the h/ayspeake rs de f i ne t he soc ia l wo r l d . I n sho r t , conven t i ona ll anguage and i t s conven t i ona l usage a re no t neu t ra l med ia f o rd e s c r i b i n g s o c i a l I i f e . S o m e f o r m u l a t i o n s a b o u t s o c i a l I i f e ,when i nsc r i bed i n a d i v i son o f l abo r o r o the r o rgan i za t i ona lf o rm , se rve one g roup ts i n te res t s be t t e r t han t ha t o f o the rs .A hegemon ic d i scou rse , i n t h i s b road sense , i s a f o rm o fpower , and i s some t i nes res i s ted o r con tes ted .

Th i s impo r tan t and qu i t e gene ra l no t i on o f a dyna rn i cbe tween dom inan t and subo rd ina te d i scou rses o r p rac t i ces hasbeen d i scussed , i n many f o rms and w i t h many t e rm ino log ies , bya v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l t h e o r i s t s . H o w e v e r , f e m i n i s t s c h o l a r shave been s t rong l y i n f l uenced by a I im i t ed ve rs i on o f t h i si n s i g h t , e x p l i c i t l y a p p l i e d t o w o m e n . A r d e n e r , E . ( 1 9 7 5 ) a n dA r d e n e r , S . ( 1 9 7 5 ) a r g u e t h a t w o m e n , d u e t o t h e i r s t r u c t u r a lp o s i t i o n s , h a v e d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s o f r e a l i t y t h a n t h e m a l e -d o m i n a t e d s o c i e t a L m o d e l . T h e f o r m o f w o m e n r s m o d e l s i s o f t e nn o n - v e r b a I , i n a r t i c u l a t e o r v e i l e d , w h i l e t h e d i s c o u r s e o fnen i s no re ve rba l and exp l i c i t , and t he reby more cong ruen tw i t h t he usuaL d i scou rse o f wes te rn soc ia l - sc i ence . Be ingunab le t o exp ress t he i r s t r uc tu ra l l y gene ra ted v i ews i n t he

d o m i n a n t a n d m a s c u l i n e d i s c o u r s e , w o m e n a r e n e i t h e ru n d e r s t o o d n o r h e e d e d , a n d b e c o m e i n a r t i c u l a t e , t t n u t e d , t r o reven s i l en t . f n such cases women may ta l k a . - I o t , bu t do no te x p r e s s t h e i r o w n d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l r e a l i t y . r o

The r rmu ted g roup r r t hes i s use fu l ) - y d raws a t t en t i on t o t heimpo r tance o f t he symbo l i c l anguage , t he f o rm , o f do rn inan ta n d s u b o r d i n a t e d i s c o u r s e . H o w e v e r , d s I w i l l d e m o n s t r a t ew i t h a s e r i e s o f e x a m p l e s , t h e A r d e n e r s r f o r m u l a t i o n i sf l a w e d i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , i t a s s u m e s t h a tt t m u t e d n e s s t t i s a s t a t i c r e f l e x o f w o m e n r s s t r u c t u r a Lp o s i t i o n . f n c o n t r a s t , w h e n v i e w e d i n t e r m s o f b r o a d e rtheo r i es o f gende r and symbo l i c dom ina t i on , r rmu tedness r l

b e c o m e s o n l y o n e o f m a n y t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e s o fg e n d e r r e l a t i o n s . A m u c h w i d e r a r r a y o f w o m e n r s v e r b a ls t r a t e g i e s a n d g e n r e s b e c o m e s v i s i b l e , s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r ea r t i cu la te and more ac t i ve l - y oppos i t i ona l t o dom inan t mode l st h a n t h e r r m u t e d n e s s r r t h e s i s a I l o w s . S e c o n d , i f d o m i n a t i o n a n dr e s i s t a n c e a r e r n a t t e r s o f i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e a s w e l l a ss t ruc tu re , as f have been a rgu ing , t hen we mus t f ocus no t onr rmu tedness r r as a s t ruc tu ra l p roduc t , bu t on t he p rocesses bywh ich wonen a re rende red r rmu te r r o r manage to cons t ruc td i ssen t i ng gen res and res i s t i ng d i scou rses . As War ren andB o u r g u e s u g g e s t : r r . . . u n d e r s t a n d i n g d o m i n a n c e a n d m u t i n g I a sp r o c e s s e s l r e q u i r e s a b r o a d e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o l i t i c a leconomic and i ns t i t u t i ona l con tex t s i n wh i ch rea l i t y i sn e g o t i a t e d , ( 1 9 8 5 : 2 6 1 ) . "

E thnog raphy i t se l f i s such a con tex t , f o r e thnog raph i crepo r t s a re deep l y i np l i ca ted i n t he p rocess o f r ep resen t i ngse l f and o the rs , c rea t i ng images o f soc ia l r ea l i t y t h roughl a n g u a g e . K e e n l y a w a r e o f t h i s , f e m i n i s t c r i t i c s o fan th ropo logy have cha rged t ha t women i n t he soc ie t i es s tud iedwere i gno red o r pe rce i ved as i ne r t because and rocen t r i ce thnog raphe rs d i sm issed women and t he i r conce rns , nak ing t hema p p e a r p a s s i v e a n d s i l e n t , F e m i n i s t s c h a l l e n g e d t h e a u t h o r i t ya n d c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e s e m a l e - b i a s e d a c c o u n t s . B u t A r d e n e r r sthes i s sugges ts t ha t t he p rob lem i s more comp lex . f t c l a i nstha t women ra re l y r r spea [ ' t i n soc ia l an th ropo ) .og i ca I r epo r t sbecause soc ia l sc i ence i nves t i ga to rs o f bo th sexes demand thek ind o f a r t i cu la te mode l s p rov ided by men , no t by mu tedwomen . And i ndeed , some women an th ropo log i s t s have a l socomp la ined o f t he i na r t i cu la teness o f women i n fo rman ts i nsome con tex t s . I t seens t he re i s a need to re -exam ine howe thnog raph ies a re c rea ted . Cu r ren t l y , j us t such a re -exa rn ina t i on i s a l so t he p ro jec t o f an th ropo log i s t s who a res i m i r a r r y c h a r r e n g i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f e t h n o g r a p h i c w r i t i n g ,b u t o n d i f f e r e n t g r o u n d s . F o l l o w i n g p o s t - m o d e r n i s t t r e n d s i nph i rosophy , t hey asse r t t ha t t r ad i t i ona l - e thnog raph ies mask

t l g a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f f i e l d w o r k a n d w r i t i r g , ( M a r c u s a n dc l i f f o r d 1 9 8 5 ) . B y c l a i m i n g t o a c c u r a t e r y r e p r e s e n t t h efac t s abou t an exo t i c cu l t u re , t he na i ve rea l i s t conven t i onso f e thnog raph i c w r i t i ng imp r i c i t r y deny t ha t e thnog raph i cfac t s a re se lec ted , i ndeed cons t ruc ted i n t he encoun te rbe tween the an th ropo log i s t and t he ' o the r ' who i s he r /h i ssub jec t . r n o rde r t o re f rec t t he p rocess o f e thnog raph i ck n o w l e d g e , t h e s e c r i t i c s s u g g e s t e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w l t nl i t e ra r y f o rms so t ha t w r i t i ng - may be a "po l yvoca l ' andd ia log i c p roduc t i on i n wh i ch t he e thnog raphe r l e t J t he peop lespeak and ethnographic fac ts are shown to be jo in t ly proauteaby ethnographer and in formant .

w h a t h a s r e c e i v e d t o o r i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i n a r r t h e s ec r i t i gues i s t he unavo idab l y power - cha rged ve rba l encoun te ri n wh i ch an th ropo rog i s t s and na t i ve speake rs , w i t h d i f f e ren ti n te res t s , goa l s and deep l y unequa l pos i t i ons rnee t anda t t e n p t t o t a l k . K e e s i n g ( 1 9 B 5 ) p r o v i d e s a f a s c i n a t i n gexampre o f t he e thnog raph i c i n te r v i ew as a r i ngu i s t i ip r a c t i c e . I n o r d e r t o r e c o r d w o m e n r s v e r s i o n s o f n a t i i e l i f e(Xas ton ) among the Kwa io , a t enac ious ry t r ad i t i onaL g roupJ . i v i ng i n t he so lomon r s l ands o f t he sou th pac i f i c , xees ingh a d t o a n a r y z e w h a t h e c a r l s t h e r m i c r o p o r i t i c s r o f t a l k . r ;r esponse t o Kees ing ' s r eques t s , t he men c rea ted and t o rd l i f eh i s to r i es eage r l y and a r t f u l " l y , even t hough the Kwa io racksuch a gen re as we rL as a t r ad i t i on o f se r f - r eve la t i on andse r f -exp rana t i on on wh i ch t he wes te rn l i t e ra r y f o rm o f t heau tob iog rahpy i s based . r n con t ras t , Kees ing recoun ts t ha the cou ld no t e l i c i t au tob iog raph i ca l , na r ra t i ves f r om women ,no t even t hose who we re o ld , know ledgeab le and i n f l uen t i a l .They spoke to h in in a f ragmented, inar t icu la te and jok ingwdy, espec ia l ly in f ront o f e lder men who urged thern t ;cooperate . They appeared d is t ressed wi th what was requestedo f t hem! r rmu te . r r A subseguen t f i e l d t r i p , e i gh t yea rs ra te r ,th is t ine wi th a woman ethnographer , brought qu i le d i f ferentresu l ts . rn sess ions wi th both e thnographers , Kwaio wornentook con t ro l o f t he encoun te rs , even b r i ng ing f emaLe f r i endsas aud ience t o t he reco rd ing sess ions . Bu t , un r i ke t he men ,who had p rov ided soc ie ta l r u l es and pe rsona l l i f e na r ra t i ves ,!h" women re jected the ethnographers I personar guest ions andinstead created rnora l tex ts about the v i r tues o f womanhood,i nse r t i ng pe rsona l expe r i ences on l y t o i l l u s t ra te womenrsposs ib re pa ths t h rough I i f e . Th rough the i r t ex t s , Kwa io womenwere re formulat ing and embel l ish ing a Iong-s tanding s t ra tegyo f K w a i o m e n : T o e n l i s t t h e ( a t f i r s t ) u n k n o w i n gan th ropo log i s t i n t he i r e f f o r t s t o cod i f y and au tho r i ze Xwa ioc u s t o m . B y r e g i t i r n a t i n g t h e i r o w n c u s t o m s i n a nanthropolog ized form the Kwaio men were ab le to use i t tores is t the demands of s ta te regula t ions, thereby at tempt i .g ,

t h r o u g h v i g o r o u s n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s m , t o m a i n t a i n t h e i rp o l i t i c a l a u t o n o m y i n t h e f a c e o f c o l o n i a l a n d n e o - c o l o n i a 1i n c u r s i o n s .

A d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f K w a i o w o m e n r s t a l k r e q u i r e sr e v i s i o n s o f a l l t h r e e c r i t i q u e s o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a lf i e l dwork . C lea r l y Kwa io women were no t so much s t ruc tu ra l l ymu te a nd i na r t i . cu la te as respons i ve t o t he immed ia tei n t e r a c t i o n a l c o n t e x t , e s p e c i a l l y r e l a t i o n s o f g e n d e ri nequa l i t y w i t h i n t he i r own soc ie t y and i n t he e thnog raph i ci n te r v i ew . P ragma t i c ana l yses o f t he i n te r v i ew as a speecheven t sugges t i t i s t he e thnog raphe r ' s t ask t o d i scove r t hec o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h i n f o r m a n t s c a n t a l k . S i m i l a r l y , i t i sn o t e n o u g h t o i n s i s t , d s t h e p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c r i t i c s d o , t h a tt he e thnog raph i c encoun te r and t he gen res t ha t emerge f r om i ta r e j o i n t l y p r o d u c e d . W h i I e i m p o r t a n t a n d a c c u r a t e , t h i sobse rva t i on by i t se l f i gno res t he impo r tance o f gende r ando t h e r f o r m s o f i n e q u a l i t y . I t o m i t s t h e s e v e r a l l e v e l s o fu n e q u a l p o w e r a n d p r i v i l e g e w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h ee thnog raph i c encoun te r and wh i ch a l so de te rm ine who i s ab let o t a l k a n d w h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e o r s t r a t e g i c t o s a y . T h ew o m e n r s i n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s a n d s u b s e q u e n t r r v o i c e r I a s m u c h a st h e m e n r s s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f t h e i r c u l t u r e , w e r e r e s p o n s e s t ow ide r f i e l ds o f f o r ce wh i ch assu re t ha t some tex t s o r gen resa re more power fu l t han o the rs , mak ing a s imp le co -p roduc t i ono f e t h n o g r a p h i c t e x t s i m p o s s i b l e , ( A s a d 1 9 8 6 , P o l i e r a n dR o s e b e r r y l - 9 8 8 : 1 5 ) . F i n a l l y , f e r n i n i s t s w o u L d h a v econ f i den t l y p red i c ted t he changes p roduced by t he p resence o fa woman an th ropo log i s t , and wou ld have unde rs tood t ha t t hegen re o f au tob iog raphy i s p rob le rna t i c no t on l y because i t i scu l t u ra l l y spec i f i c t o t he Wes t , bu t a l so because i t has beenshaped by_ wes te rn gende r i deo logy t ha t assumes a ma lesub jec t . L t Ye t t he case o f Kwa io women sugges ts rev i s i onsand expans ions f o r gende r t heo r i es as we l - l : A f ema lee thnog raphe r may be on l y pa r t o f t he answer . I n t h i s case ,t he p resence o f t he ma le an th ropo rog i s t was a rso impo r tan t ,f o r t he women were a t t uned t o h i - s es tab l i shed ro l e asrned ia to r be tween the Kwa io and t he ou t s i de wo r l d . Thus ,a t t en t i on mus t be pa id t o re l a t i ons o f power t ha t connec tKwa io soc ie t y t o a wo r l d sys tem i n wh i ch , 3s t he Kwa io a rea w a r e , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , d s w i e l d e r s o f w e s t e r n d i s c o u r s e ,have au tho r i t y t ha t Kwa io women , pe rhaps d i f f e ren t )_y t hanmen, can t ry to channel to the i r own ends through thee thnog raph i c i n te r v i ew .

Ethnography is on ly one of the many contexts in which wecan obse rve t he p rocesses t ha t make women seem r rmu ten .Ano the r examp le i s p rov ided by an e l i t e i n te l l ec tua l - s t udyg r o u p , t h e M e n r s a n d W o m e n r s C l u b o f L B B 0 s L o n d o n , a n d t h e i r

l : r t

d i s c u s s i o n s o f s e x u a l i t y ( W a 1 - k o w i t z 1 9 8 6 ) . C I u b r u l e sa s s e r t e d m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s e q u a l i t y , b u t r u l e n u m b e r 1 7 ,a c c e p t e d b y a I I , s t i p u l a t e d t h a t d i s c u s s i o n m u s t s t a y w i t h i na D a r w i n i a n , s c i e n t i f i c f r a m e w o r k . T h a t b o t h a s s u r e d a n d h i dmenrs dom inance . Fo r women members respec ted , bu t l acked ,s u c h s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e . T h i s i s a t o n c e a n i n s t a n c e o fl i ngu i s t i c dom ina t i on , and an a t t emp t a t i r npos i t i on o f as o c i a l r e a l i t y : W o m e n r s p r i v a t e l e t t e r s r e v e a l t h a t m a n yfound the t e rms o f such a sc ience i nadequa te t o exp ressI ' comp lex t hough t and f ee l i ng " abou t t he d i f f i cu l t i es o ft he i r sexua l 1 i ves . M inu tes o f t he mee t i ngs sugges t t ha tf ace - to - f ace w i t h men , women we re o f t en s i l - enced by t h i sd i l emrna . Bu t o the r da ta show va r i ous a t t emp ts t o f o rmu la teoppos i t ion : t r a n s f o r m i n g o r a d a p t i n g m e n r s s c i e n t i f i ca rgumen ts i n pape rs w r i t t en f o r t he c l ub , w r i t i ng p r i va tele t t e r s o f comp la in t t o each o the r , and even a t t emp t i ng t oc r e a t e a d i f f e r e n t i d i o m f o r t a l k i n g a b o u t s e x u a l i t y b yd r a w i n g o n p u b l i c e v e n t s o f t h e t i m e .

I f women a re no t a lways s i l en t o r i na r t i cu la te , t hen t hetask o f an th ropo logy i s t o seek ou t and unde rs tand t he gen resand d i scou rses women p roduce . Espec ia l l y r evea l i ng a re gen restha t , c rea ted by speake rs f o r t hemse l ves t o re f l ec t on t he i ro w n e x p e r i e n c e , a r e n o t p r i m a r i J . y a p r o d u c t o f t h eethnographic in terv iew. As I have a l ready shown, s tudents o fe v e r y d a y t a l k h a v e i d e n t i f i e d m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s o f t e nd i f f e ren t ve rba l gen res ; s tuden ts o f o ra l - l i t e ra tu re haveca ta logued the i r f o rms and t he ru l es f o r t he i r pe r fo rmance( e . g . S h e r z e r 1 9 8 7 ) . B u t t h e s e a r e n o t s i m p l y ' r w a y s o fspeak ing ; t ' t he d i f f e rences i n con ten t o r pe rspec t i ve t ha tt hey o f t en cons t ruc t dese rve equa l a t t en t i on . I ndeed , i t i si n t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f f o r m , c o n t e n t a n d c o n t e x t o fpe r fo rmance tha t womenrs consc iousness emerges . F i r s t , [ yexa rnp les w i l I demons t ra te t he g rea t r ange o f a r t i cu la tenesse v i d e n t i n w o m e n r s g e n r e s . S e c o n d , w h i l e w o m e n r s g e n r e s o f t e nd i ve rge f r om menrs , t he ev idence does r ro t suppo r t a t hes i s o fsepa ra te womenrs cu l t u res . On the con t ra r y , t hey can bes t beread as commen ta ry t ha t shows a range o f r esponse - -a c c e p t a n c e , r e s i s t a n c e , s u b v e r s i o n a n d o p p o s i t i o n t od o m i n a n t , o f t e n n a l e d i s c o u r s e .

Women so rne t imes p roduce a cu l t u ra l commen ta ry o f ges tu rea n d r i t u a l t h a t m a y b e c a l l e d i n a r t i c u l a t e b e c a u s e i t r e j e c t swords a l t oge the r . An impo r tan t i ns tance occu r red i n t heN i g e r i a n W o n e n r s W a r o f 1 9 2 9 . D u r i n g t h e m a s s i v e p r o t e s t sa g a i n s t p r o p o s e d t a x a t i o n o f w o m e n r s p r o p e r t y b y t h e c o l o n i a lgove rnmen t , women re - f o rmu la ted on a I a rge sca le a l oca I I yp r a c t i c e d c u s t o m o f o b s c e n e d a n c i n g c a l l e d " s i t t - i n g o n an a n , r r t h a t t r a d i t i o n a J - 1 y o c c u r r e d a t t h e h o u s e s o f m e n w h o

had ove r - s tepped soc ia l mo res uphe ld by women . Con tempora ryw i t n e s s e s o f t h e W o m e n r s W a r r e p o r t t h a t w o m e n r s p r o t e s t si nc luded march ing nude , I y i ng on t he g round k i ck i ng t he i rl egs i n t he a i r and mak ing obscene ges tu res . As I f eka -Mo l - l e r( 1 9 7 5 ) e x p l a i n s , t h e s e g e s t u r e s w e r e m y s t e r i o u s a n d a l a r m i n gto Eu ropean obse rve rs bu t , f o r t he women and men i nvo l ved ,t hey cons t i t u ted an e loquen t p ro tes t aga ins t t he ma lepo l i t i ca l con t ro l and gove rn rnen t t axa t i on t ha t women saw as av i o l - a t i o n o f t h e i r r i g h t s .

A s i n i l a r l y ges tu ra l bu t much more con t rad i c to r y andacgu iescen t p rac t i ce i s Amer i can womenrs consump t i on o fpopu la r r oman t i c nove l s . I f we ana l yze on l y t he t ex t sthemse l ves , r omance reade rs appea r as pass i ve consumers o f ahegemon ic popu la r cu l t u re t ha t demeans t hem by p resen t i ngi m a g e s o f w o m e n a s i I l o g i c a l a n d m a g n e t i z e d b y r n a l eb r u t a l i t y . B u t R a d w a y ( 1 9 8 4 ) e x a m i n e s n o t j u s t t h e c o n t e n tbu t t he soc ia l even t o f r ead ing . She shows tha t f o r manyromance reade rs , r ead ing i t seJ - f , o f t en done i n s to l en momen tso f p r i v a c y , i s a c o m b a t i v e a c t , c o n t e s t i n g t h e u s u a l s e l f -a b n e g a t i o n o f t h e i r 1 i v e s . Y e t , w h i l e r e v e a l i n g a r e a lt ens ion i n dom inan t gende r i deo logy , t h i s i s a I im i t ed andse l f - de fea t i ng p ro tes t : r ead ing a l l ows t empora ry escape f r oml im i t ed 1 i ves , bu t t he t ex t s make those l i ves seem mored e s i r a b l e .

A more ve rba l l y exp l i c i t and subve rs i ve , ye t ve i l ed andamb iguous gen re , i s t he o ra l l y r i c poe t r y (gh innawas )pe r fo rmed among i n t ima tes by t he Bedou in o f Egyp t t s Wes te rnD e s e r t . f n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e d e ) . i c a t e , b r i e f a n d a r t f u l l yi rnprov ised per f ormances, Abu-Lughod ( l -98 6 ) s t resses that thedominan t i deo logy , t he "pub l i c l anguage r r o f t he Bedou in i sone o f hono r , au tonomy , se l f - r nas te ry , pe rsona l s t r eng th andsexua l nodes t y . The poems d i rec t l y v i o l a te t h i s code o f hono rand i r np l i c i t l y c r i t i c i ze i t by exp ress ing t he f ee l i ngs o fdependeDCy , eno t i ona l vu lne rab i l i t y , and ronan t i c l ong ingcondemned by t he o f f i c i a l v i ew . The poe t r y cons t i t u tes wha tA b u - L u g h o d c a I I s a r r d i s s i d e n t o r s u b v e r s i v e d i s c o u r s e

mos t c l ose l y assoc ia ted w i t h you ths and women , t hed i sadvan taged dependen ts who l eas t embody t he i dea l s o fBedou ian soc ie t y and have I eas t t o ga in i n t he sys tem ass t r u c t u r e d . . . . P o e t r y i s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f o p p o s i t i o n t o t h es y s t e m a n d o f d e f i a n c e o f t h o s e w h o r e p r e s e n t i t ,( 1 9 8 6 2 2 5 1 ) . " Bu t t he poe t r y i s an th ing bu t a spon taneouso u t p o u r i n g o f f e e l i n g . f n d e e d , i t s f o r m a l p r o p e r t i e s a n dcon tex t o f pe r fo rmance enhance i t s ab i l i t y t o sub t l y ca r r ym e s s a g e s c o u n t e r t o o f f i c i a l i d e a l s . I t i s f o r m u l a i c , t h e r e b yd i s g u i s i n g t h e i d e n t i t i e s o f p o e t , a d d r e s s e e a n d s u b j e c t . I ti s f l ee t i ng and amb iguous , pe r fo r rned by women and you ths

among t r us ted i n t i r na tes who can dec iphe r i t exac t l y becauset h e y a l r e a d y k n o w t h e r e c i t e r w e l l . Y e t , t h i s p o e t r y o fs u b v e r s i o n a n d d e f i a n c e i s n o t o n l y t o l e r a t e d ; i t i scu l t u ra l l y e l abo ra ted and adm i red because o f t he pa radox i ca li n t e r t w i n i n g o f o f f i c a l a n d d i s s i d e n t d i s c o u r s e . T h e o r a lpoe t r y revea l s a f undamen ta l t ens ion o f Bedou in soc ia l andp o l i t i c a l l i f e w h i c h , w h i l e v a l u i n g a n d d e m a n d i n g a u t o n o r n yand egua l i t y be tween l i neages , demands i nequa l i t y be tween theg e n d e r s a n d g e n e r a t i o n s w i t h i n l i n e a g e s a n d f a m i l i e s . r r A

d i scou rse o f de f i ance by t hose s l i gh ted i n t he sys tem,[poe t r y ] i s exa l t ed because a re fusa l t o be dom ina ted i s keyt o B e d o u i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e , a n d i t i s a v o i d e d b y [ m a l e ] e l d e r sbecause i t t h rea tens t o expose t he i l l eg i t imacy o f t he i ra u t h o r i t y , ( A b u - L u g h o d 1 9 8 5 : 2 5 4 ) . t t T h u s , t h e v e r b a l g e n r e o fwomen and you ths revea l s t he con t rad i c t i ons o f t he ru l i ngi d e o l o g y .

M y f i n a l e x a m p l e i s a p o e t i c g e n r e m o r e v e r b a l l ye x p l i c i t , m o r e d i r e c t l y c r i t i c a l o f s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a lr e l a t i o n s , a n d m u c h I e s s a c c e p t e d b y o f f i c i a l i d e o l o g i e s .Though l im i t ed t o a much sma l l e r segmen t o f t he f ema lep o p u l a t i o n , i t i s e q u a l l y r e v e a l i n g o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i ndo rn inan t d i scou rses . M ig ran t l abo re rs , mov ing be tween thern ines o f Sou th A f r i ca and t he i r na t i ve Leso tho , compose agen re o f poe t i c songs ca lLed 1 i f e1a , pe r fo rmed compe t i t i ve l y ,o f t e n f o r a f e e , b y r m e n o f e l o q u e n c e r u s u a l l y a t s o c i a lgather ings in border towns. They s ing of pover ty and forcedrn ig ra t i on ; t he i r songs re i n fo r ce a roo tedness i n t he ru ra lv i l I a g e , d e s p i t e m i g r a t i o n , a n d a l o n g i n g f o r t r a d i t i o n a lge ron toc ra t i c and pa t r i a r cha l soc ia l r e l a t i ons . Howeve r ,t he re a re a l so some women who s i ng l i f e l a . Bu t t he i rc i r cums tances , ds we l l as t he con ten t o f t he i r poe t r y , a res i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .

I n t he cu r ren t r n i g ran t sys tem, womenrs pos i t i on i s i nnany lJays even worse than nenrs . Women are forb idden torn ig ra te by t he l ega l sys tem, bu t l e f t a l one i n t he v i l l agethey mus t make dec i s i ons w i t hou t be ing g ran ted t he au tonomyto do so. r rThe South Af r ican government , the Lesothogovernment and male Basotho at t i tudes have openly conspi redto p reven t f ema le rn i g ra t i on , wh i ch t h rea tens t he d i v i ded -fan i ly system on which both the migratory labor system andma le domes t i c power a re based (Cop lan 1 -987 : 424 ) . t l Fema Iepoets are among those who have managed to escape thesecons t ra i n t s and have rn i g ra ted i l l ega l l y . Wh i l e f o r men Sou thA f r i ca i s unequ i voca l l y a l and o f v /age s l ave ry , f o r t hesemigrant women i t represents re la t ive cho ice, oppor tun i ty andautonomy. Women have borrowed the menrs genre but havet rans fo rned i t , p rov id i ng a cons ide rab l y more rad i ca l soc ia l

c r i t i q u e . R a t h e r t h a n i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h r u r a l I i f e , t h ew o m e n r s p o e t r y s h a r p l y a n d e x p l i c i l t y c r i t i c i z e s m e n ,p roc la ims t r ad i t i ona l r na r r i age unworkab le , bu t r ecogn i zes asw e l I t h e p h y s i c a l d a n g e r s a n d i n s e c u r i t y o f I i f e a s a ni l l e g a l m i g r a n t . T h e w o m e n r s o p p o s i t i o n i s p a l p a b l e n o t o n l yi n t he con ten t o f t he poe t r y , bu t a l so du r i ng t he pe r fo rmanceo f t h e p o e m s / s o n g s i n t h e t a v e r n : r r M a l e . . . p a t r o n s , s t u n g b yt h e c r i t i c a l b a r b s o f f e m a l e p e r f o r m e r s r o u t i n e l y r i s e t os i n g s p o n t a n e o u s r e t o r t s . . . t b u t l a r e s h o u t e d d o w n o r e v e np u s h e d a s i d e b y I f e m a l e p o e t s ] d e t e r m i n e d t o h o l d t h e f l o o r ,( Cop lan 1987 z 429 ) . t l

Such a t t emp ts t o s i l ence t he p ro tes t songs o f m ig ran twomen i n Leso tho re tu rn us t o t he p rocess by wh i ch women a rerende red r rmu te r r o r a re ab le t o cons t ruc t an a l t e rna ted i s c o u r s e , r e s i s t i n g a t t e m p t s t o s u p p r e s s i t . I havea t t e rnp ted one app roach t o t h i s ques t i on , exam in ing womenrsg e n r e s a s p r a c t i c e s , a n a l y z i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c i n t e r v i e w s o rBedou in poe t r y ve ry much as I d i d ea r l i e r examp les o f r rways

o f s p e a k i n g " s u c h a s c o l l a b o r a t i v e r r f I o o r s r r a n d g o s s i p :f ocus ing on t he i r nmed ia te i n te rac t i ona l con tex t o f t he gen re

the pa r t i c i pan t s t r uc tu re o f t he i n te r v i ew , t he i n t i r nacyo f B e d o u i n c o n f i d a n t e s , t h e I i m i n a l i t y o f b o r d e r t a v e r n s - -f o r c l ues t o t he f o r ces t ha t a l l ow i t t o be pe r fo rmed . Moreb road l y , howeve r , t he i ssue o f when and how wonen r ssubve rs ion o r oppos i t i on t o hegemon ic cu l t u re emerges i s asmuch a guest ion about the s t ructure o f gender systems andpo l i t i ca l economy as abou t l i ngu i s t i c p rac t i ces , gen res andcoun te r -d i scou rses . Comparat ive work , such as Warren andB o u r g u e r s ( 1 9 8 5 ) s t u d y o f w o m e n r s p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i n t w oqu i t e d i f f e ren t l y o rgan i zed Pe ruv ian commun i t i es , oF s tudy o ft h e s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s o f w o m e n w h o s i n g l i f e l a , c a n s t a r t t oi l l um ina te t h i s i s sue , dS can h i s to r i ca l r esea rch i n toc h a n g i n g i m a g e s o f s e x a n d g e n d e r ( S t e e d m a n e t a l . L 9 8 5 ,Wa lkow i t z 1986 ) . Ano the r r esea rch t ac t i c i s t o compare v /omeno f d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s a n d e t h n i c g r o u p s , u s i n g I i n g u i s t i cp rac t i ces t o ra i se t he c l ass i c i s sue o f t he re l a t i onsh ipbe tween consc iousness and soc ia l pos i t i on .

A s t u d y o f t h i s k i n d i s M a r t i n ' s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o fAmer i can $ /omenrs d i scou rse abou t t he i r own rep roduc t i vep rocesses , as compared t o t he dom inan t d i scou rse on t h i ss u b j e c t , w h i c h i s m e d i c a l s c i e n c e . M a r t i n ( 1 9 8 7 ) u s e d t h esame I i ngu i s t i c me t r i c t o compare ned i ca l t ex tbooks andwonen rs f o l k mode l s : t he sys tem o f me tapho rs t h rough wh i chrea l i t y i s made co rn rephens ib l e and mean ing fu l i n each . Shedemons t ra tes t ha t med i ca l t ex t s cons t ruc t t he body as a mode lo f i ndus t r i a l soc ie t y , w i t h ce lLs as f ac to r i es hav ing sys temsof management and cont ro l .

The phys ica l events o f

r--;1f . .

mens t rua t i on a re cons t ruc tedand an a la rm ing b reakdown o f

b y s c i e n c e a s f a i l e d p r o d u c t i o nau tho r i t y i n t he body .

Conpa r i ng t h i s sys tem o f me tapho rs t o womenrs ways o ft a l k i ng abou t mens t rua t i on i n i n te r v i ews , Mar t i n f ound t ha tm idd le c l ass women acqu iesce t o t he med i ca l node l . Theyexp la in rnens t rua t i on i n r ned i ca l t e rms , dwe l l i ng on i n te rnaLo rgans and p rocesses , wo r r y i ng abou t t he r r co r rec t r r co lo r o ft he b lood . Bu t wo rk ing c l ass women , bo th b lack and wh i t e ,sha red i l an absoLu te re l uc tance t o g i ve t he rned i ca l v i ew o fm e n s t r u a t i o n ( L 9 8 7 : L 0 9 ) , " i n s p i t e o f e x p o s u r e t o i t a tschoo l , and t he i n te r v i ewers r many e f f o r t s t o e l i c i t i t .I ns tead , wo rk ing c l ass women desc r i bed mens t rua t i on i nphenomeno log i ca l t e rms un touched by t he rned i ca l mode l : wha ti t f e e l s I i k e , l o o k s I i k e , s m e l l s l i k e i n i r n m e d i a t eexpe r i ence . Mar t i n conc ludes t ha t r r . . . n r i dd le c l ass womenappea r much more t r nys t i f i ed t by t he gene ra l cu l t u ra l mode l sthan wo rk ing c l ass women . They have bough t t he rned i ca la c c o u n t s , ( L 9 8 7 : 1 1 1 ) . I ' Pe rhaps t h i s i s due t o t he i rf avo rab le oppo r tun i t i es f o r sa t i s f y i ng emp loymen t and t huspos i t i ve a t t i t udes t owards bo th t he image o f p roduc t i on andschoo l i ng as a sou rce o f i n fo rma t i on . once aga in , gende r andc lass a re i n te r tw ined . Th i s i s ce r ta i n l y a s ta r t t owa rdsunders tanding the processes by which some women but noto the rs deve lop d i ve rgen t and res i s tan t consc iousnesq ; o r l t hysubo rd ina te rnen some t imes sha re women ts p rac t i ces . l - 8

These d i ve rse exa rnp les o f womenrs gen res , d rawn f r ommany pa r t s o f t he wo r1d , and many k i nds o f soc iopo l i t i ca lf onna t i ons , we re chosen i n pa r t t o h i gh l i gh t t ha t womenrsres i s tance o r c r i t i c i sm i s some t i r nes couched i n imp l i c i tforms such as ambigu i ty and i rony, but in o ther cases muchno re d i r ec t l y exp ressed . f ndeed , t he examp les i l l u s t ra te ar a n g e o f l i n g u i s t i c e x p l i c i t n e s s ( g e s t u r a l ; b r i e f a n da m b i g u o u s ; e x t e n d e d a n d e x p l i c i t ) ; d i v e r s e s o c i a l c o n t e x t s(pub l i c de rnons t ra t i on , c l osed mee t i ng , i n t ima te conve rsa t i on ,p a i d p e r f o r m a n c e ) ; a n d s e v e r a l l e v e l s o f s u b v e r s i o n o ro p p o s i t i o n t o d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e s ( f r o r n s e l f - d e f e a t i n gc o n p l i c i t y , t o r e s i s t a n c e , t o o p e n c r i t i c i s m ) . f n t e r e s t i n g l y ,i t seems tha t t hese t h ree pa rame te rs do no t co r re l a te i n anys i n p l e w a y . S t r o n g p r o t e s t c a n a p p e a r i n s i l e n t g e s t u r e s , a si n t h e w o m e n r s w a r ; o r i n t h e e x p l i c i t p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e s o fc r i t i c a l p o e t r y . R e s i s t a n c e m a y b e k n o w i n g y e t s i l e n t , d s i nAmer i can wo rk ing c l ass womenr s re fusa l - o f some med i ca lme tapho rs , ve rba l ye t ve i l ed as i n Bedou in poe t r y , ve rba l bu tp r i v a t e l y e x p r e s s e d , a s i n t h e M e n r s a n d W o m e n r s C I u b , o re x p l i c i t a n d p u b l i c , a s i n b i l i n g u a l A u s t r i a n w o m e n r s u s e o fG e r r n a n . B u t i n e a c h c a s e , w o m e n t s l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s m a d ev i s i b l e a c r a c k , a f a u l t l i n e i n t h e d o m i n a n t m a l e d i s c o u r s e

o f gende r and power , r evea l i ng i t t o be no t mono l " i t h i c bu tc o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d t h u s v u l n e r a b l e .

5 . C o n c L u s i o n s

I have a rgued tha t gende r re l a t i ons a re cons t ruc ted , i np a r t , t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b i L i t i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n f o r m e nand women . Too l s f r om seve ra l scho la r l y t r ad i t i ons a reneeded i n o rde r t o un rave l how I i ngu i s t i c p rac t i ces , gende rand power a re i n te r tw ined . The resea rch resu l t s f r om seve ra lt r ad i t i ons t ha t I have b rough t t oge the r he re c l a r i f y andi n f o r r n e a c h o t h e r ; t h e y d e s e r v e t o b e c o n c e p t u a l l yi n t e g r a t e d . T h e n o t i o n o f s y m b o J . i c d o m i n a t i o n t h r o u g hpa t te rns o f l anguage use , and o f gende r as bo th s t ruc tu re andp r a c t i c e , a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h a t e n d e a v o u r .

C u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e , g e n d e r a n d p o w e rs h a p e m e n r s a n d w o m e n r s i d e a s a n d i d e a l s a b o u t t h e i r o w nl i ngu i s t i c p rac t i ces . S tuden ts o f eve ryday t a l k have o f t enn e g l e c t e d t h i s s y m b o l i c s i d e o f i n t e r a c t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e ,e v e n s u c h s e e m i n g l y s m a 1 l d e t a i l s a s t h e s y s t e m a t i cd i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n b o y s r a n d g i r l s t t u r n - t a k i n g i ns i ng le - sex p lay g roups f i t and re i n fo r ce t he b road cu l t u ra ll og i c o f gende r symbo l i s rn i n t he Un i t ed S ta tes . Howeve r ,womenrs acqu iescence t o such cu l t u ra l expec ta t i ons i s ne i t he rpass i ve no r au toma t i c . f ndeed , ds s tuden ts o f eve ryday t a l khave shown , women ac t i ve l y cons t ruc t l i ngu i s t i c s t r a teg ies i nresponse t o t hese cu l t u ra l concep t i ons and t o t he re l a t i onso f gende r i negua l i t y t hey encode , Wh i l e womenrs p rac t i cessome t imes b r i ng change i n es tab l i shed s t ruc tu res , o f t en , dSin t he case o f Span i sh womenrs goss ip , t he s t ra tegy nay a i r nto res i s t ma le do rn inance , bu t ends by rep roduc ing andleg i t i r na t i ng i t . Th i s i s i n pa r t because nen and womenin te rac t no t as i nd i v i duaLs , bu t i n i ns t i t u t i ons such asworkp laces , f a rn i l i es , schoo l s and po l i t i ca l f o rums , whe remuch dec i s i on -mak ing abou t r esou rces , and soc ia l se lec t i onfo r mob i l i t y , occu rs t h rough taLk . And i ns t i t u t i ons a re f a rf r om neu t ra l , a renas : t hey a re s t ruc tu red a long gende r l i nes ,t o l end au tho r i t y no t on l y t o re i gn ing c l asses and e thn i cg r o u p s , b u t s p e c i f i c a l l y t o m e n r s l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s .

Bu t power i s more t han an au tho r j - t a t i ve vo i ce i ndec i s i on -mak ing ; i t s s t r onges t f o rm may weL l be t he ab i l i t yt o d e f i n e s o c i a l r e a l i t y , t o i m p o s e v i s i o n s o f t h e w o r l d .Such v i s i ons a re i nsc r i bed i n l anguage and enac ted i ni n t e r a c t i o n . A l t h o u g h w o m e n r s e v e r y d a y t a l k a n d w o m e n r sr r vo i ce r r o r consc iousness as ev idenced i n exp ress i ve gen reshave been s tud ied qu i t e sepa ra te l y , I have a rgued tha t bo thc a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s s t r a t e g i c r e s p o n s e s , o f t e n o f

r e s i s t a n c e , t o d o m i n a n t , h e g e m o n i c c u l t u r a l f o r m s . O f t e n t h ef o r m i s a c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d o p p o s i t e , a s w e L l a s t h ei d e o l o g y . T h u s , a t t e n t i o n t o l i n g u i s t i c d e t a i l , c o n t e x t o fpe r fo rmance , and t he na tu re o f t he dom inan t f o rms i sessen t i a l t o bo th endeavo rs . The p rec i se f o rm o f ques t i onsand tu rn - t ak ing i s c ruc ia l i n unde rs tand ing t he cons t ruc t i ono f d i f f e r e n t r r f l o o r s r r i n A m e r i c a n m e e t i n g s ( e v e r y d a y t a l k ) ;t he exac t , f o rma l conven t i ons o f i n t ima te Bedou in poe t r y(exp ress i ve gen re ) i nd i spensab le f o r unde rs tand ing how i t i ssu i t ed t o t he exp ress ion o f vu lne rab i l i t y and dependence .A l t hough the I i ngu i s t i c ma te r i a l s a re qu i t e d i f f e ren t , bo thc o l l a b o r a t i v e r r f l o o r s r r a n d i n t i r n a t e p o e t r y l o c a t e acon t rad i c t i on i n dom inan t d i scou rse and subve r t i t t h roughr i va l p rac t i ces . One unde rm ines t he h iea rch i ca l f o rm andi d e o l o g y o f m e e t i n g s w h i c h f a v o r m e n r s e x p e r t i s e i nconpe t i t i ve t a l k ; t he o the r i s t he oppos i t e o f o rd ina ry t a l kand unde rm ines t he cu l t u ra l r u l e o f hono r , t h rea ten ing t or e v e a l t h e i l l e g i t m a c y o f e l d e r m e n r s a u t h o r i t y . T h i sre tu rns us t o t he cu l t u ra l cons t ruc t i ons we s ta r t ed w i t h , nowrevea led no t on l y as i deas t ha t d i f f e ren t i a te t he gende rs ,bu t as d i scou rses t ha t a re sou rces o f power , wh i ch a reenac ted , and some t imes con tes ted , i n t a1k .

1 . T h i s p a p e r w i l l a p p e a r i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m i n G e n d e r .C u l t u r e . a n d P o I i t i c a I E c o m o n y , M i c a e l a d i L e o n a r d o ( e d . )U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s . f w o u l d L i k e t o t h a n k

" T u d i t h G e r s o n , S u z a n n e L e b s o c k , M i c h a e l M o f f a t t , K i tW o o l a r d a n d V i v i a n a Z e : . i z e r f o r c a r e f u l r e a d i n g s a n di m p o r t a n t c o m m e n t s , a n d B a r n b i s c h i e f f e l i n f o r h e rb i b l i o g r a p h i c s u g g e s t i o n s . T h i s p a p e r i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h ememory o f Ru th Bo rke r .

2 . T h e q u e s t i o n o f t r s i l e n c e t f i n f e m i n i s t s c h o l a r s h i p i st w o - f o l d . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e t i t l e s o f s o m e r e c e n t b o o k ss u f f i c e t o i l l u s t r a t e a c o n c e r n w i t h o b s t a c l e s t o w o m e n r ss e l f - e x p r e s s i o n : S i l e n c e s ( O l s e n ) , O n 1 i e s , s e c r e t s a n ds i l e n c e ( R i c h ) , S t e a l i n g t h e l a n q u a q e ( O s t r i k e r ) , M a n m a d el a n g u a g e ( S p e n d e r ) . o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e f a c t t h a t s o c i a Lsc ience has neg lec ted women makes women o f t he pas t ando t h e r c u l t u r e s s e e m s i l e n t , w h e n i n f a c t t h e s i l e n c e i st h a t o f c u r r e n t w e s t e r n s c h o l a r s h i p . I r e t u r n t o t h i s i s s u ei n s e c t i o n 4 . E v e n e v e r y d a y u s a g e , s u c h a s t h e g e n e r i c r h e lf o r p e r s o n s o f u n s p e c i f i e d s e x , h a s t h e e f f e c t o f n a k i n gw o m e n a p p e a r s i l e n t .

3 . T h e r e i s a g r o w i n g I i t e r a t u r e o n t h e m e a n i n g s o fs i l e n c e , w h i c h i s u s e f u l l y r e v i e w e d i n T a n n e n , D . a n dS a v i l l e - T r o i k e ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s i l e n c e t owomenrs speech i s men t i oned i n Tho rne , K ramarae and Hen ley( 1 9 8 3 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) . S m i t h , S . ( 1 - 9 8 7 : 4 9 ) h i g h l i g h t s t h e i r o n y o fF o u c a u l t t s a s s e r t i o n s , w h e n a p p l i e d t o w o r n e n r s w r i t i n g ; M o i( L 9 8 5 ) d i s c u s s e s f e m i n i n i t y a n d s i l e n c e f r o m a I i t e r a r yc r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .

4 . Among the i n f l uen t i a l wo rks t ha t have deve loped anda r g u e d f o r t h i s c o n c e p t i o n a r e : R u b i n 7 9 7 5 , K e l l y - G a d o lI 9 7 6 , G e r s o n a n d P e i s s 1 9 8 5 , C o n n e l I 1 9 8 7 .

5 . Among such wo rks , pe rhaps t he bes t - known evoca t i on o fI t w o m e n I s v o i c e r r i s G i l l i g a n ( L 9 8 2 ) , a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r ei n s p i r e d b y i t . A l s o r e l e v a n t h e r e a r e h i s t o r i a n s I

d i s c u s s i o n s o f w o m e n r s c u l t u r e t h a t s t r e s s t h e c o n t e n t o fb e l i e f s a n d v a l u e s , ( f o r e x a m p l e , S m i t h - R o s e n b e r g 1 9 8 5 ; s e ed e b a t e i n F e m i n i s t S t u d i e s 1 9 B O ) .

6 . L e a r s ( 1 9 8 5 ) p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n o fG r a r n s c i ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n a n d t h e a n a l y t i c a l u s e s o f t c u l t u r a l

h e g e m o n y ' ; s e e a l s o L u k e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) . f h a v e p o i n t e d t o a v e r ygene ra ) - and f undamen ta l conce rn t ha t t hese t heo r i s t s sha re ,i g n o r i n g f o r r n y p u r p o s e s t h e i r m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s , e . 9 . t h ere la t i ve impo r tance o f h i s to r y and human agency as opposedt o s t r u c t u r e , o r h o w t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i pbe tween ma te r i a l and i dea t i ona l f o r ces .

7 . F e n i n i s t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s h a v e p r o v i d e d d i v e r s eana l yses o f t h i s r e l a t i onsh ip , see Fu rman ( l - 9 I0 ) and Mo i ' s( l - 9 8 5 ) c r i t i c a l r e v i e w . R e c e n t w e s t e r n f e m i n i s t p r a c t i c ei t se l f p rov ides a handy exa rnp le i n consc iousness ra i s i ng ,w h i c h i s a n e w f o r m o f l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e a s w e l l a s acha l l enge t o dom inan t de f i n i t i ons abou t gende r . Sec t i on 4d i s c u s s e s t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e .

8 . B o r k e r ( 1 9 8 0 ) m a k e s t h i s p o i n t , a n d p r o v i d e s m a n ye x a m p l e s , s o m e o f w h i c h a r e a l s o c i t e d h e r e . H y m e s ( e . 9 .1 , 9 7 4 ) h a s l o n g a r g u e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f s p e a k e r s r i d e a sabou t speak ing and i t s r e l a t i on t o soc iaL ca tego r i es .S i l v e r s t e i n ( 1 9 8 5 ) p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h eway such concep t i ons , a l ong r w i t h cu l t u ra l l y cons t ruc tedn o t i o n s a b o u t h o w l a n g u a g e w o r k s , i . e . t l i n g u i s t i c

i deo logy , t r ned ia te be tween soc ia l change and changes i n t hein te rna l wo rk ings o f l anguage , e .g . phono logy , add resssysterns, morphology.

9 . L i ngu i s t i c t heo ry has been more deep l y i nvo l ved w i t hde f i n i t i ons o f gende r t han i s gene ra l l y r ecogn i zed . Cameron( 1 9 8 5 ) p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e w a y n o t i o n s o fgende r o r i g i na l l y d rawn f r om de f i n i t i ons o f men and womenwere used t o de f i ne g rammat i ca l gende r , t hen I a te r r ecyc ledf ron l anguage to soc ia l I i f e and used t o j us t i f y gende rar rangements .

1 0 . S u c h a g e n d e r / c L a s s l i n k i s s u g g e s t e d , i n p a s s i t g , i na nunbe r o f wo rks . Fo r exa rnp le , t he re l a t i onsh ip be tweenw o r k i n g c l a s s c u l t u r e a n d m a s c u l i n i t y i s d e s c r i b e d f o rB r i t i s h a d o l e s c e n t s b y W i I I i s ( L 9 7 7 ) a n d e x t e n d e d t o a d u l t sb y C o n n e l l ( 1 9 8 7 : 1 0 9 ) . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n i m a g e s o ff e m i n i n i t y a n d n i d d l e c l a s s g e n t i l i t y i n 1 9 t h A m e r i c a i ss u g g e s t e d b y H a l t t u n e n ( L 9 8 2 ) a n d D o u g l a s ( L 9 7 7 ) . S m i t h -R o s e n b e r g ( 1 9 8 5 ) d i s c u s s e s D a v y C r o c k e t t a s t h e p o o r ,t ough , r uncu l t u red r a r che type o f Amer i can rnascu l i n i t y ,a l ong w i t h o the r , con t ras t i ng images o f gende r i n t he Lg thcentury .

1 1 . I w i I I n o t b e d i s c u s s i n g a r a n g e o f i m p o r t a n t , r e l a t e di s s u e s t h a t a r e c r i t i c a l l y r e v i e w e d b y M c C o n n e l I - G i n e t( 1 9 8 8 ) , e . g . t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h s p e e c h s t r a t e g i e s b e c o m epar t o f l anquage as a f o rm o f cogn i t i ve compe tence , and t heseman t i c cod ing o f gende r i nequa f i t y i n t he l ex i con , among lo t h e r s .

l - 2 . Such s t ra teg i c l anguage cho i ces , assoc ia ted w i t h t hed i f f e r e n t i a l l i f e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f m e n a n d w o m e n i nb i l i ngua l commun i t i es , have been repo r ted by seve ra lresea rche rs . The cho i ces o f women va ry acco rd ing t o t hes p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s o fthe communi ty , So that women are somet imes conservers o fe thn i c l anguages , and some t imes l eade rs i n t he sh i f t awayf rom thern.

13 . Thes pa t t e rns o f i n te r rup t i on have been ques t i oned bysome worke rs , and dese rve more s tudy , espec ia l l y wo rk t ha ti s a t t uned t o con tex tua l d i f f e rences i n eve ryday t a l k .

14 . A re l a ted app roach f ocuses on a d i f f e ren t con tex t :I anguage soc ia l i za t i on . r r npo r tan t l y , i t i s no t on l y t hech i l d bu t a l so t he ca reg i ve r whose i den t i t y i s de f i ned i nsuch i n te rac t i on (Ochs , f o r t hcom ing ) . f n a compar i son o fSamoan and rn i dd le - c l ass Amer i can pa t t e rns , Ochs f ound tha tAmer i can ca reg i ve rs (usua l l y mo the rs ) accommoda te much moret o c h i l d r e n , b o t h v e r b a l l y a n d n o n - v e r b a l l y ; i n d e e d , t h en idd le - c l ass image o f t he r rgood mo the r r r r equ i res t h i s . Fo ri ns tance , t hey rou t i ne l y r e i n te rp re t speech and ac t i on t ha ta r e j o i n t a c t i v i t i e s o f m o t h e r a n d c h i l d a s t h ep ra i sewor thy accomp l i shmen t o f t he ch i l d a l one . Th i s no ton ly const ructs the ch i ld as more conpetent than he or sherea l l y i s , bu t a l so se rves t o deny o r ve i l t he g rea te rknow ledge and power o f t he (o f t en f ema le ) ca reg i ve r .Ane r i can no t i ons abou t gende r and ch i l dhood a re t hus I i nkedand reproduced.

15 . I n te rac t i ons i n many o the r i ns t i t u t i ons dese rve morea t t en t i on i n t hese t e rms . Fo r a recen t a t t enp t t ounde rs tand i n te rac t i ons be tween women pa t i en t s and doc to rsi n A m e r i c a n c l i n i c s s e e F i s c h e r l - 9 8 8 . F o r s u g g e s t i v ed i s c u s s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m b a s e d o n s i m i l a r i d e a s ,s e e T r e i c h l e r a n d K r a m a r a e ( 1 9 8 3 ) , a n d t h e v e r y d i f f e r e n ta p p r o a c h o f W a l k e r d i n e ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

1 6 . T h e A r d e n e r s r t h e s i s i s m o r e c o m p l e x , b u t t h e p a r t s Ihave summar i zed have had s t rong i n f l uence no t on l y on t heA r d e n e r r s o w n c i r c l e ( s e e a r t i c l e s i n A r d e n e r L 9 i 5 ) b u ta l s o o n o t h e r f e m i n i s t w r i t e r s s u c h a s S h o w a l t e r , K r a m a r a e ,S p e n d e r , a n d W a r r e n a n d B o u r q u e ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

L7 . Many scho la rs a rgue t ha t t he wes te rn gen re o fa u t o b i o g r a p h y a r o s e i n t h e l a t e M i d d l e A g e s , i n t h e m i d s to f p r o f o u n d l y r e f o r m u l a t e d n o t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d i t sr e l a t i o n t o t h e m o v e m e n t o f h i s t o r y ( O l n e y , 1 9 8 0 , S t a n t o nL987 ) . Because t hese no t i ons o f t he new t rMan r r assumed an a l e s u b j e c t , w o m e n r s a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s i n t h e W e s t h a v eo f ten been pe rce i ved as i l l eg i t ima te and suspec t (Sm i th1 .987 : 4 3 ) . Kwa io womenr s re fusaL t o rec i t e t he pe rsona ln a r r a t i v e s a n d s o c i e t a L r u l e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m e n r sr e s p o n s e s t o s i r n i l a r e t h n o g r a p h i c q u e s t i o n s , t h e i ri ns i s tance i ns tead on mora l j us t i f i ca t i ons o f womanhood ,e v o k e a p a r a I I e I s t r a t e g y i n W e s t e r n w o m e n r sau tob iog raph ies , i n wh i ch a recu r r i ng f i gu re o f d i v i dedconsc iousness can be read as t he au tho rs r awareness t ha tt hey a re be ing read as women and t hus j udged d i f f e ren t l y i nt h e i r s e l f c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( S m i t h 1 9 8 7 ) .

18 . The ev idence abou t c l ass i s more a rnb iguous when b i r t hrne tapho rs a re a l so cons ide red . Women o f a l I c l asses (aswe I I as some doc to rs ) have i nven ted new me tapho rs f o r b i r t htha t r e j ec t t he ana logy be tween the p roduc t i on o f goods andthe p roduc t i on o f bab ies . Such new me tapho rs , essen t i a lf o r r e -o rgan i z i ng expe r i ence , have been embod ied i n t heva r i ed new i ns t i t u t i ons o f b i r t h c l i n i cs , a t -home b i r t hsand o the r womenrs hea l t h movemen ts i n t he US and Eu rope .A s M a r t i n ( l - 9 8 7 ) a r g u e s , l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s a r e n o t o n l yre f l exes o f ex i s t i ng s t ruc tu ra l ca tego r i es o f speake rs , bu ta re a l so new ly c rea ted , f o r rn i ng t he cond i t i ons necessa ry t obu i l d new i ns t i t u t i ona l s t r uc tu res .

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A r d e n e r , E . 1 9 7 5 B e l i e f a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f w o m e n . I N S .A r d e n e r , ( e d . ) P e r c e i v i n g w o m e n . M a l a b y : L o n d o n .

A r d e n e r , S . ) , 9 7 5 I n t r o d u c t i o n . I N S . A r d e n e r ( e d . )Pe rce i v i ng wo rnen . Ma laby : London .

Asad , T . 1986 The concep t o f cu l . t u ra l t r ans la t i on i nB r i t i s h s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . I N J . C l i f f o r d a n d c .M a r c u s ( e d s . ) W r i t i n g c u l t u r e . C a l i f o r n i a :B e r k e l e y .

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