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EugeneEhrlich,authorofmanybooksonlanguage,servedasseniorlecturerintheDepartmentofEnglishandComparativeLiterature,SchoolofGeneralStudies,ColumbiaUniversity.
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PREFACE
ThestudyofEnglishgrammarhastwoprincipaladvantages.Itfacilitatesmasteryofwritingandenablesstudentstostudythegrammarofotherlanguagesmoreeffectively.ThisthirdeditionofEnglishGrammarwasdevelopedtomakethestudyofEnglishgrammarascurrentandaseffectiveaspossibleforallstudents,whetherornotEnglishistheirfirstlanguage.AGlossaryofGrammaticalTerms,atthestartofthetext,isprovidedasareferencetobeusedatanytime.Ihopethatstudentswillcontinuetofindtheexercisesandexplanationshelpful.
Chapter1discussestheprincipalelementsofthesentence,andthenextsixchaptersprovideinformationandpracticeinallthepartsofspeech:nounsandarticles,verbsandverbals,pronouns,adjectives,adverbs,andprepositionsandconjunctions.Eachchapterofthebookfirstpresentsnecessarydefinitionsanddiscussions,completewithexamples.Thispresentationisthenfollowedbyexercisesdesignedtohelpthestudentachievemasteryofthesubject.Answerstoallexercisesareprovidedattheendofthebook.Thestudentisadvisedtoworkstepbystepthrougheachchapter,doingeachexerciseinturnandcheckingtheanswersbeforeproceedingfurther.
ThepreviouseditionsofSchaum’sOutlineofEnglishGrammarwereoriginallywrittenbyDanielMurphyandbyme.ProfessorMurphy,mylongtimecolleague,nowisdeceased,sothisneweditionisdedicatedtohim.
EUGENEEHRLICH
CONTENTS
GlossaryofGrammaticalTerms
CHAPTER1PrincipalElementsoftheSentence
VerbSubjectDirectObjectComplementIndirectObjectModifiersMultiple-wordModifiersClausesPhrases
CHAPTER2NounsandArticles
NounsNounFunctionsTypesofNounsPluralFormsofNounsPossessiveFormsofNounsCollectiveNounsNounClausesArticlesDefiniteArticle.OmissionoftheDefiniteArticle.IndefiniteArticle.ChoosingBetweenaandan.
CHAPTER3VerbsandVerbals
Verbs
PredicateTransitiveandIntransitiveVerbsCopulative(Linking)VerbsAuxiliaryVerbsShallandWill.ShouldandWould.
MoodUsesoftheSubjunctiveMood.
VoiceNumberAgreementofSubjectandVerb.CompoundSubjectsandTheirVerbs.CollectiveNounsandTheirVerbs.
PersonTensePrincipalPartsoftheVerb.SelectionofTense.AgreementofTenses.PresentTenseforIdeasTrueforAllTime.
ConsistencyofVerbsConsistencyofVoice.ConsistencyofPerson.ConsistencyofTense.ConsistencyofMood.
VerbalsInfinitiveInfinitivePhrases.TensesoftheInfinitive.SplitInfinitives.
ParticipleTensesoftheParticiple.
GerundVerbalsUsedasModifiers
DanglingandMisplacedModifiersDanglingParticiples.MisplacedParticiples.DanglingInfinitives.
AuxiliaryVerbsandInfinitivesinCompoundConstructionsAuxiliaryVerbs.Infinitives.
ParallelStructureandVerbForms
CHAPTER4Pronouns
TypesofPronounsPersonalandImpersonalPronouns.RelativePronouns.DemonstrativePronouns.InterrogativePronouns.ReflexivePronouns.IntensivePronouns.ReciprocalPronouns.IndefinitePronouns.
PronounAgreementPluralandSingularAntecedents.AntecedentsJoinedbyAnd,Or,orNor.CollectiveNouns.SingularPronounsasAntecedents.
PronounsintheSubjectiveCasePronounsintheObjectiveCasePronounsasObjectsofVerbals.PronounsasObjectsofPrepositions.
PronounsinthePossessiveCasePronounsasAppositives
CHAPTER5Adjectives
TypesofAdjectives
LimitingAdjectives.PredicateAdjectives.
PositionofAdjectivesComparisonofAdjectivesAdjectivePhrasesAdjectiveClausesRestrictiveandNonrestrictiveAdjectiveClauses.ThatandWhichwithAdjectiveClauses.
NounsUsedasAdjectivesAdjectivesUsedasNouns.
ParticiplesasAdjectivesDanglingParticiples.
InfinitivesasAdjectives
CHAPTER6Adverbs
RecognizingAdverbsAdverbsEndingin-ly.RecognizingAdverbsbyTheirFunctions.
DistinguishingAdverbsfromAdjectivesComparisonofAdverbsNounsandPhrasesUsedasAdverbsAdverbialClausesConjunctiveAdverbsIntensifiersInfinitivesasAdverbs
CHAPTER7PrepositionsandConjunctions
PrepositionsCommonlyUsedPrepositions.ObjectofPreposition.DifferentiatingPrepositionsfromOtherPartsofSpeech.PrepositionalPhrasesasModifiers.
Conjunctions
ANSWERS
Index
GLOSSARYOFGRAMMATICALTERMS
Accusativecase.Formofapronounshowingthatthepronounistheobjectofaverborpreposition:me,her,him,us,them,whom.Alsocalledobjectivecase.
Activevoice.SeeVoice.
Adjective.Wordorwordsusedtomodifyanoun,pronoun,orverbal:goodfood,wonderfulyou,poorfishing.
Adjectiveclause.Subordinateclauseusedasadjective:Everyonewhoapprovesshouldvoteforhim.
Adjectivephrase.Phraseusedasadjective:Thewomaninthereddressisbeautiful.
Adverb.Wordorwordsusedtomodifyaverb,verbal,adjective,adverb,orentireclauseorsentence:runquickly,tositquietly,quitefresh,naturallyhewaselated.
Adverbialclause.Subordinateclauseusedasadverb:Johnleftwheneverhefeltlikeit.
Adverbialphrase.Phraseusedasadverb:Shesenthersontothestore.
Antecedent.Wordorwordstowhichapronounrefers:Alice(antecedent)askedforher(pronoun).
Apposition.Placementofanounornounsubstitutenexttoanothertoexplainoridentifyit:NewYork,theEmpireState;RichardtheLionHearted.TheEmpireStateandtheLionHeartedareknownasappositives.
Article.A,an,andthearearticles.Theirfunctionistomodifyanounornounsubstitute.Aandanaretheindefinitearticles.Theisthedefinitearticle.
Auxiliaryverb.Verbusedwithotherverbstoformtenseorvoice:Weshouldgotothemovies.Hewasslaughtered.
Case.Formofanounorpronounthatshowsfunction.Thethreecasesarenominative(subjective),genitive(possessive),andaccusative(objective).NominativeIsaw.Genitivemyhat.AccusativeThedogbitme.
Clause.Groupofwordscontainingasubjectandverb.Clausesareeither
dependent:Themanwhocametodinnerleftearly;orindependent:Themilkmanlefttwobottlesofcream.Dependentclausesareunabletofunctionassentences.Independentclausesareabletofunctionassentences.
Collectivenoun.Anounthatappearstobesingularbutreferstoagroup.Treatedassingularwhenthegroupisthoughtofasaunit,treatedaspluralwhenthemembersofthegroupareconsideredindividually.
Comparison.Inflectionofadverbsoradjectivestoshowdegreesofqualityoramount.Absolute:good,quickly,famous.Comparative:better,quicker,morefamous.Superlative:best,quickest,mostfamous.
Complement.Nounoradjectiveusedtocompletethemeaningofacopulativeverb.Alsoknownaspredicatecomplement:Fredissick(predicateadjective).Normaisanoperastar(predicatenoun).
Complexsentence.Sentencecontainingoneindependentclauseandoneormoredependentclauses.
Compoundsentence.Sentencecontainingtwoormoreindependentclauses.
Compound-complexsentence.Sentencecontainingtwoormoreindependentclausesandoneormoredependentclauses.
Conjunction.Wordorwordsusedtojoinwords,phrases,orclauses.Coordinatingconjunctionjoinselementsofequalvalue.Subordinatingconjunctionjoinsdependentclausestoindependentclauses.
Conjunctiveadverb.Adverbusedasconjunction.Mostcommonexamplesare:however,thus,andtherefore.
Coordinate.Ofequalgrammaticalorsyntacticalimportance:twosuchnouns,phrases,clauses,etc.
Copulativeverb.Verbthatlinksasubjectanditscomplement.Mostcommoncopulativeverbisbe.Alsoknownaslinkingverb.
Demonstrativeadjective.Adjectivethatindicatesaparticularnounorpronoun:thishat,thatcoat,thisone.
Demonstrativepronoun.Pronounthatspecifiesaparticularreferent:thisiswhatIwant;thatistoomuch.
Dependentclause.SeeSubordinateclause.
Descriptiveadjective.Adjectivethatnamestheconditionorqualityornounitmodifies:greentrees,wreckedautomobile.
Directaddress.Constructioninwhichthewriteraddressesthereaderdirectly:Dan,handmethecase.Ethel,pleaseleavetheroom.
Directobject.Wordorwordsthatreceivetheactionofaverb:Thespeakerhitthetable.Hebelievedthattheboywouldreturnthebook.
Gender.OfnoconsequenceinEnglishgrammar.Referstomasculine,feminine,neuternounsincertainotherlanguages.PersonalpronounsinEnglishhavegenderinthirdpersonsingular:he,she,it.
Genitivecase.Formofanounorpronounusedtoshowpossession:woman’s,hour’s,her,hers,his,their,etc.Alsoknownaspossessivecase.
Gerund.-ingformofaverbusedasnounorperforminganounfunction:Swimmingismorefunthanlyingonthebeach.Theybothloveboatingandfishing.Gerundsareclassifiedasverbals.
Imperativemood.Verbconstructionusedingivingcommands.Thesubjectoftheverbisusuallylacking:Gohome!Stopsmoking!
Indefinitepronoun.Pronounthatdoesnotspecifyaparticularreferent:any,anyone,each,everyone,etc.
Independentclause.Clausethatcanstandaloneandconveymeaningasasimplesentence:Shewasfondofallherfriends,althoughshelovednooneinparticular.Alsoknownasmainclauseorprincipalclause.
Indicativemood.Formofverbusedtomakeastatementoraskaquestion:Shedriveswell.Ishestillbakingbread?
Indirectobject.Nounorpronounrepresentingthepersonorthingwithreferencetowhichtheactionofaverbisperformed.Theygavemeapresent.Theygaveapresenttome.
Infinitive.Simpleformoftheverb,usuallyprecededbyto:(to)run,(to)jump,(to)attempt.Infinitivesfunctionasnouns,adjectives,andadverbs.Infinitivesareclassifiedasverbals.
Infinitivephrase.Infinitiveplusitsmodifiersandobject:toswimexpertly,toreadabook.Infinitivephraseshavethesamefunctionsasinfinitives.
Inflection.Changeinformtoindicategrammaticalrelationships.Inflectionofnounsandpronounsisknownasdeclension.Inflectionofverbsisknownasconjugation.Inflectionofadjectivesandadverbsisknownascomparison.
Intensivepronoun.Pronounusedtostrengthenanounorpronoun:themanager
herself,youyourselves,thebeeitself.
Interjection.Ejaculatorywordorexpression:Alas,there’slittlelefttoeat.Heavensabove,istherenoshameintheman?
Interrogativeadjective.Adjectiveusedinaskingquestion:whosebook?whichstreet?
Interrogativepronoun.Pronounusedinaskingaquestion:whosewaslost?whichwasstolen?
Intransitiveverb.Verbthatdoesnottakeanobject:Ismiledallday.Sheargueswell.Allcopulativeverbsareintransitive.Manyverbsfunctiontransitivelyaswellasintransitively.
Irregularverb.Verbthatformsitspasttenseandpastparticiplebyachangeofvowels:be,was,were;run,ran,run;sing,sang,sung.Alsoknownasstrongverb.
Linkingverb.SeeCopulativeverb.
Modifier.Wordorwordsthatlimit,describe,ormakemoreprecisethemeaningofthewordsmodified:bluehat,themanwhomyousaw,theywalkedsilently.
Mood.Characteristicofaverbthatshowsthemannerinwhichastatementisregardedbythewriter.SeeIndicativemood,Imperativemood,andSubjunctivemood.
Nominativecase.SeeSubjectivecase.
Nonrestrictivemodifier.Modifierofawordorgroupofwordsalreadylimitedorrestricted:Jane’sfather,whorowedforYale,stillrowseveryday.Ibroughthimtomysummerhouse,whichisinaPittsburghsuburb.
Noun.Nameofaperson,place,thing,quality,action,oridea.Nounsfunctionassubjects,objects,objectsofprepositions,objectsofverbals,andadjectives.
Nounphrase.Phrasethatfunctionsasanoun:Ienjoyafternoontea.WillyoubetakingthetraintoDenver?
Number.Singularandpluralaspectsofnouns,pronouns,andverbs.
Numericaladjective.Adjectivethatnumberstheworditmodifies:sixteachers,firstanniversary.
Objectivecase.SeeAccusativecase.
Parallelconstruction.Repetitionofgrammaticalconstructionforcoherence
andemphasis:flyingandswimming;Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.
Participle.Adjectiveformofaverb.Presentparticipleendsining:running,walking.Pastparticipleendsinediftheverbisregular,changesavoweliftheverbisirregular:walked,talked;run,eaten.Participlesareclassifiedasverbals.
Passivevoice.SeeVoice.
Person.Formsofverbsandpronounstoindicatepersonspeaking:Iam,wearefirstperson;personspokento:youaresecondperson;personspokenof:heis,theyarethirdperson.
Personalpronoun.Pronounusedtoindicatepeople:I,you,he,she,etc.Isawher.
Possessiveadjective.Adjectiveusedtoindicatepossession:my,your,his,her,its,etc.Ourhats,histypewriter.
Possessivecase.SeeGenitivecase.
Predicate.Inaclauseorsentence,theverbwithitsmodifiers,object,complement,orindirectobject.
Predicateadjective.SeeComplement.
Predicatecomplement.SeeComplement.
Predicatenoun.SeeComplement.
Preposition.Awordorwordsthatconveyameaningofposition,direction,time,orotherabstraction.Togetherwithanounorpronounanditsmodifiers,theprepositionformsaprepositionalphrase,whichservesasamodifier:tothefront,fromtheshore,withthem.Intheseprepositionalphrases,front,shore,andthemfunctionasobjectsofprepositions.
Principalpartsofaverb.Theinfinitive(steal),pasttense(stole),andpastparticiple(stolen).
Pronoun.Awordthattakestheplaceofanoun:I,it,me,he,him,they,them,etc.SeeAntecedent.
Properadjective.Adjectiveformedfromapropernoun:Japaneserestaurant,Englishhistory.
Propernoun.Nameofaspecificperson,place,orthing:Elizabeth,Finland,EmpireStateBuilding,RadioCityMusicHall.
Reciprocalpronoun.Eachotherandoneanother.Usedonlyastheobjectofa
verborpreposition:Theysaweachotherregularly.Wespoketooneanotheryesterday.
Regularverb.Verbthatformsitspasttenseandpastparticiplebyaddinged:worked,worked;talked,talked.Alsoknownasaweakverb.
Relativeadjective.Limitingadjectiveintroducingsubordinateclause:Thewomanwhosefamilylooksafterherisdeeplydepressed.
Relativepronoun.Pronounintroducingsubordinateclause:Themanwhohiredyouhasbeenpromoted.Thebookthatyougavemeismissing.
Restrictivemodifier.Modifierthatlimitsorrestrictsawordorgroupofwords:HenrytheEighth,themanwhoworkedforyou.
Sentence.Groupofwordsnormallycontainingasubjectandpredicate,expressinganassertion,question,command,wish,orexclamation.
Strongverb.SeeIrregularverb.
Subject.Elementinasentenceperformingtheactionindicatedbyanactiveverb;elementinasentencereceivingtheactionofapassiveverb:Janesawhersister.Shewasreceivedincourt.Infinitivesmayalsotakesubjects:Motheraskedhimtoreturnhome:himisthesubjectoftoreturn.
Subjectivecase.Formofpronounshowingthatthepronounisthesubjectofaverb:I,she,he,we,they,who.Alsocallednominativecase.
Subjunctivemood.Formofverbusedtoexpressdoubts,possibilities,desires,andconditionscontrarytofact:Idoubtthatshewilleverbecomechairperson.Ifhewerehere,thisproblemwouldvanish.
Subordinateclause.Sentenceelementconsistingofasubjectandpredicateandfunctioningasanoun,adjective,oradverb:Thathewasfiredcameasnosurprisetome.Thebookyousentmeneverarrived.Hewonderedwhenhewouldhearofhisappointment.Asubordinateclause,alsoknownasadependentclause,cannotstandaloneasasentence.
Superlative.Highestdegreeofcomparison,usedwhencomparingthreeormoreunits:mybesteffort,theoldestchildinthefamily,thesmallesterror.SeeComparison.
Tense.Characteristicofverbformsthatshowsdifferencesintimeofactionperformed:Irun,Iran,Iwillrun,Iwillhaverun,etc.
Transitiveverb.Verbthattakesanobject:Sheboughtthecar.JackandJill
carriedthewater.SeeIntransitiveverb.SeeCopulativeverb.
Verb.Wordorwordsusedtoexpressactionorstateofbeingofthesubject:Annestudiedhard.Sheiswilling.Theyaregoinghome.Thefamilywillhavereceivedthetelegrambythistimetomorrow.
Verbal.Wordderivedfromaverb,butfunctioningasanounormodifier.SeeGerund.SeeInfinitive.SeeParticiple.
Voice.Characteristicofverbsthatdifferentiatesbetweenthesubjectasperformeroftheactionoftheverb(activevoice)andthesubjectasreceiveroftheactionoftheverb(passivevoice).Activevoice:Thelecturerelaboratedhermainpoints.Passivevoice:Themainpointswereelaboratedbythelecturer.
Weakverb.SeeRegularverb.
CHAPTER1PrincipalElementsoftheSentence
Asentenceisagroupofwordsthatmakesastatementandcanbefollowedbyaperiod,questionmark,orexclamationpoint.
Theprincipalelementsofasentencearetheverb,subjectoftheverb,anddirectobjectoftheverborcomplementoftheverb.Manysentenceshaveonlyaverbandasubject.
Otherimportantsentenceelementsaretheindirectobjectandmodifiers.
VERBAverbisthewordorwordsthatdescribetheactionorstateofbeingofthe
subject.
Ratseatcheese.(Theverbeatdescribestheactionperformedbythesubjectrats.)Martyhasfeltwellrecently.(TheverbhasfeltdescribesthestateofbeingofthesubjectMarty.)Theorganwasoftenplayedduringchapel.(Theverbwasplayeddescribestheactionofthesubjectorgan.)
SUBJECTAsubjectisthepersonorthingthatperformstheactionindicatedbytheverb
orthatisinthestateofbeingthatisdescribedbytheverb.
Treesandshrubslinetheboulevard.(Treesandshrubsisthesubjectoftheverbline,answeringthequestionWhoorwhatline?Treesandshrubsline.)
Rarephotographsareexpensive.(Photographsisthesubjectoftheverbare.Whoorwhatareexpensive?Photographsare.Expensiveisthecomplementofare.Complementsarediscussedlater.)
DIRECTOBJECTAdirectobjectisthewordorwordsthatreceivetheactionindicatedbythe
verb.
Automobilesaredestroyingcities.(Whatistheaction?Aredestroying.Whatreceivestheaction?Cities.Citiesisthedirectobjectoftheverbaredestroying.)Thegardenerfertilizedthelawnandthetrees.(Whatreceivestheaction?Thelawnandthetrees.Lawnandtreesistheobjectoffertilized.)Thebankwasrobbed.(Thereisnodirectobject.Thissentencehasonlythesubjectbankandtheverbwasrobbed.)
COMPLEMENTAcomplementisthewordorwordsthatcompletethemeaningofverbsthat
expressfeeling,appearing,being,orseeming.Suchverbsareclassifiedascopulative,orlinking,verbs,whicharediscussedfullyonpage41.Copulativeverbsdonottakeadirectobject.Theyarecompletedbycomplements.Notethatallformsoftheverbtobearecopulativeexceptwhenusedasauxiliaryverbs(seepages41and42).
Heseemswell.(Theverbseemsdoesnotdescribeaction,butdoesdescribeastateofbeing.Seemslinksthesubjecthewithwell,andwellisthecomplementofseems.Notethatitoccupiesthepositioninthesentencethatanobjectwouldoccupy.ThesentenceHeseemswellcanbestbeunderstoodbyimaginingthataphysicianisreceivingareportonapatient’shealth.Noactionisbeingreported,onlyastateofbeing.Theverbseemsconveysnomeaningwithoutacomplement.Thus,wellcompletesthemeaningofseemsandiscalledthecomplementofthecopulativeverbseems.)Hewillbeacarpenter.(Theverbwillbelinksthesubjecthewithcarpenter,anoun.Noactionisbeingperformed.Carpentercomplements—completes—thecopulativeverbwillbe.)Emmafeelsfineearlyinthemorning.(ThecopulativeverbfeelslinksEmmawithfine,thecomplementoffeels.)
Itshouldbenotedthattheverbfeeldoesnotalwaysfunctionasacopulativeverb.InthesentenceShefeltthetable,anactionisbeingperformed,theactionoffeeling.Inthissentence,then,tableisthedirectobjectoffelt.
Tofindtheprincipalelementsofasentence:
(1)Findtheverborverbsbyaskingyourself:Whatishappening?Whatstateofbeingisindicated?
(2)Findthesubjectorsubjectsbyaskingyourself:Whoorwhatisperformingtheactiondescribedbytheverborverbs?Whosestateofbeingisdescribedbytheverborverbs?
(3)Findthedirectobjectoftheverborverbsbyaskingyourself:Whoorwhatisreceivingtheactionoftheverborverbs?
(4)Findthecomplementofacopulativeverbbyaskingyourself:Whatelementofthesentencecompletestheverb?
Notethataverbthattakesadirectobjectcannottakeacomplement.Averbthattakesacomplementcannottakeadirectobject.
1.Thisexercisetestsyourabilitytoidentifysubjects,verbs,directobjects,andcomplements.Youmaywanttoreviewthematerialpresentedearlierbeforebeginningworkonthisexercise.(Thesentencesincludecertainelementsnotyetdiscussed.Theywillbediscussedshortly.)
Inthefollowingsentences,identifytheprincipalsentenceelementsasshownintheseexamples:
Manycatshavefleas.
BillandTomappearedhappy.
1.Playwrightsandauthorsreceiveacclaim.
2.Librariespreservethewisdomofcivilization.
3.StoresarebusiestatChristmastime.
4.BuenosAireshasthelargestoperahouseintheworld.
5.Religionisapopularcourseinmanycolleges.
6.EliandSamuelwereOldTestamentprophets.
7.Warshaveproduceddeathanddestruction.
8.Tamaratelephonedherbrothers.
9.Thewaiterservedmineralwatertohiscustomers.
10.Thedormitorywasransacked.
11.Burglarswereransackingthedormitory.
12.HelenstudiedItalianinSwitzerland.
13.Shefelttheliningofhercoat.
14.Hefeltwellagain.
15.Thedefendantscalledtheirlawyer.
16.Anorderlymindensuressuccessinbusiness.
17.Microchipshaverevolutionizedthecommunicationsindustry.
18.Abibliographyisalistofbooksandarticles.
19.Eventeenagerscarrycellulartelephonestoday.
20.FewprofessionalsinEnglandnowwearbowlerhats.
21.Theshirtandtiesuitedhimwell.
22.OutstandingmatadorsarehighlyrespectedinSpain.
23.Manyhomesnowareairconditioned.
24.Airconditioningcleansandcoolsbuildings.
25.AlthoughPolish,ConradwroteinEnglish.
INDIRECTOBJECTAnindirectobjectisawordorwordsthatrepresentthepersonorthingwith
referencetowhichtheactionofaverbisperformed.Youwillencounterindirectobjectsintwodifferentways:
(1)Whenanindirectobjectfollowsthedirectobject,theindirectobjectwillbeprecededbyto,for,orof.
(2)Whenanindirectobjectappearsbetweentheverbandthedirectobject,theindirectobjectwillappearwithoutto,for,orof.
Indirectobjectsoccurmostoftenwithsuchverbsasask,tell,send,give,andshow.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Hegavethejobtome.(Thedirectobjectofgaveisjob.Meistheindirectobjectandisprecededbyto.)Hegavemethejob.(Thedirectobjectofgaveisjob.Meistheindirectobject.Noticethattoisomitted,becausetheindirectobjectappearsbetweentheverbgaveandthedirectobjectjob.)Theprofessoraskedheraquestion.(Thedirectobjectofaskedisquestion.Heristheindirectobject.Noticethatofisomitted.)Theprofessoraskedaquestionofher.(Heristheindirectobjectandisprecededbyof.Thedirectobjectisquestion.)Televisioncommentatorsgiveaudiencesthenews.(Thedirectobjectoftheverbgiveisnews.Theindirectobjectisaudiences.)Televisioncommentatorsgivethenewstoaudiences.(Theindirectobjectaudiencesisprecededbyto.)ManyfloristssendtheirbestcustomersorchidsonNewYear’sEve.(Thedirectobjectofsendisorchids.Theindirectobjectiscustomers.)ManyfloristssendorchidstotheirbestcustomersonNewYear’s
Eve.(Theindirectobjectiscustomers,andorchidsisthedirectobject.)
2.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheindirectobjectsasshownintheseexamples:
Thebridethrewherbouquettothebridesmaids.TonyBlairdeliveredamajoraddresstotheHouseofCommonsandHouseofLords.Wepaidhermanycompliments.
1.CentralAmericancountriesprovideexcellentfacilitiesforvacationers.2.Theauctionhousesentthecarpettothemuseum.3.Attorneysasktheirclientssearchingquestions.4.ThestorekeepersenthisbestcustomeraChristmasgift.5.Rebeccawroteapoemforhim.6.Hegavethemuseumararevase.7.ThedoghandlershowedtheEnglishsettertothejudges.8.SheleftherstampcollectiontoMarie.9.Sheshowedherroommatesherpaper.
10.HegavehisChinesevasetotheBritishMuseum.11.Wesuppliedhimfoodanddrink.12.Librariansprovideservicesforreaders.13.Districtattorneysmayaskembarrassingquestionsofwitnesses.14.Cargoshipsusuallygivereliableservicetomostclients.15.Childrenmaytelltheirparentsoutrageousstories.
MODIFIERSAllwordsinasentencethatarenotverbs,subjects,directobjects,indirect
objects,orcomplementsaremodifiers.Typically,modifiersdefine,makemoreprecise,identify,ordescribeaverb,
subject,directobject,indirectobject,complement,orothermodifier.Modifiersmaybesinglewordsorgroupsofwords.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Sheranquickly.(Theverbranismademoreprecise—is
modified—byquickly.)Sheranasquicklyasshecould.(Theverbranismademoreprecise—ismodified—byasquicklyasshecould.)Thebluehatsuitedthewomanbest.(Thesubjecthatisdescribed—ismodified—byblue.)Thehatthatsheboughtsuitedthewoman.(Thesubjecthatismodifiedbythatshebought.)Thethiefstolemynewmower.(Thedirectobjectmowerismodifiedbymynew.)AthiefstolethecomputerthatAndrew’swifehadgivenhim.(ThedirectobjectcomputerismodifiedbythatAndrew’swifehadgivenhim.)Copyrightlawyersforwardtheirfindingstowaitingclients.(ThesubjectlawyersismodifiedbyCopyright,andtheindirectobjectclientsismodifiedbywaiting.)Copyrightlawyersrevealtheirfindingstoclientswhopaytheirbills.(ThesubjectlawyersismodifiedbyCopyright,andtheindirectobjectclientsismodifiedbywhopaytheirbills.)Seanappearedoverlyanxious.(Thecomplementanxiousismodifiedbyoverly.)Mywifeappearedanxioustoanembarrassingextent.(Thecomplementanxiousismodifiedbytoanembarrassingextent.)Excessivelygratefulpeopleembarrassothers.(Themodifiergratefulisitselfmodifiedbyexcessively.)Uninformedbyanystandard,hecontinuedtoposeasanexpert.(ThemodifierUninformedismodifiedbybyanystandard.ThesubjectheismodifiedbyUninformedbyanystandard.)
3.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethesingle-wordmodifiersasshownintheseexamples:
Threelargestoreswereopenedsimultaneously.
Theopenbooklayontheprofessor’sdesk.
1.Anoutdoormarketattractsenthusiasticvisitors.
2.Thepatientchildgreetedherjoyfully.
3.Thetiredwifecamehomeverylate.
4.Atastyspaghettidinnerisalwayswelcome.
5.Aregularlyservicedcarmakesdrivingsafer.
6.Susanopenedthelargepackagecarefully.
7.Theneighborhoodstoreopenedearlyandclosedlate.
8.Grandmotheralwaysfoldedcleansheetsneatly.
9.Ineverbelievenewsstories.10.Ourbestskateralmostfell.11.Thetrusteeswillmeettonight.12.Ourweeklynewspaperprintsonlylocalnews.13.Nighttimetelevisionshowsoldmovies.14.Peterneverrepairedthebrokenpipe.15.Whitewineimprovesroastchicken.16.Herman’sbandwasplayinggooddancemusic.17.Bertha’sdiaryhasabluebinding.18.Ineversawhimbefore.19.Thetallpolicemangentlycomfortedthefrightenedchild.20.Pleasebringtwosharppencils.21.Theredpaintdriesslowly.22.Thestormyweatherraisedhighwaves.23.Happyschoolchildrenstudyhard.24.Robert’soldcarneedsnewtires.25.Theysellamillionbagelsannually.
MULTIPLE-WORDMODIFIERSMultiple-wordmodifiersarecomposedofphrasesorclauses.Aphraseisa
logicalgroupingofwordsthatdoesnotcontainasubjectorverb.Aclauseisalogicalgroupingofwordsthatdoescontainasubjectandverb.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Thehousewiththegabledroofbelongstomycousin.(Inthissentence,thephrasewiththegabledroofmodifieshouse;thephrasetomycousinmodifiesbelongs.Noticethatthereisnosubjectorverbineithermultiple-wordmodifier.)Themanwhojustenteredtheroomwenttothehostess.(Inthissentence,theclausewhojustenteredtheroommodifiesman;thephrasetothehostessmodifieswent.Thefirstmultiple-wordmodifierhasbothsubjectwhoandverbentered.Forthisreason,themodifierisaclause.Tothehostesshasneithersubjectnorverb,soitisaphrase.)Thegirlwhosearmhadtobesetawokeinthehospital.(Inthissentence,theclausewhosearmhadtobesetmodifiesgirl;thephraseinthehospitalmodifiesawoke.)
4.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethemultiple-wordmodifiersasshownintheseexamples:
Graceclungtothearmoftheboyinthefootballuniform.Theexpertwhoidentifiedtheforgerieswasrewardedbytheartcollector.Ifindhimguilty.(none)
1.Thedressthatthechampionworeonthetenniscourtwastrimmedwithgreenpiping.
2.Themanintheskimaskrandownthestairs.3.Hewentoutoncoldnightswithoutacoat.4.Theflankerofthevisitingteamranaroundtherightend.5.Thebuildinginwhichwearelivinghasbeencondemned.6.Acarthatisdoubleparkedblockstrafficintheentirestreet.7.Themancarryingthebrownportfoliolefthispapersonhisdesk.8.Garbagehadfallenacrossthesidewalk.9.Peopleofallagesenjoyswimming.
10.Thecigarstoreonthecornersellsnewspapersfrommanycities.11.Alineofunemployedmenandwomenwaitedattheofficedoor.12.Thegirlinthereddresswalkeddownthestreet.13.Thelightofmorningshonethroughthewindow.14.Therainwehadyesterdayleftlargepuddlesonstreetsalloverthecity.
15.Thewindowboxweplantedisfullofredflowers.16.Apairofblackbirdsnestsunderthatbridge.17.Studentsfromourschoolalwaysvisitthemuseum.18.Thegirlwithbrowneyespointedacrosstheroomwithherlefthand.19.Thedriverofourbusispleasanttoallhispassengers.20.IdawillhavedinneratourhouseonSaturday.21.AsalesmanwhospeaksonlyEnglishcannotcommunicatewithmany
customers.22.Thebatterwhohittoleftfieldreachedsecondbasebeforetheballwas
thrownin.23.Adogthatiswelltrainedobeysawell-trainedmaster.24.Thepriestinourparishhelpseveryonewhocomestohim.25.Askierwhoknowswhatsheisdoingmoveswithgreatcaution.
5.Inthefollowingsentences,identifyverbs,subjects,directobjects,complements,indirectobjects,andmodifiersasshownintheseexamples:
Thebasementofthehouseacrossthestreetwasfloodedduringthestorm.
Thequarterbackpassedtheballtothetightend.
Thegeneralwasanableman.
1.Lisahastilywroteanangrylettertohermother.
2.Beethovenisthegreatestcomposerofalltime.
3.WhileIwaswaitingforJon,Imetanotheroldfriend.
4.Michelleistheworststudentinthejuniorclass.
5.TheDemocraticcandidategaveanimportantspeechontheradio.
6.NolagaveMarlaaveryexpensivepresent.
7.Theyoungwomanrosefromherchairnearthewindow.
8.Literarycriticsoftenarefrustratedauthors.
9.Acompetentornithologistidentifiedmanyrarebirds.
10.EmmaDallyhaswrittenthreeinterestingnovelsonmodernEnglishlife.
11.WorkingfarintothenightgivesGarybadheadaches.
12.MostThirdWorldnationsexperienceeconomicdifficulties.
13.Oldautomobilesareaburdentotheirusers.
14.Lifehasneverbeenbetterforthisgeneration.
15.Ialwaysstudyatnight.
16.Thenewpuppiesaretheenvyoftheneighbors.
17.H.L.Menckenwasanirreverentcritic.
18.Katemadeattractivedressesforherselfandherfriends.
19.Actorsreceivemanyletterseveryday.
20.Povertydamagesthelivesofmanyruralchildren.
21.Westillgotothetheaterasoftenaspossible.
22.Commoditypricesarehigheverywhere.
23.WhenDickcutshimself,hebleedsforalongtime.
24.Paperairplanesrarelyflyformorethanafewminutes.
25.Fishingisgreatfunonceyouhavelearnedthefundamentalskills.
CLAUSESLikeasentence,aclausecontainsasubjectandverb.Itmayalsocontainan
objectorcomplement,anindirectobject,andmodifiers.Aclausethatmakesacompletestatementandcanstandaloneasasentenceis
calledanindependentclause.Aclausethatcannotstandaloneasasentenceiscalledasubordinate,ordependent,clause.
Asentencemayconsistofoneormoreindependentclausesplusoneormoresubordinateclauses.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Aftershesatdown,sheremovedhershoes.(ThissentenceconsistsofasubordinateclauseAftershesatdownandanindependentclausesheremovedhershoes.Youknowfromthepreviousdiscussionofmodifiersthat,inthissentence,thesubordinateclausemodifiestheverbremovedinthemainclause.Notethatbothclauseshavetheirownsubjectsandverbs:shesat,sheremoved.Notefurtherthattheindependentclausecanstandasasentence:sheremovedhershoes.Thesubordinateclausecannotstandasasentence:Aftershesatdown.Thesubordinateclausedoesnotmakeacompletestatementbutdependsontheindependentclauseforitsmeaning.ThewordAfterconnectsthe
subordinateclausetotheindependentclause.Afterhereisclassifiedasasubordinatingconjunction.ConjunctionsarediscussedinChapter7.)Wewenttothemovies,andtheystayedhome.(Thissentenceconsistsoftwoindependentclauses.Eachclausehasitsownsubjectandverb:Wewent,theystayed.Eitherclausecanstandasacompletesentence.Eachmakesastatementthatdoesnotdependontheother.Theconjunctionhereisand,whichisclassifiedasacoordinatingconjunction.Othercoordinatingconjunctionsarebut,for,so,or,nor,andyet.)
6.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheindependentclausesasshownintheseexamples:
Westayedonthedocklongaftertheshiphadgone.EventhoughIwassick,Iattendedclassregularly.
1.Someofuslikedtheprogramthatnight,andmanypeoplewereenthusiasticaboutit.
2.Manyvotersmisinterpretedtheremarksofthecandidate,soshetriedtorestateherposition.
3.Whilewewalkedhome,weconsideredtheproblemcarefully.
4.Willielivedalongandhappylife,buthistimehadcometodie.
5.Duringtheyearstheyspentraisingtheirchildren,theyhadmanyhappyexperiences.
6.Cigaretteshavelongbeenknowntobedangeroustohealth,yetmanypeoplecontinuetosmoke.
7.Hewantedtojoinherinthenewbusiness,buthehadlittlecapitaltoinvest.
8.Althoughtherewasenoughfoodtogoaround,itsqualitywaspoor.
9.Hisfirstremarksweregreetedwithderision,buttheaudiencesoonbegantoapplaud.
10.Wellresearchedpapersusuallygethighermarksthanhastilypreparedpapers.
7.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethedependentclausesasshownintheseexamples:
Mostoftheseniorswillbegraduatedbeforetheyreacheighteen.Ateveryopportunityhederideshisassociates.(none)
1.MostofthemhavebeendrivingcarelesslyeventhoughtheypassedDriverEducation.
2.Aspensandpoplarsgrowrapidlybutarenotusefulinbuilding.
3.TheyleftCaliforniaaftertheirchildrenfinishedcollege.
4.Sallynevereatsmeat,eventhoughtherestofherfamilydoes.
5.Wedecidedthatshewasnotafriendofoursandhewas.
6.Mywifecanbarelymanagetogettoherjobatschool,wheresheteachesremedialreading.
7.Themayortoldherconstituentsshewouldsurelymeetthetown’sfinancialneeds.
8.Supersonictransportairplaneshavelittletorecommendthem,sincetheysavethetravelerlittletimeandcontributeheavilytoairpollution.
9.Ihavereservedtwoexcellentandhigh-pricedseatsfortonight’sperformance.
10.ThemovieheldallofusspellboundexceptforRory,whoyawnedsteadilyandaudiblyfromthetimethemoviebegan.
PHRASESAphraseisagroupoftwoormorewordsthatdoesnotcontainasubjectand
verb.Phraseshavemanyformsandfunctions,whicharediscussedatlengthelsewhereinthisbook.Itisusefulheretolearntorecognizephrasesandtoidentifytheirfunctionsasmodifiers,subjects,complements,andobjects.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Theyhidbehindthebuilding.(Thephrasebehindthebuildingmodifieshid.Noticethatnosinglewordwithinthephraseconveysthemeaningintendedbytheentirephrase,whichfunctionsasalogicalgroupingofwordsthatconveysasinglemeaning.Noticealsothatthephrasehasnosubjectorverb.)Thehorseinfrontwillwin.(Thephraseinfrontmodifieshorse.)Eatingappleshasbeencalledasurewaytoavoiddoctors’bills.(ThephraseEatingapplesfunctionsasthesubjectofhasbeencalled.NoticethatwordssuchasEatingoftenfunctionassubjects,objects,andmodifiers.Intheserolestheyareclassifiedasverbals.InthissentenceEatingisagerund,oneofthethreetypesofverbals.)Herhobbywasflyingairplanes.(Thephraseflyingairplanesfunctionsasthecomplementofwas,acopulativeverb.Flyingisalsoagerund.)Eileenwantedtofinishherworkearly.(Thephrasetofinishherworkearlyistheobjectofwanted.Noticethattofinishisaninfinitive,whichisoneofthethreetypesofverbals.)
8.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethephrasesasshownintheseexamples:
Thechildrenweretakentothestore.Winningthepeaceismoreimportantnowthanwinningthewar.Shedecidedtospearanoctopusfordinner.
1.Weswamacrossthewindingriver.
2.Afterherdivorce,allmentionofhernameceased.
3.Theysawthemselvespinnedtothewall.
4.Theglidersoaredskyward,soontobereleasedbythetowingairplane.
5.Theybaitedthetrapinhopeofsnaringsomethingfordinner.
6.Asimplecountrydoctorwasallsheeverwantedtobe.
7.Bookswerehisbestfriends;timehisgreatestenemy.
8.Acupofteainlateafternoonenabledthemtosurviveuntilevening.
9.Inthelibrarytheboyfoundpeaceandquiet.10.Thecaptainorderedustopickupourgearandretreattothenearest
townasquicklyaspossible.
CHAPTER2NounsandArticles
NOUNSAnounisthenameofaperson,place,thing,quality,activity,concept,or
condition.
Person
AbrahamLincolnisknownthroughouttheworldforhishumanity.Cervantescreatedoneofthegreatcomicnovels.StudentsoflogicstudySocrates.TheactorportrayingTarzanhasasimpletask.Pelé,theBraziliansoccerplayer,scoredmoregoalsthananyotherplayerbeforehim.
PlaceLimaisthecapitalofPeru.Dublinexperiencedaliteraryrenaissancejustaftertheturnofthecentury.TravelersfindScotlandoneofthemostbeautifulplacestovisit.Colombiaisnotedformarvelouscoffee.Afghanistanisnolongervisitedbymosttourists.
ThingAbeachisunsurpassedforrelaxation.Aman’shouseishiscastle.Dogsperformanimportantfunctionfortheblind.Thecommitteegatheredaroundtheconferencetable.Russiansenjoyteaservedinaglass.
QualityIadmireherchildlikeinnocence.Athingofbeautyisajoyforever.TheHouseofRepresentativessometimesappearstobeavailabletothehighestbidder.Shediscerneddeceitfulnessinhisproposal.Theshopkeeperaccusedthesalesmanofopportunism.
ActivityFishinghadbecomeamajorsport.Hemadehisfortuneinmanufacturing.Leisurehasbecomeincreasinglyimportantforthemiddleclass.Thehorseshowlistedsixevents,ofwhichjumpingwasconsideredmostimportant.Writingisanarttoooftenneglected.Oneofthebestbooksoncookingisnowoutofprint.
ConceptorConditionChristianityisoneofthemajorworldreligions.Thenewspapercarriedmajorarticlesonchangesincapitalism.Footballisoftenagameofinches.AlliedArmiesinvadedNormandyin1944.MonarchywastheprevailingformofgovernmentinEuropeatthattime.
1.Inthefollowingsentences,underlineallnounsasshownintheseexamples:Intellectaloneneverprovidesanadequateanswer.Actorsmuststudyvoiceinordertobeheard.
1.HarpoMarxwasabelovedcomedian.
2.Theskyseemedtobefullofparachutes.
3.Take-outcuisinefeatureshamburgersandchickenwings.
4.Billworeatweedcoatthatoncebelongedtohisfather.
5.Charitybeginsathome.
6.ThefootballbouncedoffthestatueofHamilton.
7.Theavenueisundergoingrestoration.
8.Theboringspeechlastednearlyonehour.
9.Somechairmenfailtokeeporder.10.Ourpuppyhasblackspotsonitsnose.11.Hishotelwasnearthecasino.12.Myneighbordrivesasmallcar.13.WilltheworldeverforgetMartinLutherKing?14.Lovemakestheworldgoround.15.Ballpointpensdonotflatterthehandwriting.16.ThetrainmaygetustoChicagointimetocatchtheshow.17.Maryisallergictoroses,butshestilllovesthem.18.Thecleaningfluiddidnottakeoutthestain.19.Awomanwhomissesherbusmaywellbeindanger.20.Loisfoundthatnoonewouldofferheraseat.21.Maryrefusedtoknitthesweaterforherfather.22.Joechangedthetireandgotbackintohiscar.23.Hewashedhishandsasthoroughlyashecould.24.Bridgeisnotmycupoftea.25.Planningseemstotakeallmytime.
NOUNFUNCTIONSAnouncanhavemanyfunctionsinasentence:
(1)subjectofaverb,(2)directobjectofaverb,(3)objectofapreposition,(4)objectofaverbal(gerund,infinitive,participle),(5)indirectobjectofaverb,(6)predicatecomplement(complementofacopulativeverb),
(6)predicatecomplement(complementofacopulativeverb),(7)modifierofanothernoun.
SubjectofaVerbHousesbuiltafter1950areusuallyofpoorconstruction.(SubjectHouses,verbare.)Beautyisintheeyesofthebeholder.Indianarthasmanyadmirers.Despiteallassurances,theyoungdancerfoundhisdebuttrying.NewYorkCityappearstohavereachedastablesize.Swimmingwashisgreatestpleasure.(ThegerundSwimmingfunctionshereassubjectofwas.)
DirectObjectofaVerbThehuntershotthreedeer.(Verbshot,directobjectdeer.)Theautomobileforcedthecowsofftheroad.Africanhuntersfoundagricultureimpossibletosustain.Criticalacclaimtooearlyinacareermayimpedeanovelist’sdevelopment.Inadequateeducationmaycausedelinquency.Theylikeddancing.(Thegerunddancingfunctionshereasthedirectobjectofliked.)
ObjectofaPrepositionTheywalkedaboutthemall.(Prepositionabout,objectofprepositionmall.)Forhispart,hewouldrememberthatdayforever.Upanddowntheriver,therewasnothingbutsolidice.Sheperformedmostofherchoresduringtheafternoon.(Prepositionof,objectofprepositionchores;prepositionduring,objectofprepositionafternoon.)Thecoupledecidedtoskitheupperslopebeforelunch.
ObjectofaVerbal
Swimmingthechannelwasmorethanhecouldmanage.(VerbalSwimming;channel,objectoftheverbalswimming.)Topasshisexaminationseasilywasallhewanted.Fightingtherain,heslowlymadehiswayhome.Havingfoundhiswallet,hedecidedtoretireforthenight.Theconsultingengineerofferedyetanothersuggestionforsolvingtheproblem.
IndirectObjectofaVerbThelawyergavehersecretaryabriefletter.(Verbgave,indirectobjectsecretary.)Weshowedthecuratorthenewacquisition.Thepitcherthrewthefieldertheball.ThemessengergaveJuananenvelope.Teachersassigntheirclassesenoughworktokeepanyonebusy.
Inallthesesentences,thewordordercanberearrangedsothattheindirectobjectcanbemadetheobjectofapreposition:Thelawyergaveabrieflettertohersecretary.Weshowedthenewacquisitiontothecurator.Thepitcherthrewtheballtothefielder.ThemessengergaveanenvelopetoJuan.Teachersassigntotheirclassesenoughworktokeepanyonebusy.
PredicateComplementIntheeyesofmanyofherclients,sheisthebestlawyerintown.(Verbis,predicatecomplementlawyer.Theverbisis,ofcourse,acopulativeverb.)ChristianityisthereligionofmanyEuropeans.Sheistheyoungestteacherinourschool.Themaindifficultyofthatcountryisthepovertyofmostofthepopulation.Wordprocessorscanbeablessingforthoseofuswhowriteillegibly.
ModifierofAnotherNounStonewallswerebuiltthroughoutNewEngland.(NounStone,
modifyingnounwalls.)Thepeacetalkssettledthelongwar.Glassdoorswereinstalledinthekitchen.Tennischampionsplayedmanytournamentsthatyear.Johncollectedpostagestamps.
2.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinenounsandidentifytheirfunctionsinrespectiveorderasshownintheseexamples:
UtamarowasoneofthegreatestartistsofJapan.
Thecollegehasgraduatedmanynotedscholars.
Rosasentherbloodhoundtotheveterinarian.
Toobtainanewhalfback,themanagerofferedhisstarrookie.
Janegivesallheradmirersabrieftalk.
Svenisanexcellentcarpenter.
1.Librariansliketohelpseriouspeoplefindbooks.
2.McDonaldhadaflourishingfarm.
3.WewenttothezooonthefirstMondayoftheyear.
4.Pianomusicgoeswellwithaglassofwineandcandlelight.
5.Allhesaidwasthathethoughtwemadebeautifulmusic.
6.Thechildraninfrontofthecarbeforewehadachancetostop.
7.Fatherwasannoyedbecausewestayedupsolatetowatchvideos.
8.Louistriedhardtobecomeapainter,butonlysucceededinbecominganillustrator.
9.Werodeupthemountainonachairlift.
10.AttendingchurchonSundayswasthecustominourfamily.
11.Mywifelikestoprepareelegantdishes.
12.HeknewmarryingAviswouldchangehislife.
13.PleasegiveSamaticketforthefootballgame.
14.IwillknitAlfredasweatereventhoughIreallyshouldknitoneformyfather.
15.Inalargefamily,laundrydayisaneverydayevent.
16.Eyeglassesarenotasuresignofage;bifocalsare.
17.AnAcuraisnotonlyabeautifulcar,butapracticaloneifyoucanaffordtheinitialinvestment.
18.FinewineisincreasinglymadeofCaliforniagrapes.
19.Termpapersreallyshouldbecalledresearchpapers.
20.Ifailtoseetheadvantagesofmicrowaveovens.
21.Sculptureisausefulandinterestinghobby.
22.Despitetheadviceofhisdoctor,Fredwentonsmokingcigarettesuntilthedayhedied.
23.Cabbageiseasytogrowifyouhaveroomforitinyourgarden.
24.Cindyhaddrunktoomuchbourbonwhiskey.
25.Thenewcouchfitsrightintoourlivingroom.
TYPESOFNOUNSNounsareclassifiedaspropernounsorcommonnouns.Apropernounisthenameofaspecificperson,place,orthing:
Michelangeloisuniversallyadmired.ShewasaDemocratinheryouth.Oh,tobeinEngland!LincolnCenterattractsmanyvisitorstoNewYorkCity.
Acommonnounisthenameusedforanyunspecifiedmemberofaclassofpersons,places,things,qualities,orconcepts:
Sculptorsandpaintersworkhardforrecognition.Wealladmiretheworkoffinenovelists.Thecitywasknownforitsuglyarchitecture.Oh,tobeinafarawayland.Steepmountainschallengeexperiencedhikers.Themuseumexhibitedonlysomeofitstreasures.Heflirtedbrieflywithacareerinpoliticsinhisyouth.
Propernounsarecapitalized;commonnounsarenot,unlesstheyarethefirstwordinasentence.
3.Inthefollowingsentences,underlineallnounsandidentifythemasproperorcommonasshownintheseexamples:
Marysubmittedherpaperinafolder.
ThomasEdisonsleptonlyfourhoursanightthroughoutthemajorportionofhislife.
1.Theroadwasicy,soJamesadvisedhiswifetohavechainsputonthefamilycar.
2.Siberiasupportsthousandsofmigratorydeer.
3.TheAtlanticispollutedwithcongealedoilfromNewYorktoPortugal.
4.Manystudentscannotfinishcollegebecauseofthehighcostoftuition.
5.Mostphysicstextbooks,accordingtoLorimer,donotsupplystudentswithsufficientexercises.
6.TheaterseatsinEnglandaresoinexpensivethatsometouristsseeaplayeverynightoftheweek.
7.Richpeopleordinarilyfindthatexpensiverestaurantsareeagerfortheirpatronage.
8.Fewlexicographersseethemselvesasguardiansoftheirlanguage.
9.BernardMalamudwastheauthorofmanyfinestoriesandbooks.
10.RogerCasementwasanIrishpatriot,anEnglishtraitor.
PLURALFORMSOFNOUNSMostnounsformtheirpluralsbyaddingstothesingular:time,times;girl,
girls;home,homes;bear,bears.Thereareexceptionstothispractice:
(1)Addeswhenanounendsins:kindness,kindnesses;lens,lensesendsinz:fez,fezzes;quiz,quizzes(notethedoublingofz)endsinsh:hash,hashes;flash,flashesendsinch:lunch,lunches;bunch,bunchesendsinx:mix,mixes;box,boxes
(2)Whenanounendsinyprecededbyaconsonant,changetheytoiandaddes:harmony,harmonies;baby,babies;burglary,burglaries.
(3)Forcertainnounstakendirectlyfromforeignlanguages,formthepluralasitisformedinthoselanguages:alumnus,alumni;alumna,alumnae;erratum,errata;stimulus,stimuli;phenomenon,phenomena.Thereisatendencytodropthispracticeandusetheletterstoformpluralsofwordstakendirectlyfromforeignlanguages.Thus,thepluralofmemorandumisnowmoreoftenmemorandumsthanmemoranda.Acurrentdictionarywillbeusefulindecidingquestionsofpluralization.
(4)Certainnounsdonotchangeinformingplurals:deer,goods,headquarters,scissors,species,etc.
(5)CertainnounsthathavecomedownfromAnglo-SaxonretaintheirAnglo-Saxonplurals:foot,feet;tooth,teeth;woman,women;man,men;child,children;ox,oxen;etc.
(6)Certainnounsendinginoformthepluralbyaddings:radios,cameos,videos.Othersaddes:potatoes,tomatoes.Stillothersallowbothsandes.Checkyourdictionary.
4.Givethepluralformsofthewordsandphrasesinthefollowinglistasshownintheexamples.Consultadictionaryifnecessary.
POSSESSIVEFORMSOFNOUNSTworulesarehelpfulinformingpossessivenouns:
(1)Withsingularnounsandwithpluralnounsthatdonotendins,add’stoformthepossessive:boy,boy’s;child,child’s;Jane,Jane’s;children,children’s;brethren,brethren’s;sisters-in-law,sisters-in-law’s.
(2)Withpluralnounsandwithsingularnounsthatendins,add‘or’stoformthepossessive:boys,boys’;girls,girls’;Russians,Russians’;Charles,Charles’,Charles’s;Yeats,Yeats’,Yeats’s.
5.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpossessiveformsasshownintheseexamples:
ThemusicoftheBeatlesdidnotappealtoeverybody.
ThemusicoftheBeatlesdidnotappealtoeverybody.
The musicdidnotappealtoeverybody.
Adelayofonedaywillnotbotherme.
One delaywillnotbotherme.
1.TheshirtJohnwillwearneedsironing._____________shirtneedsironing.
2.Theperformanceofbothteamsinthefirsthalfwasdisappointing.The_____________performanceinthefirsthalfwasdisappointing.
3.MostmeetingsoftheUnitedNationsbeginontime.TheUnited_____________meetingsmostlybeginontime.
4.HeobjectedtothereunificationofKorea.Heobjectedto_____________reunification.
5.Whohasnotadmiredthebattingofthe1998Yankees?Whohasnotadmiredthe_____________batting?
6.JohnRuskinwasknownformorethanartcriticism.John_____________reputationextendedbeyondartcriticism.
7.Thechildofmynext-doorneighborhadapartyyesterday.Mynext-door_____________childhadapartyyesterday.
8.Theambitionsofmostmenareneverrealized.Most_____________ambitionsareneverrealized.
9.Thebestdishesofourcookarereservedfornightswhencompanyisexpected.Our_____________bestdishesarereservedfornightswhencompanyisexpected.
10.ThepoetryofJohnKeatswillnevergooutofstyle.John_____________poetrywillnevergooutofstyle.
11.Withalittleluck,thescrambledeggsmywifemakeswillresembletherealthing.Withalittleluck,my_____________scrambledeggswillresembletherealthing.
12.AtmidnightonDecember31,Ishallbecelebratingwithmyfamily.IshallbecelebratingNew_____________Evewithmyfamily.
13.TheshoesMickeyworehadseenbetterdays._____________shoeshadseenbetterdays.
_____________shoeshadseenbetterdays.14.RetirementfortheJohnsonsdidnotlastlongenough.
The_____________retirementyearsweretoofew.15.Mr.andMrs.Jonessaidalltheycouldatthemeeting.
Mr.andMrs._____________remarksboredeveryoneatthemeeting.
COLLECTIVENOUNSAcollectivenounmayrepresentagrouporclassconsideredasaunit.Sucha
collectivenounisconsideredsingular.Acollectivenounmayalsorepresentagrouporclassofindividuals
consideredasindividuals.Inthiscase,thecollectivenounistreatedasplural.Thewritermustdecidehowheorsheintendsacollectivenountobe
understoodandmustbeconsistentintreatmentofthenoun.Someofthemostcommoncollectivenounsare:army,audience,band,
committee,couple,flock,group,jury,majority,andteam.Thesenounsmaybetreatedassingularsorplurals.Whenacollectivenounissingular,itsverbmustbesingular.Whenplural,itsverbmustbeplural.
Thefollowingsentencesshowbothuses:
Singular
Thearmyisadvancingslowly.(Theentirearmyasaunit.)Thebandhasplayedwell.(Theentirebandasaunit.)Thejuryhasreachedaverdict.(Theentirejuryasaunit.)
Plural
Theaudienceareleavingtheirseatsnow.(Themembersoftheaudiencearethoughtofasindividuals.)Thecommitteedisagreewiththestandtakenbytheminority.(Themembersofthecommitteearethoughtofasindividuals.Thecommitteehasnottakenasinglestandasaunit.)Theyoungcouplewereunhappywiththeapartmenttheyrented.(Bothhusbandandwife,asindividuals,wereunhappy.)
Certaincollectivenouns,forexample,athletics,contents,andpolitics,appeartobepluralbecausetheyendins.Yettheyaretreatedassingularswhentheyare
intendedassingularsand,ofcourse,theyaretreatedaspluralswhentheyarethoughtofasplurals.Again,thewritermusttreatthemconsistentlyeitherassingularsorplurals:
Singular
Thecontentsofthevalisewasexaminedthoroughlybytheguard.(Thewritertreatscontentsasaunit.)Statisticsisnotmybestsubject.(Thewriterisdiscussingadisciplinecalledstatistics.)
Plural
Theremainingcontentsofthevalisewerethrownabouttheroom.(Thewriteristhinkingoftheindividualobjectsthatmakeupthecontentsofthevalise.)Statisticsaresaidtomisleadtheunwary.(Thewriteristhinkingofindividualcomputationsthattogetherconstitutewhatwecallstatistics.)
6.Inthefollowingsentences,identifythecollectivenounsassingularorpluralasshownintheseexamples:
Humankindiscomingtoadecisiveerainitshistory.Thepublicmakesknownitswishesslowlybutforcefully.
Theremainderaregoingtobeleftbehind.
1.Inmanyuniversities,athleticsisfundedfromfootballreceipts._____________
2.Hedecidedthathewouldhavetocuttheherdsoitsweakestmemberswouldnotdeprivethestrongestoffood._____________
3.Theclassagreedthattheirteachershouldbeencouragedtopermitearlyadjournment._____________
4.Heaskedthegrouptotaketheirtimeinreachingadecision._____________
5.Aministermayfindthathiscongregationspeakswithasinglevoiceinparishmatters._____________
6.Theteamhasdecidedtoappointanewcaptain._____________7.Theoppositionaremeetingquietlytodevelopaneffectivestrategy.
_____________8.Wewonderwhethertheremainderissufficienttopayherwayforthe
restofherlife._____________9.Themajoritymustsoondecidehowtoproceed._____________10.Hisoffspringarenowgoingtheirseparateways._____________
NOUNCLAUSESAnounclausehasasubjectandverbandfunctionsasanoun.Nounclauses
areusuallyintroducedbythat,what,who,whoever,whatever,why,when,where,how,orwhich.
AsSubjects
Thatapoliticiancanactthatwayafteryearsinofficeneveroccurredtome.(subjectofoccurred)Whyheactsthewayhedoesmystifiesme.(subjectofmystifies)
AsObjects
Sheinsistedthatshewouldchangeherways.(objectofinsisted)Sheinsistedshewouldchangeherways.(objectofinsisted)
AsPredicateComplements
Lifeiswhateveryoumakeit.(complementofis)YounowarewhereIwouldlovetobe.(complementofare)
AsObjectsofPrepositions
Heistakingactiononalltheproblemsofwhichyoucomplained.(objectofof)Ipurchasedthebookforwhichyoubid.(objectoffor)
7.Inthefollowingsentences,underscorethenounclausesasshownintheseexamples:
Hispositionisthathewasnottoblame.
Howhecanachievehisambitionbewildersme.
1.Whetherwegotomorroworstaydependsonmywife’shealth.
2.Walterinsistedthatwepoolourremainingcapital.
3.Hisanswersusuallywerewhatevercameintohisheadfirst.
4.Hefeelsunhappyaboutwhathappenedduringhisjobinteview.
5.Dickcannotbeheldresponsibleforeverythinghischildrendo.
6.Thisbuildinglackswhatmodernarchitecturecanusuallysupply.
7.Thelibrariantoldmethatthebookwasonreserve.
8.Whenthepicnicisheldisnoconcernofyours.
9.Whateveryoudowillsurelyaffecttheremainderofyouracademiccareer.
10.Whoeverattendsthemeetingwillhaveavoteintheelection.
ARTICLESTherearetwotypesofarticles:definiteandindefinite.Articlesareconsidered
modifiersofnounsandpronouns.
DefiniteArticle
Thedefinitearticleisthe.Itisusedtoindicateaspecificclassofnounsorpronounsoraspecificmemberofaclassofnounsorpronouns:
Thewhaleisstillanendangeredspecies.(Thewhaleasdistinctfromotherspecies.)HegavemetheassignmentIrequested.(Hegavemeaspecificassignment.)Theteachergavetheclassenoughhomeworkfortheweek.(Aspecificteacher,aspecificclass,aspecificweek.)GeorgeBushisthepresidentIrememberbest.
Theyaretheoneswhoowntheproperty.
OmissionoftheDefiniteArticle
Thedefinitearticleisomittedwhenthewriterdoesnotspecifyaparticularamountorquantityofthenoun.
Teachersassignhomework.(Anindefinitenumberofteachersassignanindefiniteamountofhomework.)Saltisanimportantcommodity.(Thewriterhasnotspecifiedanamountofsalt.)Thesaltonourtableisrarelyused.(Inspecifyingaparticularamountofsalt,thewriterusesthedefinitearticle.)
IndefiniteArticle
Theindefinitearticlesareaandan.Theyareusedasmodifierstoindicateanunspecifiedclassormemberofaclassofnouns:
Ms.Smithgaveherfatherenoughmoneyforaweek.(Theweekisunspecified.)Asteakcosts$25insomerestaurants.(Thismeansanyunspecifiedsteak.)Carpentersmayneveragainbepaid$20anhourinNewYorkCity.(Thismeansanyunspecifiedhourregardlessofwhentheworkisperformed.)
ChoosingBetweenaandan
Aisusedbeforeawordbeginningwithaconsonantsound:
Astereoplayedallnight.(Consonantsounds.)Heusedahammertonailtheboard.(Consonantsoundh.)Aone-hourlectureismorethanIcantake.(Onebeginswiththeconsonantsoundw,asinwon.)Hewasausefulperson.(Usefulbeginswiththeconsonantsoundyasinyet.)
Anisusedbeforeawordbeginningwithavowelsound:
Shewasanableperson.(Vowelsounda.)Hetalkedforanhour.(Hourbeginswithavowelsoundou,asinour.)
8.Inthefollowingsentences,inserta,an,orthewhereneededasshownintheseexamples:
Shegave correctamounttome,butIdroppedallofit.Theconductorfound discardedwalletonthefloor.Hisfirstjobpaidlessthan$6 hour.Ellenintendedtodo bestshecould.Acidrockisnot bestmusictoplayin emergencyroom.Ballpointpenshaverevolutionized_____________penmanship.(articleunnecessary)
1.Mybrotheraskedherwhethershecouldspare_____________fewdollars.
2.Nooneknows_____________troubleIhavemade.
3.Thedefendantdecidedtopleadguiltyto_____________charge.
4.Povertydoesnotalwaysleadto_____________unrest.
5.Onecannotliveontendollars_____________dayinEuropeanymore.
6.Thelawyershowedthat_____________shootingwasaccidental.
7._____________hourinhercompanygoesbyinnotimeatall.
8.Frederickconsideredit_____________honortoreceive_____________AlumniAwardforService.
9.Oneof_____________cabdriverswarnedmenottostayat_____________GideonHotel.
10._____________ambitiousyoungmanshouldnotworksohardthathedamageshishealth.
11.Writingaletterto_____________editorisnoteasyformostofus.12.Oneofmydreamsistohave_____________seaworthysailboat,
_____________abilitytooperateit,and_____________timetoenjoyit.
13.Manypotentialinvestorsarefrightenedby_____________prospectofamajoreconomicdepression.
14.Thedoctorcuredherof_____________tuberculosis.15.Nowhereelseinourtowncanonefind_____________foodasgoodas
hiswife’s.
CHAPTER3VerbsandVerbals
VERBSAverbisthewordorwordsthatdescribetheactionorstateofbeingofthe
subjectofasentenceorclause.Theverbmakesastatementaboutitssubject.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Mrs.Carterlovesherson.(Theverblovesmakesastatementaboutthesubjectofthesentence,Mrs.Carter.)Politicianscampaignactivelyforelection.(Verbcampaign,subjectPoliticians.)Thingsarenotjustwhattheyseem.(MainverbaremakesastatementaboutitssubjectThings.Theverbseeminthesubordinateclausewhattheyseemmakesastatementaboutwhat,thesubjectofthesubordinateclause.)Theyfeelwellthismorning.(Verbfeel,subjectThey.)TheshipsailedlastWednesdayforFrance.(Verbsailed,subjectship.)Alltheartistshavefinishedtheirpaintingsfortheshow.(Verbhavefinished,subjectAll.)
Eachverb—loves,campaign,are,seem,feel,sailed,havefinished—describesanactionperformedbythesubjectordescribesthestateofbeingofthesubject.
1.Inthefollowingsentences,identifytheverbsandtheirsubjectsasshownintheseexamples:
Wedugformanyhoursandfoundnothing.
Effortsinhisbehalfhaveprovenfruitful
Bothgladiatorsremainedontheirfeetformorethananhour.
Thepainthadbeenscrapedfromthebuilding.
1.Richardboardedtheplaneaminutebeforeitleftthegate.
2.Despitetheattorney’seloquentarguments,thedefendantinevitablyfoundhimselfaloneinhiscell,unhappyandwithouthope.
3.Thedoorclosedsilentlybehindherassheleftthehouse.
4.Asthebellinthetowertolled,thepeoplegatheredforprayer.
5.Eileenagreedthatatriptothecollegecampuswasworthhertime.
6.Theunsoldbooksremainedintheshopyearafteryear.
7.Philosophywashisfirstlove,butknowledgeofaccountancyearnedbreadandshelterforhim.
8.Eatyourbreakfastnow,oryouwillhavenolunchmoney.
9.Ourtrainneverleavesontime.
10.Thechildrenplayedattheirgamesuntiltheywerecalledhome.
PREDICATEApredicateistheverbinaclauseorsentenceplusallthemodifiersand
objectsorcomplementsofthatverb.Averbthathasnomodifiers,objects,orcomplementsisreferredtoasa
simplepredicate.Twoverbsthathavethesamesubjectarereferredtoasacompoundpredicate.
Thesunshone.(Simplepredicate.)Thesunshonebrightly.(Predicateconsistingofverbanditsmodifier.)Hehittheball.(Predicateconsistingofverbanditsobject.)Heisagreatman.(Predicateconsistingofcopulativeverbanditscomplement.)Amandacooksandbakesbreadeveryday.(Compoundpredicate.)
2.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethecompletepredicateasshownintheseexamples:
Danielhaswrittenmanyletterstous.Veroniquemustleaveforhome.
1.Thelawnmowerisnolongersharpenoughtocutgrass.
2.Citylifehasnotimprovedheroutlook.
3.Freshvegetablesarehardtofindinwinter.
4.Ihavenotyetreadthecompletetrialtestimony.
5.Professionalsportshasbecomebigbusinessallovertheworld.
6.Canyouimagineaworldwithoutwar?
7.Noisydogsinterruptedmysleep.
8.TelevisionappearstobethemaininterestofAmerica’syoung.
9.Thefarmerranhistractorrightintothehaystackandruinedaweek’swork.
10.Men’shatswillonedayreappearasastylishfashion.
TRANSITIVEANDINTRANSITIVEVERBSAtransitiveverbmusthaveadirectobject.Anintransitiveverbdoesnot
haveadirectobject.Someverbsfunctiontransitivelyandintransitively.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Sheatethecereal.(Inthissentence,ateistransitive,sinceithasthedirectobjectcereal.)Sheateforhoursonend.(Inthissentence,ateisintransitive,sinceithasnodirectobject.)Thetreegrewformanyyearseventhoughconcretecoveredallitsroots.(Grewisintransitive,sinceithasnodirectobject.Thesecondverbcoveredistransitive,sinceithasthedirectobjectroots.)Hergardenergrewthefinesttomatoes.(Heregrewistransitive,sinceithasthedirectobjecttomatoes.)
3.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheverbsandidentifythemastransitiveorintransitiveasshownintheseexamples:
Straydogsoftenmenaceyoungcitychildren.Televisionandradiohavehelpedhimthroughlonelyhours.
Hesataloneallafternoon.
1.Cigarettesmokeinevitablyblackenedhislungs.___________2.Theautomobilestruckthewallhead-onandburned.___________3.Shesmiledweaklyatlast.___________4.Divorcehurtsentirefamilies.___________5.Thecrowdindicateditsapproval.___________6.Theoutgoinggovernorgaveamemorablespeech.___________7.Thestreamranthroughthevalley.___________8.Warsgoonandonallovertheworld.___________9.Theirobstinacyincensedme.___________10.ThechurchesofRomealwaysattractmanyvisitors.___________
COPULATIVE(LINKING)VERBSAcopulative,orlinking,verblinksasubjectwithitscomplement.The
complementiseitherapredicatenounorpredicateadjective.Acopulativeverbdoesnottakeanobject.
Themostcommoncopulativeverbsarebe,seem,appear,become,taste,feel,act,sound,andgrow.(Notethatsomeofthesecopulativeverbsmayalsobeusedtransitively,forexample,tasteandfeel:Thiseggtastesgood;Itastedtheegg.Thedog’scoatfeelssmooth;shefeltthedog’scoat.)
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Nowyouareaman.(Theverbareisacopulativeverb,doingnothingmorethanlinkingyouwithman,apredicatenoun.Theverbbe,inallitsforms,iscopulativeexceptwhenitisusedasanauxiliaryverb.)Shefeltillduringtheplay.(Theverbfeltisacopulativeverblinkingshewithill,apredicateadjective.)(Seepage104.)Shefeltthefabric.(Theverbfeltisatransitiveverbhavingfabricasitsdirectobject.)Heactedmorose.(Theverbactedisacopulativeverb,withmoroseaspredicateadjective.)Heactedthepartwell.(Theverbactedistransitive,havingpartasdirectobject.)
Thus,themannerinwhichcertainverbsareuseddetermineswhethertheyarecopulative.
4.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinecopulativeverbsandidentifytheircomplementsasshownintheseexamples:
Theyareculprits.
Acupofcoffeetastesbitterwhenitstandstoolong.
1.Thattonesoundscorrecttome.
2.Booksseemedhisonlytrustworthycompanions.
3.ThedictionarybecamemoreimportanttohimasheprogressedinEnglish.
4.Someadultsactchildishwhentheyarebusy.
5.Thechild’sabilitytograspalgebraappeareduncanny.
6.Leonardwastheonlyphysicianwhowasavailableatthetime.
7.Sheseemedeagertotakethejob.
8.Anne’sexpressiongrewlivelyassheplayedthesonata.
9.Thedogactedsickaftertheveterinariancheckeditover.
10.Jonwastheonlymiddle-agedmanintheroom.
AUXILIARYVERBSAuxiliaryverbsareusedwithotherverbstoformthetenses,voices,and
moodsofthoseverbs.Themostcommonauxiliaryverbsarebe,do,andhave.Lesscommonauxiliaryverbsarecan,may,will,shall,must,ought,might,could,should,andwould.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Imaygotothemovies.(Theauxiliaryverbmayindicatesapossibilityoffutureaction.)
Ishallgotothemovies.(Theauxiliaryverbshallindicatesanintentiontoundertakefutureaction.)Iwillgotothemovies.(Theauxiliaryverbwillindicatesfirmintentiontoundertakeafutureaction.)
Auxiliariesalterthemeaningortimeoftheactionoftheverb:Iamgoing,Idogo,Ihavegone,Ioughttogo,Imightgo,Icouldgo,Ishouldgo.
5.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheauxiliaryverbsasshownintheseexamples:
Hedoeswantthecarafterall.
Hazelcanhavethejobifshewantsit.
EdisstudyingFrenchthissummer.
1.Whereshallweplanttherosebushes?2.Cananyoneinhisrightmindthinkthatpricesarecomingdown?3.Whereisshelivingnow?4.Learningtoplaytheviolinismoreeasilysaidthandone.5.Grammaristaughtbadlyinmostschools.6.Manyfamilieshavefoundtheirincomesfallinginrecentyears.7.MightIhavealittlemoresoup,please?8.Doyouexerciseasmuchasyoushould?9.Mostteachersaremadetoteachlargeclasses.10.Wouldyouaccompanymetothemovies?11.Sheshouldfindherselfoutoffundsbynow.12.Corporatemergershaveacceleratedrapidly.13.Theywillsurelyslaveuntiltheyarerich.14.Thebestofhisfictionisignored.15.Musicdoesnoteasilyfinditsproperaudience.
ShallandWill
Shallisusedinthefirstperson(I,we)inaskingquestions:
ShallIleavemoneyforyou?
Shallwedepartnow?
Willisusedinthesecondandthirdpersons(you,he,she,it,they)inaskingquestions:
Willyoubeabletofindyourway?Willshehaveenoughtimetofinishherthesis?Willitbetheonlycatinthehouse?Willtheybuyallthefoodneededforaweek?
Shallisusedinallpersonsforemphaticstatements:
Ishalldonosuchthing.Youshallnotbepermittedtoreturn.Theyshallnotpass!
Shallisusedinthefirstpersontoexpressfutureactionorexpectation:
Ishallbeseeinghimtomorrow.Weshallprobablymeetyouatthemuseum.
Willisusedinthesecondandthirdpersonstoexpressfutureactionsorexpectations:
Youwillbewithusthiseveningasusual,Iexpect.Theywillcertainlyfindtheirwayeasily.
ShouldandWould
Shouldisusedtoexpressanobligationorcondition:
IshouldrepairtheholeImadeinthefabricwithoutcharge.(obligation)Youshouldpaymoreattentiontoallyourstudies.(obligation)Theyshouldcleantheentireapartmentthoroughlybeforemoving.(obligation)Ifweshouldleavethempenniless,theymayactuallystarve.
(condition)Ifyoushoulddisregardalltheirrequests,theywillnolongertrustyou.(condition)Iftheyshouldfindnomeritintheapplication,hisfellowshipwillbedenied.(condition)
Wouldisusedtoexpressawishorcustomaryaction:
WouldthatIhadspentmoretimewithmymother.(wish)Wouldthatyoumadedecisionsmorecarefully.(wish)Wouldthathewerestillwithusnow.(wish)WewouldwalktogethereverydayafterIcamehomefromwork.(customaryaction)Youwouldalwaysremembertocallonmybirthday.(customaryaction)Theywoulddeclineeveryinvitationthatdidnotincludeatleastonemeal.(customaryaction)
6.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:
IfJane(should,would)findherpurse,shewillneverbecarelessaboutherpossessionsagain.Allthroughthosewinters,they(should,would)prepareheartybreakfastsandampledinners.(Shall,Will)Ieverhearfromhimagain?
1.You(should,would)useyourcarsparinglyifyouexpecttogetthroughtheyearwithoutgettingdeeperintodebt.
2.Whenthehorse(should,would)leavethestartinggate,it(should,would)alwaysheadstraightfortherail.
3.Ifhe(should,would)forgethistickets,Igivehimlittlechanceofmakinghisflight.
4.Who(shall,will)enterthecathedralfirst,thebrideorthegroom?
5.Who(should,would)enterthecathedralfirst,thebrideorthegroom?
6.JoanandSara(shall,will)competeequallyfortheprize.
7.AnnetteandWarren(shall,will)beontimeorruntheriskoflosingtheirprivileges.
8.(Should,Would)thatshefinallylearnstokeepherroominsomesemblanceoforder.
9.Theyoungestchildinanidealfamily(should,would)alwaysbetreatedwithrespect.
10.Theyoungestchild(should,would)alwaysleavehispossessionslyingabout,apparentlyinordertoannoyhisolderbrothersandsisters.
11.(Shall,Will)theclubbeabletoreachaconsensusonthismatter?12.(Shall,Will)bothofussellourapartmentsatthesametime?13.Thefaculty(shall,will)meetatitsregulartime.14.Ihopeyou(shall,will)joinusforteatomorrowafternoon.15.They(should,would)sharethebill,Isuppose,sincetheyindicatedthey
expectedtodoso.
MOODVerbsmakestatementsoffactandwhatisbelievedtobefact.Theyalso
expresswishes,suppositions,doubts,commands,andconditionscontrarytofact.Moodisthecharacteristicofaverbthattellsthereaderwhichofthesefunctionsawriterintends.
ThethreemoodsinEnglishareindicative,subjunctive,andimperative.Theindicativemoodmakesstatementsoffactorwhatisbelievedtobefact.Theindicativealsoasksquestions.
JohnDonnewasborninLondon.(Thereisampleevidencetosupportthisstatement,sothewriterusestheindicativemoodtostateitasfact.)WasJohnDonneborninLondon?(Thisverbasksaquestionandsoisintheindicativemood.)Shebelievesherphysicianiswellqualified.(Whethersheiscorrectornot,theverbisindicatesthatshebelievesherstatementtobetrue.Theverbbelievesisintheindicativemood,because
thewriterofthesentenceisreportingwhatshetakestobefact.)Isherphysicianatherbedside?(Theverbisisintheindicativemoodbecauseitasksaquestion.)
Thesubjunctivemoodappearsinrelativelyfewconstructions.Itisusedmostoftentoexpressconditionscontrarytofactandtoexpresswishes,suppositions,anddoubts.(Theusesofthesubjunctivearediscussedfullyinthenextsection.)Thesubjunctiveappearsmostofteninformalwritingandinthespeechofeducatedpersons.Theindicativemoodalmostalwaysreplacesthesubjectivemoodininformalwritingandeverydayspeech.
!wishmyfatherwerestillalive.(Thisisawish,sowereisinthesubjunctivemood.)Supposehewerestillalive,wouldhefavorthataction?(Theverbwereisinthesubjunctivemoodbecausesupposehewerestillaliveisasupposition.)Ifthisbetreason,makethemostofit!(Thespeakerfirmlybelievesheorsheisnotguiltyoftreason,buttheremaybedoubtinthemindsofothers.Thesubjunctivebeexpressesthisdoubt.)IfHelenWillsMoodywererepresentingusatWimbledontoday,victorywouldbeours.(TheconjunctionIfintroducesaconditionalstatement.SinceHelenWillsMoodyisnotalivetorepresentusatWimbledon,theconditioniscontrarytofact.Theverbwererepresentingindicatesthatthisconditioniscontrarytofact.)
Thesubjunctivemoodisdistinguishedfromtheindicativeinthethirdpersonsingularofallverbsandincertainformsoftheverbbe.Thefollowingtableshowsthetypicalverbwantinthepresenttenseandtheverbbeinthepresentandpasttenses.
Theimperativemoodexpressesacommandormakesanurgentdemand:
Leavetheroom!Callanambulance!Letthemdie!
Theimperativemoodisusedonlyinthesecondandthirdpersons,singularandplural.
7.Inthefollowingsentencesindicatethemoodofeachoftheitalicizedverbsasshownintheseexamples:
Aretheyreallyathomeeveryevening?Sendthemtobedatonce!
IwishIwereseventyyearsoldagain.
1.TheywillremaintogetherprovidedthatFatherconsents.___________2.IfIwerethebosshere,Iwoulddothingsdifferently.___________3.Corporationsfindthattheinterestratestheymustpayfluctuatewidely.
___________4.Areyoureallysupportingyourselfcomfortablybypainting?
___________5.Wereyoutheoldestpersonontheteam?___________6Stayawayfromtelevisionandcigarettes.___________7.Somedictionariesprovideguidanceincorrectusage.___________8.Aslongasyouremainalert,youwillfindtheaccessroad.___________9.Wildflowersgiveusmuchpleasure.___________10.Hewillbehonoredwithadoctorateprovidedhemakesasubstantial
donation.___________11.Nevergiveupthefight!___________12.Swimmingagainstthetidefatiguedhimgreatly.___________13.Americanhistoryhasbeenhisspecialty.___________14Ifhewantstosucceed,hemustwork.___________15.Ifyouwanttosucceed,workhard.___________
UsesoftheSubjunctiveMood
Thesubjunctivemoodisusedfor(1)conditionscontrarytofact;(2)wishes,recommendations,anddemandsinclausesintrodudedbythatorinclausesin
whichthatisimplied;and(3)certainidiomaticexpressions.ThesubjunctivehasfewusesinmodernEnglish.Moreandmore,the
subjunctivemoodisbeingreplacedbytheindicativemoodorbysimplifiedconstructionsthatavoidverbsentirely.Nevertheless,goodwritingandspeechstillemploythesubjunctive.
ConditionsContrarytoFactAconditionthatcannotbetrueisknownasaconditioncontrarytofact.
IfIweretenyearsyounger,Iwouldremarry.(ThepresenceofaconditionissignaledbytheconjunctionIf.Becausetheconditioniscontrarytofact,thesubjunctivewereisused.)IfPresidentLyndonB.Johnsonwerestillalive,hewouldfindthatmanyofthepolicieshefollowedarestillinforcetoday.(Conditioncontrarytofactrequiresthesubjunctivewere.)
ThatClausesClausesintroducedbythatorclausesinwhichthatisimpliedfrequently
expresswishes,recommendations,demands,orders,formalmotions,orparliamentaryresolutions.Thesubjunctiveisusedintheseclauses.Considerthefollowingsentences:
IwishthatIwereprimeminister.(Thesubjunctivewere,notindicativewas.)Irecommendthathetakeatripabroad.(Subjunctivetake,notindicativetakes.)Wedemandthattheybesilenced.(Subjunctivebesilenced,notindicativearesilenced.)Weaskonlythatthemostguiltybepunished.(Subjunctivebepunished,notindicativearepunished.)Shemovedthatparliamentaryprocedurebelaidaside.(Subjunctivebelaid,notindicativeislaid.)Resolved,thatafifty-firststatebeadmittedtotheunion.(Subjunctivebeadmitted,notindicativeisadmitted.)
Therelativepronounthatcanbeomittedfromthefirstthreeoftheprecedingsentenceswithoutchangingmeaningandwithoutalteringtherequirementforemployingthesubjunctivemood:
IwishIwereprimeminister.Irecommendhetakeatripabroad.Wedemandtheybesilenced.
IdiomaticExpressionsTheEnglishlanguagehascertainconstructionsthatremainfixedinthe
subjunctivemood.Theseidiomaticconstructionsinclude:bethatasitmay,beitsaid,comewhatmay,Godblessyou,farbeitfromme,andsufficeittosay.
8.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:
Iwishthathe(was,were)nothere.Idemandthatshe(leave,leaves).IfI(was,were)King,Iwouldbethehappiestmanonearth.
1.Heaven(forbid,forbids)thatsheshouldmarryacloneofherfirsthusband.
2.IrequestthattheBoardofElections(pay,pays)particularattentiontovotescastintheTwelfthDistrict,whereallthetowncemeteriesarelocated.
3.Iwishshe(was,were)goingtomedicalschoolinmyplace.
4.Ifshe(insist,insists)onpayingthebill,itwillbeallrightwithme.
5.Ifthetheater(was,were)nearermyhouse,Iwouldbeabletowalkthere.
6.Thejudgeorderedthatwidowsandorphans(are,be)protected.
7.(Come,Comes)whatmay,IshallforeverbelieveImistreatedhim.
8.Amemberoftheoppositionmovedthatthemeeting(be,is)adjourned.
9.Werequestthatthey(are,be)barredfromthemeeting.10.Iwouldmakethesituationcleartohimifhe(was,were)here.11.IthinkJames(was,were)soundasleeponthebeachwhenthepoorboy
died.12.IaskonlythatI(am,be)treatedwithrespect.13.Webelievethatthebill(was,were)counterfeit.14.Ifhe(was,were)here,hewouldmakeeverythingclear.15.Irecommendthathe(apologize,apologizes)atonce.
VOICEVoiceisthecharacteristicofaverbthattellsthereaderwhetherthesubjectof
theverbisperformingtheactionoftheverb(activevoice)orwhetherthesubjectoftheverbisactedupon(passivevoice).Thepassivevoiceisidentifiedbysomeformoftheverbbeplusapastparticiple.
(ThereareothertensesinEnglish,ofcourse,andtheyarediscussedelsewhere.)
9.Inthefollowingsentences,indicatethevoiceofeachoftheitalicizedverbsasshownintheseexamples:Theyhavegonehome.Hehasclimbedthatmountainmanytimes.Thatmountainhasbeenclimbedbefore.
1.Politiciansareperceivedbythevotersinvariousways.___________2.Thevotersperceivepoliticiansinvariousways.___________3.Novelsofqualityentrancetheirreaders.___________4.Whenwillyoupainttheexteriorofyourhouse?___________5.Isyourhousebeingpainted?___________6.Thebarndoor,ofcourse,mustberehung.___________7.Fliescarrydisease.___________8.Themealswillbedeliveredtothehomelesswhentheyareready.
___________9.Manycountriesareexperiencingseveredrought.___________10.Manycountrieshaveexperienceddrought.___________
NUMBERLikenounsandpronouns,verbshavesingularandpluralforms.Thenumber
ofthesubject—anounorpronoun—determinesthenumberoftheverb.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Iworkhard.(SincethesubjectIissingular,theverbworkissingular.)Weworkhard.(SincethesubjectWeisplural,theverbworkisplural.)
10.Inthefollowingsentences,underlineeachverb,andindicateitsnumber,asshownintheseexamples:
Thecatraiseditsbackhigh.Thehouseisupforsale.OurneighborshaveleftforFlorida.
1.Theywillbegoinghomeearlytonight.___________2.Nothingisbetterthanblueberrypieandchocolateicecream.
___________3.TheHudsonisoneofthemostbeautifulriversintheUnitedStates.
___________4.VermontandNewHampshirehardlyevercooperate.___________5.Hasyourdaughterbeensittingthereallalone?___________6.HaveyouandSuebeensittingtheretogether?___________7.Hewillbeleavingrightafterdinner.___________8.Theyfindthemselvesatatotallossforwords.___________9.Insteadofareallunch,wewillbehavingpizzaandbeer.___________10.Thismachinehasseenbetterdays.___________
AgreementofSubjectandVerb
Asingularsubjectmusthaveasingularverb.Apluralsubjectmusthaveapluralverb.Thisruleforagreementinnumberofsubjectanditsverbiseasytolearn.Twosentencesaresufficienttoillustrateitsproperapplication.
Theskaterhasfallenthroughtheice.(Singularsubjectskater,
singularverbhasfallen.)Theskatershavefallenthroughtheice.(Pluralsubjectskaters,pluralverbhavefallen.)
11.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:
I(be)incompleteagreementwitheverythingyousay.
Todaywe(be)completelyopposedtoallyourideas.
1.Cats(have)anextraordinaryabilitytogettheirownway.___________2.Acat(have)completefreedomtoroaminourneighborhood.
___________3.England(be)nolongeraworldpowerinthemindsofmany.
___________4.ThecountriesofEuropefinally(achieve)economicunityinthecoming
years.___________5.Economicstrengthandpoliticalvitality(go)handinhand.___________6.Snowandice(collect)inourdrivewayeverywinter.___________7.Unpaidparkingtickets(be)mygreatestproblemrightnow.
___________8.Ian(have)alwaysbeenagoodlawyer,thejudgesaid.___________9.MarkTwainstill(find)alargereadershipamongRussians.
___________10.ManycountriesofAfrica(be)beginningtoexploitvaluablenatural
resources.___________
Inmanysentencescontainingasingularsubject,pluralwordsmayintervenebetweensubjectandverb.Insuchcases,thewritermustrememberthatthesubjectissingularandmusthaveasingularverb.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Theimportanceofmen,ammunition,andfoodsupplieswasnotoverlookedbythegeneral.(Becausethesubjectimportanceissingular,theverbwasoverlookedissingular.Thephraseofmen,ammunition,andfoodsuppliesmodifies
importanceandhasnothingtodowiththenumberofthesubjectandverb.)Thesafetyofhermanychildrenwasherfirstconcern.(Thesubjectsafetyissingular,sotheverbwasissingular.)
Anotherprobleminagreementmayoccurwhenthesubjectofaverbfollowstheverbinsteadofprecedingit.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Therewerethreemenbehindherinthecheckoutline.(Thesubjectofwereismen.Sincemenisplural,thepluralverbwereisused.)Therewaslittleapplauseforthesopranos.(Thesubjectofwasisapplause.Sinceapplauseissingular,thesingularverbwasisused.)Concerningtheacrobatstherewaslittledisagreement.(Thesubjectdisagreementissingular,sothesingularverbwasisused.)Beyondthehighwaystandstheuglyslum.(Thesingularsubjectslumrequiresthesingularverbstands.)Acrosstheplainsliemilesofuntrackedwilderness.(Thepluralsubjectmilesrequiresthepluralverblie.)
12.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:Atthetimeofherdeath,Rose’sprincipalhobby(be)alltypesofstitchery.Onmostsubjects,JaneandJohnnow(be)inagreement.Hefoundthatthere(be)littleuseincontinuingworkonhisnovelsandplays.Theaggressionheobservedinapes,largecats,andothermammals(be)alsoreportedbyotherinvestigators.
1.Thefirstviolinist,unlikeothermembersofthestringsection,(be)notreadytoplaywhentheconductorraisedhisbaton.___________
2.Thefirstviolinistandtheentirestringsection(be)unwillingtorehearse,becausetheconductorissodifficulttoworkwith.___________
3.Beyondtheknoll(lie)depositsofrockoftherighttypeforthebeautifulhousehewantstobuild.___________
4.Thenecessityofassuringadequatestoresoffoodanddrink(be)notrecognizedbymanyoftheinexperiencedhikerswhoundertooktheclimb.___________
5.Ofprimaryimportance(be)asupplyofcleardrinkingwater,ifoneisselectingahomesite.___________
6.Afterthedinner,there(be)goingtobetwolongspeechesbythecandidates.___________
7.Oncethesapbeginstoflownextspring,there(be)goingtobeworkforallofus.___________
8.Aftertheprincipaladdresswasgiven,there(be)fewofusstillawakeintheroom.___________
9.Peopleareourmainconcern,eventhoughthere(be)manyotherproblemsfacingus.___________
10.Inflationandrecessionnolonger(be)themostseriouspublicconcernsinourcountry.___________
CompoundSubjectsandTheirVerbsAcompoundsubjectistwoormorenouns,pronouns,ornounphrasesacting
togetherasthesubjectofaverb:JackandBill,heandI,heartsandflowers,healthorsickness,apoundofpotatoesoronions.Compoundsubjectsconnectedbyandusuallytakeapluralverb.Compoundsubjectsconnectedbyorornorusuallytakeasingularverb.
Whencompoundsubjectsareconnectedbyand,theyareusuallyintendedasplurals.Sometimes,however,theyareintendedassingularconstructions.Thefollowingsentencesillustratebothtypes:
Plural
JackandBillaregoingupthemountain.(Thesubjectofthissentence,JackandBill,canbereplacedbytwoboysortwomen,whichwouldbeplural.ThecompoundsubjectJackandBill,therefore,isplural.Forthisreason,apluralverbisused:aregoing.)
Singular
AhotdogandsauerkrautisallIwantforlunch.(Thesubjectofthissentenceisasingledish:hotdogandsauerkraut.Thesubject,therefore,issingularandtheverbmustbesingular:is.)
Whencompoundsubjectsareconnectedbyor,theyaresingularunlessthepartsofthecompoundsubjectarethemselvesplural.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Singular
Aboxofcandyorabasketoffruitisalwayswelcome.(Bothpartsofthecompoundsubjectboxorbasketaresingular,soasingularverbisneeded:is.)
Plural
Candiesorfruitsareequallyacceptable.(Bothpartsofthecompoundsubjectcandiesorfruitsareplural,soapluralverbisneeded:are.)
Whenorconnectsthepartsofacompoundsubject,theverbtakesitsnumberfromthepartofthecompoundsubjectclosertoit.
Plural
Eitheroneleekorseveralonionsprovidethenecessaryflavorinmostofherrecipes.(Becauseonions,aplural,isclosertotheverbthanleek,asingular,theverbmustbeplural:provide.)
Whenthesingularpartofthecompoundsubjectisclosertotheverb,theverbmustbesingular,asinthefollowingsentence:
Singular
Neitheronionsnorgarlicisusedinthisdish.(Thesingulargarlicisclosertotheverb,sotheverbissingular:isused.)
Whencompoundsubjectsaremodifiedbyeachorevery,theyarealwayssingular.Thisistruewhetherandororisusedtoconnectthepartsofthecompoundsubject.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
SingularEachboyandgirlisbringingafriend.Everyboyandgirlisbringingafriend.Eachboyorgirlisbringingafriend.Everyboyorgirlisbringingafriend.
Whenonlyonepartofacompoundsubjectismodifiedbyeachorevery,thecompoundisaplural.
PluralEachboyandhisdatearebringingpresents.Everyboyandhisdatearebringingpresents.
13.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:
Anappleandanorange(be)ineverylunchbox.Pieorcake(be)theperfectdessertaftersuchameal.NeitherKatenorherfriends(play)thepiano.Everyboyandgirlalive(be)eitheralittleLiberalorelsealittleConservative.
1.Salamiandeggs(be)myfavoritedish.___________2.SpokaneandTakoma(be)intheStateofWashington.___________3.NeitherAlfrednorFred(want)tobepresentwhenthebillarrives.
___________4.EitherLucyorherfather(carve)theturkeyatourhouse.___________5.Neithergoatsnorsheep(allow)tograzenowintheupperpasture.
___________6.EitherAnneorherbrothers(be)welcomehere.___________7.Allgoodsonsanddaughters(take)theirturnsatdoingthedishes.
___________8.Apoundofpotatoes(go)farwhenallthechildrenhavelefthome.
___________
9.Threecarrotsandoneparsnip(be)allyouneedtocompletethestew.___________
10.Twothicklambchopsoronesmallsteak(feed)ourlittlefamily.___________
11.Oneduckandthreegeese(swim)inourpondeverymorning.___________
12.Twelvevotesfororonevoteagainst(be)allweneedforanacceptabledecision.___________
13.Onebusandthreetaxicabs(stand)readytotakethedelegatestothemeeting.___________
14.Theemployeesandtheirelectedleader(agree)onthetermsofthecontract.___________
15.Strawberriesandcream(be)allIwanttoeattoday.___________16.Everymanandwoman(have)asinglevote.___________17.EveryeditionoftheNewTestament(have)admirersandattackers.18Hepraisedmostofthetelevisionplaysandmoviesthat(produced)last
year.___________19.Flowersorcards(comfort)thebereaved.___________20.Eachmemberofthegroupandtheirfriends(carry)partoftheload.
___________
CollectiveNounsandTheirVerbs
Acollectivenountakesasingularverbwhenthenounreferstoagroupasaunit.Acollectivenountakesapluralverbwhenthenounrefersindividuallytothemembersofagroup.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Amarriedcoupleistreateddifferentlyfromthewayinwhichahusbandorwifeistreatedalone.(Thecollectivenouncoupleismadeupoftwopeople,buttheyareconsideredasingleunitinthissentence.Sincecoupleissingular,thecorrectverbformissingular:istreated.)Thecouplewerelivinginourneighborhoodatthattime,sowesawmuchofthem.(Thecollectivenouncoupleisconsideredtobetwoseparateindividualsinthissentence.Thepluralpronounthememphasizesthepluralityofcouple.)
Theclasswasgivenitsassignment.(Thecollectivenounclassistreatedasasingleunit,sotheverbissingular:wasgiven.Thepronounitsemphasizesthesingularityofclass.)
Asisapparent,then,thewritermustdecidethemeaningheorsheintendsinacollectivenounandmustthenbeconsistentintheuseofverbsandpronounsthatrelatetothatcollectivenoun.
Thewritermustresistthetemptationtotreatassingularallcollectivenounsthathavetheappearanceofsingulars—audience,class,group.Thewritermustalsoresistthetemptationtotreataspluralsallcollectivenounsthathavetheappearanceofplurals—athletics,politics,statistics.
Finally,thewritermustrememberthatcollectivenounsthataresingularinappearancecanalsobemadeplural—audience,audiences;class,classes;group,groups.Whentheyaremadepluralinthisway,theyhavedifferentmeaningsandaretreatedasplurals.
14.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:
Theboardalways(vote)thewayitsleaderstellsittovote.
Athletics(be)oneofhergreatinterestswhenshewasanundergraduate.Themajority(realize)thatinmanywaystheyhavenomorepowerthanthesmallestminorities.
1.Hesaysthathiscommittee(expect)tovotetomorrow.___________2.Theminorityalways(vote)withasinglevoice.___________3.Politics(make)strangebedfellows,butsodomanyotherhuman
enterprises.___________4.Whileanumber(be)defecting,manyotherswillstaybehind.
___________5.Theteam(work)wellasaunitandwillprobablywinmostofits
matches.___________6.AnAmericancrowd(leave)mostofitsgarbagebehindonceithas
dispersed.___________7.Committeesoften(have)nootherfunctionthantomeetandissue
uselessreports.___________
8.Thecontentsofmywife’spursealways(amaze)me.___________9.Thetableofcontents(be)neveromittedfromourcompanyreports.
___________10.Adozen(be)muchtooexpensiveformypoorpocketbook.
___________
PERSONPersonisthecharacteristicofverbsthatindicatesthespeaker(firstperson),
thepersonspokento(secondperson),andthepersonspokenof(thirdperson).Personalpronounsalsohavethecharacteristicofperson.
15.Inthefollowingsentences,indicatethepersonandnumberofeachoftheitalicizedverbsasshownintheseexamples:
Thoreauisafavoriteofintelligentyoungpeople.
Evenstrangerssmileatthechild.Wecannotcondonesuchoutrageousbehavior.
1.DickandLucyweregoodfriends.___________2.Yourmotherandfatherwillbewelcomefordinner.___________3.Canyoufindyourwayalone?___________4.MichaelandIwillbelookingforrooms.___________5.WereturnonthedayafterLaborDay.___________6.Theydecidedagainstsupportingus.___________7.Youneverachieveallthegoalsyouset.___________8.IshallbecallingyouonedaysoonafterIreturn.___________9.Cowsprovidemilkandcream.___________10.Bookshavebeenhisbestfriends.___________
TENSE
Tenseisthecharacteristicofverbsthatindicatesthetimeoftheactionorofthestateofbeingthatisdescribed.TherearesixtensesinEnglish:present,pastperfect,past,presentperfect,future,andfutureperfect.Theprogressiveformsofthesetensesindicateongoingaction.
16.Inthefollowingsentences,indicatethetenseandvoiceofeachoftheitalicizedverbsasshownintheseexamples:
Shakespearecontinuestointerestscholars.
TheplaysofShakespearehavecontinuedtointerestscholars.
ManyplaysofShakespeareareproducedeachyear.
1.Researchandteachingsupplementandreinforceoneanother.___________
2.Complimentshavebeenexchangedregularlybypoliticalfriendsandenemiesalike.___________
3.Theyfindprivateenterpriseinitsunregulatedformstillpossibletoday.___________
4.Theyhavebeencallingforjusticeforallmenandwomen.___________5.Ianwillbefortyyearsoldnextyear.___________6.Theministersurelywillbecallingonyousoon.___________7.Manyarecalled,butfewarechosen.___________
8.ManyNationalGuardsmenarebeingcalledtoactiveduty.___________
9.Youwillsoonfindyourselfinevengreaterperil.___________10.Bythetimehewaspromoted,hewasoldandtired.___________11.Shehaddecidedtoforgoanyfurthereffortonmybehalf.___________12.Architectsarefoundonlyinmetropolitanareas.___________13.Manyofthebookstheytreasuredhadbeenmutilated.___________14.Yousoonwillreceiveyourfinalgrades.___________15.Alicehasfailedtocomprehendthetruesituation.___________
PrincipalPartsoftheVerb
Verbsformtheirvarioustensesfromtheirfourprincipalparts:theinfinitive(call),presentparticiple(calling),pasttense(called),andpastparticiple(called).Theverbcallusedintheseexamplesisclassifiedasregular,becauseitformsitsprincipalpartsbyaddingingoredtotheinfinitive.Regularverbsarealsoknownasweakverbs.Verbsthatformtheirpasttenseandpastparticiplebyachangeofvowelintheinfinitiveareclassifiedasirregular,orstrong,verbs.Anexampleofanirregularverbisdraw.Theprincipalpartsofdrawaredraw,drawing,drew,anddrawn.
Thefollowingisalistofthemostcommonirregular,orstrong,verbs:
17.Inthefollowingsentences,supplytherequiredverbforms,asshownintheseexamples:
Shehas(write)alettertoherfathereveryweek.
I(see)anexcitingmovielastweek.
1.Wespenttheafternoon(dive)forshellsoffthereef.___________2.Thehorse(run)astrongrace,eventhoughitcameinsecond.
___________3.Whydidtheunripeapple(fall)totheground?___________4.Thebelltolledmournfully,andtheoldmenandwomen(wring)their
hands.___________5.Ihave(show)youalltheshoesofyoursizeinthestore.___________6.Byevening,thehangman(lead)thepatriottothegallows.___________7.Wehave(lay)inagoodsupplyofpotatoes.___________8.Codfishis(eat)allwinter.___________9.Youcanbesurethatthey(get)allthatwascomingtothem.
___________10.He(dive)threetimestryingtoreachtheautomobile.___________11.Helen(lie)inherbeduntilnoonthatday.___________12.Dorothy(shrink)thedressuntilitfittedher.___________
13.SavingsandLoanshave(lend)moneyunwisely.___________14.Thebellsinthetower(ring)forfifteenminutesyesterday.___________15.Wesometimesregretwordswehave(speak).___________
SelectionofTenseThetenseoftheverbmustindicatetheappropriatetimeofactionorstateof
beingdescribedbytheverb.ItisworthwhiletoreviewherethesixEnglishtenses:
(1)Presenttense:Ilikeyou.(presentaction)The747alwaysfliessmoothly.(habitualaction)The8:10commutertrainleavesinfiveminutes.(simplefuture)Thesunrisesintheeast.(actiontrueforalltime)
(2)Pastperfecttense—actioncompletedbeforeapreviouspastaction:ShehadleftbythetimeIarrived.(arrivedispasttense;hadleftispastperfecttense.)Thedoghadeatenallthecat’sfoodbeforeIwalkedintothekitchen.(walkedispasttense;hadeatenispastperfecttense.)
(3)Pasttense—actioncompletedinthepast:Themovieendedat9:45.Tamaraateeverythingonherplate.
(4)Presentperfecttense—actionbeguninthepastthatcontinuesinthepresent:
Thetreehasgrownrapidlysincelastspring.Ihavefoundmyselftroubledbysomeofhisactions.
(5)Futuretense—simplefutureaction:Inowwilleatmydinner.Thebookwillbereturned.
(6)Futureperfecttense—actioncompletedbeforeafutureaction:Emilywillhaveeatenbythetimeweleave.(leaveindicatesfutureaction;willhaveeatenisfutureperfect.)Thelibrarywillhaveclosedbeforewegetthere.(getindicatesfutureaction;willhaveclosedisfutureperfect.)
18.Inthefollowingsentences,supplytheappropriateformsoftheverbsasshownintheseexamples:
I(eat)manygreatmealssincearrivinginParis.
Twohours(pass)sinceyoucalled.
Thevolcanonolonger(erupt)regularly.
1.Dick(be)forty-sevenyearsoldnextDecember.___________2.Pomegranates(eat)bymanypeopleinrecentyears.___________3.Thelanguageyouspeak(hurt)myears.___________4.Nursinghomes(become)apermanentpartofourlivesoncefamilies
stoppedcaringfortheiroldermembers.___________5.Thestores(raise)theirpricesagainandagain.___________6.Asdifficultasitistobelieve,she(be)eightyyearsold.___________7.Shenever(call)herbrokerduringthebusinessday.___________8.(Be)thereanywayoutoftheeconomicmesswe’rein?___________9.Cigarettesareharmfultohealthespeciallywhensmokers(inhale).
___________10.Hurry,children,theschoolbus(leave)ontimethismorning.
___________11.Bythetimethepolicearrived,thecriminal(escape).___________12.Bythetimethepassengersarrive,theship(leave).___________13.Margaret(learn)toswimwhenshewasthreeyearsold.___________14.Theearth(turn)continuouslyonitsaxis.___________15.Everydogmust(have)itsday.___________
AgreementofTensesThetenseoftheverbinthemainclauseofasentencedeterminesthetense
neededinasubordinateclause.
Thetimeoftheprincipalactionorstateofbeingdescribedinasentenceisestablishedbythetenseoftheverbinthemainclause.Sincesubordinateclausesdependonthemainclause,theverbtensesinsubordinateclausesmustagreelogicallywiththetenseofthemainverb.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Mydogcrieswheneversheishungry.(ThemainclauseisMydogcries.Thesubordinateclauseiswheneversheishungry.Sincecriesispresenttense,indicatinghabitualaction,ishungrymustalsobepresenttense.)Hecoughedbecausehesmokedsomuch.(Pasttensecoughedinmainclause,pasttensesmokedinsubordinateclause.)Hecoughsbecausehesmokessomuch.(Presenttensecoughsinmainclause,presenttensesmokesinsubordinateclause.)Theywillhavefinishedtheirdinnerbeforewebegintoeatourown.(Futureperfectwillhavefinishedinmainclause,presenttensebegininsubordinateclause.Thepresenttensehereindicatessimplefutureaction.Obviously,theactionsofbothclauseswillbegininthefuture,butthefutureactionofthemainverbwillhavefinishedwillhavebeencompletedbeforebegintoeat,thesecondfutureaction,occurs.Theverbinthesubordinateclausecanalsobefuture,willbegin.)
Thus,inestablishingthepropertenseofaverbinasubordinateclause,thetenseofthemainverbmustgovern,andlogicmustbeused.
19.Inthefollowingsentences,supplytheappropriateformsoftheverbsasshownintheseexamples:
Shehaddecidedtogotothecountrybythetimehermother(return).Onceshe(make)uphermind,sheneverchangesit.
1.Acourtesycarwasnolongersupplied,eventhoughcustomers(like)it.___________
2.Largeautomobilesdidnotdisappeareventhoughthemanufacturers(learn)gasolineeconomy.___________
3.Janefoundtheletterthat(deliver)tohersecretary.___________4.Thebookwassentinawrapperthat(give)noindicationofitscontents.
___________5.IhavealwayseatenspinachbecauseI(like)it.___________
6.Eventhoughmanypassengers(miss)theplane,itleftthegateontime.___________
7.Ashe(watch),mostofthechildrenleftthebus.___________8.Whilewe(wait),manyoftheguestssatdowntoeat.___________9.Studentsfindtheirworkpilingupwhentheterm(come)toaclose.
___________10.TheywillhavecompletedtheirjobsbyTuesday,which(be)the
scheduledfinaldatefortheproject.___________11.ThelectureremphasizedthattheRomanticPeriod(be)richinpoetry.
___________12.Deirdresaidthatimagination(be)thekeytosuccessfulfiction.
___________13.Oakleavesstayedonthetreeslongafterwinter(arrive).___________14.Whenmostcurrentplays(act)nomore,theworksofIbsenwillcontinue
tobepopular.___________15.SnowremainsonthegroundinVermontuntilspring(be)wellunder
way.___________
PresentTenseforIdeasTrueforAllTimeThepresenttenseisalwaysusedwhenwewishtoexpressideasthataretaken
tobetrueforalltime.Thisholdseveninsubordinateclauses,regardlessofthetenseofthemainverb.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Hedemonstratedoncemorethattruthisstrangerthanfiction.Freudidentifiedfundamentaldrivesthatarefoundinallofus.
Thepresenttenseisusedinthesubordinateclausesofboththesesentences:isandarefound.Yetthemainclauseshaveverbsinthepasttense:demonstratedandidentified.Werethestatementsofthesubordinateclausesnottakentobetrueforalltime,thenthepasttensewouldhavebeenusedinsteadofthepresent.
Considerthefollowingsentences,inwhichthestatementsofthesubordinateclausesarenottakentobetrueforalltime:
Hedemonstratedoncemorethathewasuntrustworthy.(Theverbwasinthepasttenseiscorrect,becausedemonstratedispast,andhemayonedayreformandbecometrustworthy.)
Freudidentifiedtheconditionthatwastroublinghispatient.(Theverbwastroublingiscorrectlyformedinthepasttense,sincepropermedicaltreatmentcanbeexpectedtocuretheconditionandtheconditionthereforeisnottrueforalltime.)
20.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheverbasshownintheseexamples:
Pearyestablishedthatman(be)themasteroftheArcticice.
MydaughtertoldmethatGulliver’sTravels(be)herfavoritebookinchildhood.
1.Hefoundthattheendlesssandofthedesert(be)toomuchforhim.___________
2.Jasonfoundthroughexperiencethatthere(be)moretoskiingthanhavingexpensiveequipment.___________
3.Gloria’sspeechwillemphasizethatfreedom(entail)responsibility.___________
4.Theweatherreportdidnotsaythatwe(have)snowtomorrow.___________
5.Heintendstotaketheearlyflight,which(depart)tomorrowat9o’clock.___________
6.Dictionariesusuallysupplythemeaningsofallwordsthatstudents(use).___________
7.Engineersandscientistsalwaysagreedthattheaccuracyofthesliderule(be)sufficientformostoftheirwork.___________
8.Theargumentthatthedefendant(be)theslaveofhishabitsdidnotswaythejuryinthiscase.___________
9.ThelecturerwentonatgreatlengthtoprovethatHardyandConrad(know)thelivesofordinarypeopleand(portray)thoselivesaccurately.___________
10.Thegrowingcostofeducationmeansthattaxes(continue)toincreaseinthenextdecade.___________
CONSISTENCYOFVERBSShiftsofvoice,person,tense,andmoodshouldbeavoidedwithinasentence.
ConsistencyofVoice
Acceptable
OnceIhadcompletedthetreatment,Iwastroubledwithpainnolonger.(Oneverbisactive,theotherpassive.)
Improved
OnceIhadcompletedthetreatment,Iexperiencednomorepain.
ConsistencyofPerson
Incorrect
Weshouldalwaysstudywhenyouarefresh.(Themainverbshouldstudyisthirdperson,butthesubordinateverbareissecondperson.)
Correct
Studentsshouldstudywhentheyarefresh.(Bothverbsthirdperson.)
Correct
Studywheneveryouarefresh.(Bothverbssecondperson.)
ConsistencyofTense
Incorrect
Anactressusuallysstudiesnewrolesduringtherunofaplay,eventhoughshewasgainfullyemployed.(Incorrectshiftfrompresenttensestudiestopasttensewasemployed.Notetoothatstudiesisactivevoice,butwasemployedispassive.)
Correct
Anactressusuallystudiesnewrolesduringtherunofaplay,eventhoughsheisworking.(Bothverbsinpresenttense,activevoice.)
ConsistencyofMood
Incorrect
Hisadvicewasintwoparts:discoverwhatyouwanttodoandthenyouwillfindyourwaytowardthatgoal.(Theverbdiscoverisintheimperativemood;theverbwillfindisintheindicativemood.)
Correct
Hisadvicewasintwoparts:discoverwhatyouwanttodoandthenfindyourwaytowardthatgoal.(Bothverbsinimperativemood.)
21.Restructurethefollowingsentencesasnecessarytoachieveconsistencyofvoice,person,tense,andmood,asshownintheseexamples:
AfterIsucceededinovercomingthevirus,progresstowardgeneralrecoverybegan.
Investorsoftenwillreinvestindecliningstocks,becausetheywerewillingtothrowgoodmoneyafterbad.
1.Thefirstthingtodoisremovethewheel,andthenyoushouldexaminethebrakes.
2.Somewritersworkonlyfourhoursaday,becauseyoucannotdocreativeworkforlongerperiods.
3.Theyfoundthattheycouldnotsewtheseamswell,sinceyoualwaysmakemistakeswhenyoufirsttrytolearnanewskill.
4.Whenonehaslittlemoneytospend,youarecarefulabouteverypurchase.
5.Ifyougotothedance,onewillfindunescortedwomenwelcome.
6.Becauseheconsideredthedesignperfect,thejudgeshadruledagainsthim.
7.Beseated,andthelecturerwilltellyouallyouneedtoknow.
8.Heselectedthematerialforthecoat,andthetailoristhentoldtobeginwork.
9.Thewomenhadinsistedonadmittingmentotheirgroup,butmostofthemenfindthemeetingsdull.
10.Nightmaresdisturbhissleepnightafternight,andhewillfindnoreliefinsedatives.
VERBALSVerbals—infinitives,participles,andgerunds—areverbformsthatcan
functionasnouns,adjectives,andadverbs.
INFINITIVETheinfinitiveistheformoftheverbthatappearsinthedictionary.Outside
dictionaries,theinfinitiveisusuallyprecededbyto:toswim,toplay,toask.Theinfinitivemayoftenappearwithoutto,especiallyaftercan,do,may,must,shall,andwill:canswing,mayplay,mustask.Theinfinitivehasbothtenseandvoice.
Theinfinitivemayfunctionasanoun,asanadjective,asanadverb,orasacomplement.
InfinitiveasNounToswimismygreatestpleasure.(Toswimisthesubjectoftheverbis.)
Theyaskedtoseethepatient.(Toseeistheobjectoftheverbasked.)
InfinitiveasAdjectiveJulietgavemesomethingtoread.(Toreadmodifiesthenounsomething.)Theyhaveadesiretobesaved.(Tobesavedmodifiesthenoundesire.)
InfinitiveasAdverbIamhappytowait.(Towaitmodifiestheadjectivehappy.)Thebabyisheavyenoughtogohome.(Togomodifiestheadverbenough.)
InfinitiveasComplementHenry’sambitionwastobeaplaywright.(Tobeisthecomplementofwas.)Ambitionistobeexpectedinyoungexecutives.(Tobeexpectedisthecomplementofis.)
22.Inthefollowingsentences,identifythefunctionsoftheitalicizedinfinitivesasnoun,adjective,adverb,orcomplementasshownintheseexamples:
Toteachwellisanart.Shehasacrosstobear.Shewascontenttotakehalfthemoney.Heistobecongratulated.
1.CopiesoftheOxfordAmericanDictionaryaretobepurchased.___________
2.Thatbookissmallenoughtobecarriedinavestpocket.___________3.Shehelpedhimworkthecalculusproblem.___________4.Tolearngrammarisnoteasy.___________5.Theywatcheduspourthewine.___________6.Theseedsaretobeplantedinshallowbeds.___________7.Tohaveunderstoodherwasmyearnestdesire.___________8.Theinstructormayhavetodelaythefinalexamination.___________
9.Canweexpecttofindhappiness?___________10.Hewantstospeakbeforetheothershaveachance.___________
InfinitivePhrasesInsomesentences,theinfinitiveitselfhasasubject,objectorcomplement,
andmodifiers.Suchaconstructioniscalledaninfinitivephrase,anditmayfunctionas
subject,object,complement,ormodifierofanothersentenceelement.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Tomowtheentirelawnrequiredthreestrongboys.(TheinfinitivephraseTomowtheentirelawnisthesubjectoftheverbrequired.Withintheinfinitivephrase,lawnistheobjectoftomow.Theentiremodifieslawn.)Catherinehopedtorowthechoppylake.(Theinfinitivephrasetorowthechoppylakeistheobjectofhoped.Withintheinfinitivephrase,lakeistheobjectoftorow,thechoppymodifieslake.)Deirdreistomarrynextyear.(Theinfinitivephrasetomarrynextyearisthecomplementofthecopulativeverbis.Withintheinfinitivephrase,nextyearmodifiestomarry,andnextmodifiesyear.)Theyhaveenoughfirewoodtolastthewinter.(Theinfinitivephrasetolastthewintermodifiesenough.Withintheinfinitivephrase,winteristheobjectoftolast.Themodifieswinter.)Theywantedtheinstructortosubmithisgradespromptly.(Theinfinitivephrasetheinstructortosubmithisgradespromptlyistheobjectofwanted.Withintheinfinitivephrase,instructoristhesubjectoftosubmit,gradesistheobjectoftosubmit,hismodifiesgrades,andpromptlymodifiestosubmit.)
23.Inthefollowingsentences,underlineeachinfinitivephrase,identifyitsfunction,andidentifythefunctionofeachwordwithinthephraseasshownintheseexamples:Fredwantedmetobuysnowshoesimmediately.
Tojudgebyherskepticalnature,shemusthavehadsomeunfaithfulfriends.
1.Thecompanyexecutiveorderedtheemployeestocompletethejobonschedule.
2.Toidentifyenemies,thePresidentmetwiththeNationalSecurityCouncil.
3.Alextoldhertoforgetherachievementscompletely.
4.Sheaskedmetoanswerthephoneinherabsence.
5.Toachievehisambitionrequiredhardwork.
TensesoftheInfinitive
Thepresentinfinitiveisusedifitsactionoccursatthesametimeastheactionofthemainverboraftertheactionofthemainverb.Theperfectinfinitiveisusedifitsactionprecedesthatofthemainverb.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Shedoesnotwanttocontinuetheconversation.Shedidnotwanttocontinuetheconversation.
Ineachofthesesentences,thepresentinfinitivetocontinueisused,becauseitsactionoccurseither,inthefirstexample,atthesametimeasor,inthesecondexample,aftertheactionofthemainverb.
Itissenselesstohavetoldsuchastory.
Inthissentence,themainverbisisinthepresenttense.Thewriterofthesentenceisstatingsomethingheorshebelievestobetruenowandforever.Yettheactionthatwasconsideredsenselessoccurredbeforethisstatementwasmade.Forthisreason,theperfectinfinitivetohavetoldisused.
Itwassenselesstotellsuchastory.
Themeaningintendedhereisthattellingthestorywassenselessatthetimethestorywastold.Becausetheactiondescribedbytheinfinitiveoccurredatthesametimeastheactionofthemainverb,thepresentinfinitivetotellisused.
24.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheinfinitiveasshownintheseexamples:
Therewasnowaypossible(consume)allthatfoodinonesitting.
Hedecided(reveal)thewholetruth.
1.Howcouldhehavebeenstupidenough(take)suchapositiononanissuesograve?___________
2.Therewillbetimeenough(forgive)thosewhoboltedtheparty.___________
3.Heisinclined(delay)paymentatleastforonemoremonth.___________
4.Theelephantsought(feed)nowbythekeepers.___________
5.Therhinocerosesought(feed)hoursago.___________6.Canyouthinkofanygentlewayforus(tell)themthedetailsoftheugly
incident?___________7.Iwasunable(tell)themallthefactsofthecase.___________8.Theyintend(play)fairwiththeiropponents.___________9.Heisreluctant(admit)thatheintentionallyruinedtheirchances.
___________10.Everyoneagreeditwasdifficult(prepare)forsuchanexamination.
___________
SplitInfinitivesAninfinitiveshouldnotbesplitwhentheresultisawkward.Englishteachersandgrammariansmayhaveoverstressedtheideaofkeeping
thepartsofaninfinitivetogether.SuchanapproachtostyleprobablystemsfromLatingrammar.InLatin,theinfinitiveneveremploystheprepositionto,sothereisnopossibilityofsplittinganinfinitive.InEnglish,however,toostrictcompliancewiththeadvicenevertosplitaninfinitivemayresultinawkwardconstructions.Atthesametime,splittinganinfinitivewithlengthyphrasesorclausesmayalsoresultinawkwardness.
Yourecallthattheinfinitivehasthefollowingforms:
Considerthefollowingexamplesofgoodinfinitiveconstructions,awkwardinfinitiveconstructions,andimpossibleinfinitiveconstructions:
GoodTothinkclearlyonherfeetwashergoal.(Clearlymodifiestothink.)
AwkwardToclearlythinkatalltimeswashergoal.(Thisconstructionisawkwardbecauseclearlyappearstomodifythinkratherthantothink.)
Impossible
Toclearlyatalltimesthinkwashergoal.
Good
Theyhopedtofindthechildquickly.
Awkward
Theyhopedtoquicklyfindthechild.
Good
Theyseenoneedtobethinkingdayafterdayabouttheproblemstheyface.
Impossible
Theyseenoneedtobe,dayafterdaythinkingabouttheproblemstheyface.
Insomecases,aconstructionmaybeawkwardbecausecarehasbeentakennottosplitaninfinitive.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Awkward
Theiradvicewastodoublemorethanourenergies.(Thissentencemakesnosenseatall.Whatelsebesidesenergieswerewesupposedtodouble?)
Good
Theiradvicewastomorethandoubleourenergies.(Byplacingthemodifiermorethaninthemidstoftheinfinitive,thesentencehassomemeaning.)
Modifierscangenerallybeplacedinmorethanonepositioninasentence.Thewritermustseekthebestpositionformodifiers,rememberingthatlongmodifiersthatsplitinfinitivesalmostalwaysresultinawkwardconstructions.
25.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoreandcorrectanyawkwardinfinitiveconstructionsasshownintheseexamples:
Theadviceofthedoctorswastomoderatelyeat.
Shemadeitaruletoneverhurriedlyeathermeals.
1.Theyexpecttomorethanloseamilliondollars.
2.Torelaxandthinkquietlywasherhabitmostafternoons.
3.Tomorethantwohoursworkovertimeinadayisagainstcompanypolicy.
4.Afterthegame,theteamwasinstructedtonotboardthebusforthetriphome.
5.Thehopeofthesearchpartywastosafeandsoundfindthechildbeforedarknesssetin.
6.Shehasdecidedtofirmlybutrespectfullydemandthatherhusbandbehired.
7.Tohavewithinanhourwalkedaroundtheparkwasimpossible.
8.Therewasnothingworthwhilelefttodounderthecircumstances.
9.Hedecidedtowithouthesitationtelltheentirestory.
10.TheSmithswereimpatienttowithoutdelayselltheircar.
PARTICIPLEParticiplesareverbaladjectivesthathavepresentandpasttenses:calling,
called.Whenparticiplesarecombinedwithauxiliaryverbs—Iamcalling,shehascalled,etc.—theyindicatetense(seepage70)anddonotfunctionasadjectives.Considerthefollowing:
Laughingatus,hethrewusaquarter.(Laughingmodifieshe.Itistheconditionheisinwhenheperformstheactionofthrowing.Laughingismodifiedbytheprepositionalphraseatus.)Theactorlefttheroom,cryinghappilyandthrowingkissesatus
all.(Cryingandthrowingmodifyactor.Theydescribetheconditiontheactorwasinwhenleavingtheroom.Cryingismodifiedbyhappily.Kissesisthedirectobjectofthrowing.Atusallmodifiesthrowing.)Theannoyingchildfinallyleftthediningroom.(Annoyingmodifieschild.)Havingreceivedmyterminationnotice,Ipackedupallmybelongingsandlefttheoffice.(HavingreceivedmodifiesI.)Sustainedformorethananhourbyherlifebelt,shemadeherwaytoshore.(Sustainedmodifiesshe.)
26.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheparticiplesandidentifythewordorwordstheymodifyasshownintheseexamples:
Thebookreliedonmostbywritersisthedictionary.
Havingwrittenanotherbest-sellingnovel,shewasabletotakeanextendedvacation.
1.Rushingthroughbothrooms,Christopherslammedthedoor.___________
2.Havingbeentoldthenews,Hillaryquietlylefttheroom.___________3.Foundmoneymostoftenisspentfoolishly.___________4.Sustainedbymyfaith,Ishallgoonasthoughnothinghappened.
___________5.Achildlockedinaroomwillfindmischief.___________6.Swallowinghurriedly,theolderboyreachedfortherifle.___________7.Leftonherown,Felicebegantomature.___________8.Havingrefusedthesecondoffer,Williamhadlittlechanceofkeeping
negotiationsopen.___________9.Tiredbythelongargument,theattorneyfoundherselfunableto
continue.___________10.Congratulatingheropponent,Hingisleftthecourt.___________
TensesoftheParticipleThepresentparticipleisusedtoindicateactionoccurringatthesametimeas
theactionofthemainverb.Thepastparticipleisusedtoindicateactionpriortotheactionofthemainverb.
theactionofthemainverb.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Tellingthestoryaswellashecould,heknewitwouldnotbebelieved.Havingtoldthestoryaswellashecould,hesatdown.
Inthefirstsentence,thesubjectofthesentenceknowsasheistellingthestorythatitwouldnotbebelieved.Thepresentparticipletellingisused,becausetheactionoftheparticipleisoccurringatthesametimeastheactionoftheverbknew.Inthesecondsentence,theactionoftheparticiplehavingtoldprecedesthepastactionofthemainverbsat.Forthisreason,thepastparticipleisused.
27.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythecorrectformoftheparticipleasshownintheseexamples:
(stare)atmeseverely,thechildrefusedtoanswer.
(conclude)hersummationoftheevidence,thedefenseattorneyrestedherclient’scase.
1.(tell)hewasnolongerneeded,hedecidedtoaskforatransfer.
2.(find)thedoorclosedbehindher,shelooksaboutforanemergencyexit.
3.(leave)theArmywithanhonorabledischarge,shewassurprisedthatittookthreemonthstofindajobthatwouldpayalivingwage.
4.(refuse)thehonorarydegree,thephysicistdidhisbesttojustifyhisbehavior.
5.(offer)thehousefor$5000lessthanitsmarketvalue,thecoupleexpectedtosellitquickly.
6.Customers(arrive)aftersixo’clockwillfindthestoreclosed.
7.Theauditorswillbeconcernedwithentries(omit)fromthebooks.
8.Ournewdeanwillfindthenewposition(challenge).
9.Not(realize)yourproblemwasthatdifficult,Iwonderwhyyouweresolonginarrivingatareasonablesolution.
10.(retire)fromthestage,mywifeisoftencalledontoperformwithoutpay.
GERUNDAgerundisthe-ingformofaverbusedasanoun.Agerundmayfunctionasthesubjectorobjectofaverborastheobjectofa
preposition:
Dialingisnolongernecessary.(Thegerunddialingisthesubjectoftheverbis.)Shestilllikesboxing.(Thegerundboxingistheobjectoftheverblikes.)Heisgiventoequivocating.(Equivocatingistheobjectoftheprepositionto.)Thisporchisusedonlyforsunning.(Sunningistheobjectoftheprepositionfor.)
Agerundmayalsofunctionasacomplement,maybemodified,andmaytakeanobject:
Myfavoritehobbyisgardening.(Gardeningisthecomplementofis.)Mynewinterestisorganicgardening.(Gardeningismodifiedbytheadjectiveorganic.)Yourfuturedependsonworkingvigorouslytowardarealisticgoal.(Workingismodifiedbytheadverbvigorously.)Hoardinggroceriesintimesofshortagesleadstogreatershortages.(Hoardinghasasitsobjectthenoungroceries.)
28.Inthefollowingsentences,identifythefunctions,modifiers,andobjects,ifany,oftheitalicizedgerunds.Rememberthatagerundmayfunctionasthesubjectofaverb,objectofaverb,objectofapreposition,orcomplement.Ifagerundismodified,themodifieriseitheranadjectiveoradverb.Usethefollowingexamplesasguides:
Hoursofdulleditingprovedtoomuchtotake.
Economicforecastingisfarfromprecise.
Swallowingfoodhastilycanleadtodisaster.
1.Plowingwashardworkwhenamanhadtodependonananimalinsteadofatractor.
2.Hefoundcookinginterestingforawhile.
3.Forrelaxing,Mr.Churchilloftenturnedtopainting.
4.Healsoenjoyedbricklayingfromtimetotime.
5.Herprincipaloccupationwasfindingenoughtoeat.
6.Preparingspecimensfordissectionisnotenjoyablebeforelunch.
7.Cuttingquicklytothebonehelpedthesurgeonfindthesourceoftheinfectionthatthreatenedthepatient’slife.
8.Writingscholarlypapersrapidlyisnotasimportantaswritingthemwell.
9.Goodwritingisnoteasytofind.
10.Ifoundhiswritingtedious.
VERBALSUSEDASMODIFIERS
Participlesandinfinitivesareverbalsthatareusedasmodifiers.Likeallmodifiers,theymustbeclearlyidentifiedwiththewordstheymodify.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Drivingfromthetee,thegolferscoredhisfirstbirdie.(Theparticipledrivingmodifiesthenoungolfer.)Havingservedthesamegeneralforsixyears,thesoldierknewallhishabits.(Theparticiplehavingservedmodifiesthenounsoldier.)Theteemingrainfloodedsuburbanstreets.(Theparticipleteemingmodifiesrain.)Thegrocertelephonedthewholesalertoorderadditionalsupplies.(Theinfinitivetoordermodifiestheverbtelephoned,sotoorderfunctionsasanadverb.)Maryhadanassignmenttocomplete.(Theinfinitivetocompletemodifiesthenounassignment,sotocompletefunctionsasanadjective.)
DANGLINGANDMISPLACEDMODIFIERSModifiersnotclearlyidentifiedwithwordstheymodifyarecalleddangling
modifiersormisplacedmodifiers.
DanglingParticiples
HavingeatenChinesefoodmanytimesbefore,therewasnoreasontobecomeill.(HavingeatenisaparticiplethatispartoftheparticipialphraseHavingeatenChinesefoodmanytimesbefore.Theentirephraseactsasamodifier,buthasnothingtomodifyintheprincipalclausetherewasnoreasontobecomeill.Thephrase,therefore,isconsideredadanglingmodifier.)
Thesentenceisrepairedbysupplyinganoun,pronoun,ornounphrasefortheparticipletomodify:
Correct
HavingeatenChinesefoodmanytimesbefore,Ihadnoreasontobecomeill.
Anotherwaytorepairthesentenceistoconverttheparticipialphraseintoadependentclause:
CorrectSinceIhadeatenChinesefoodmanytimesbefore,Ihadnoreasontobecomeill.
CorrectSinceIhadeatenChinesefoodmanytimesbefore,therewasnoreasonformetobecomeill.
MisplacedParticiples
Evenwhenmodifiershaveanoun,pronoun,ornounphrasetomodify,awritermaymisleadreadersifamodifiedelementisnotclearlyidentifiable.Suchamodifierisclassifiedasamisplacedmodifier.Theconstructionisfaultyandmustbecorrected.
Considerthefollowingsentence:
Swimmingasfastaspossible,Isawtheboyaheadofme.(Whowasswimmingasfastaspossible—theboyorI?)
CorrectIsawtheboyaheadofme,swimmingasfastaspossible.(Itwastheboy.)
Correct
Iswamasfastaspossibleandfinallysawtheboyaheadofme.(ItwasI.)
DanglingInfinitives
Thusfarthediscussionhascenteredondanglingandmisplacedparticiples.Butwhatistrueforparticiplesisalsotrueforinfinitives.
Considerthefollowingsentence:
Toconveyinformation,thereadermustbeconsidered.(Toconveyinformationdoesnotmodifyanythinginthesentence.)
Correct
Toconveyinformation,thewritermustconsiderthereader.
Correct
Awriterwhowishestoconveyinformationmustconsiderthe
Awriterwhowishestoconveyinformationmustconsiderthereader.
29.Inthefollowingsentences,correctthedanglingandmisplacedmodifiersasshownintheseexamples:
Stretchingacrosstheyard,Isawaclothesline.
Aftershowingmypass,thegateimmediatelyopened.
Toreachmyofficeby8:15,thetrainmustbeontime.
1.Tosellthatmanyautomobiles,agreatmanypeoplemustlikethedesign.
2.Standingintherunway,aplanewillhitsomebody.
3.Havingrunformanyweeks,Iconsideredtheplayasuccess.
4.Beforegainingadmittancetohisapartment,abellmustberung.
5.Havinghelpedtheoldmancrossthestreet,therestofthewalkwasuneventful.
6.Toachieveevenmodestacceptance,allaspectsofthepaintingmustbeconsideredcarefully.
7.Towinoverahostileaudience,theperformersmustbeattheirbest.
8.Stumblingblindlyinthefog,Isawamanappear.
9.Havingassembledallthenecessaryingredients,afinedinneriscertain.
10.Toprepareafinedinner,allingredientsmustbefresh.
AUXILIARYVERBSANDINFINITIVESINCOMPOUNDCONSTRUCTIONS
AuxiliaryVerbs
Whendifferenttensesareusedwithinacompoundconstruction,theauxiliaryverbsmustusuallybesuppliedinfull.Whenthesametenseisusedthroughoutacompoundconstruction,repetitionoftheauxiliaryverbsisnotusuallynecessary.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
BasketballhasbecomeandalwayswillbethefavoritesportofAmericans.(Thefirstpartofthecompoundverbisintheperfecthasbecome.Thesecondpartisinthefuturewillbe.Becausethetwotensesaredifferent,theauxiliaryverbshasandwillmustbesupplied.)Alltheplayerswillbegivenuniformsiftheyhavestudiedhardandpracticedregularly.(Notethathaveisnotneededbeforepracticed,becausehavestudiedand[have]practicedarebothintheperfecttense.)
InfinitivesIncompoundconstructionsemployinginfinitives,tocanbeusedbeforeeach
infinitivetoemphasizetheparallelstructure.
Shewastoldtosubmitherapplicationpromptlyandtoreportforafullphysicalexamination.
Thesecondtocanbeomittedifemphasisisnotdesirable:
Shewastoldtosubmitherapplicationpromptlyandreportforafullphysicalexamination.
Inaseriesemployinginfinitives,thefirstinfinitiveisalwaysprecededbyto.Ifthesecondinfinitiveisalsoprecededbyto,thenalltherestmustbeprecededbyto.Inmostseries,however,theinitialtoisusuallysufficient.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Correct
Shewastoldtosubmitherapplication,reportforaphysicalexamination,andpresentsuitablereferencesfromrecentemployers.
Correct
Shewastoldtosubmitherapplication,toreportforaphysicalexamination,andtopresentreferencesfromherrecentemployers.
Incorrect
Shewastoldtosubmitherapplication,toreportforaphysicalexamination,andpresentsuitablereferencesfromrecentemployers.(Thesentencecanbecorrectedbydeletingthetobeforereportorbyinsertingtobeforepresent.)
30.Whereappropriateinthefollowingsentences,supplyallnecessarypartsoftheverbsandinfinitivesasshownintheseexamples:
Shelovestoswim,toskate,andfish.
ManyofthenewnationsofAfricahavebeenstrugglingtoensurethattheirpopulationswillhaveemploymentandthattheireconomicgoalsbeenmetbytheendofthenextdecade.
Thevariouscommunitygroupsarejoiningforcestodemandequaltreatmentofmenandwomen,toincreasewelfarepaymentsfortheneedy,andestablishdaycarecentersforthechildrenofworkingparents.
1.Thefirefightersmustbegivensufficientfreetimetoregaintheirstrengthandrepairtheirequipment.
2.Teachersreportthatallthechildrentheyteachhavebeenunderstrainandgoingtodobadlyoncitywideachievementtests.
3.Booksaresaidtocomfortthebereaved,inspiretheyoung,andguidetheperplexed.
4.ReadingScriptureissaidtocomforttheinvalidandguidethestudent.
5.TheyhavebeentrainingfortheexpeditionallyearandleavingbyJanuary.
6.Jobapplicationsareavailablefordistributiontothosewhohavepassedthequalifyingexaminationandnowdesireemployment.
7.Applicationswillbegivenonlytothosewhohavepassedtheexaminationandwillingtotakejobsimmediately.
8.Thecoupledecidedtoabandontheirlifeinthecountry,toselltheirpossessions,andtakeanapartmentinthecity.
9.Largehouseshavebeenandcontinuetobedifficulttosellthesedays.
10.Sealhuntinghasalwaysbeenconsideredinhumane,butmencontinuetohuntthesebeautifulanimals,skinningthemaliveandtoleavetheirdyingbodiesbehindtobeeatenbyscavengingbirds.
PARALLELSTRUCTUREANDVERBFORMSParallelstructuremustbepreservedinsentencesusingtwoormoreverbsor
verbals.
Parallelgrammaticalconstructionsareusedtoexpressparallelideas.Thismeansthatcompoundconstructionsmustcontaingrammaticallyidenticalforms.Thisrequirementisespeciallyimportantforverbsandverbals.(Itiseasytorecognizeacompoundconstructionbythepresenceofacoordinatingconjunction:and,bit,or,nor.)
Considerthefollowingsentences:
CorrectIoftenswim,fish,andhunt.(Thethreeverbsareinidenticalform,thepresentindicative.)
IncorrectIlikeswimming,fishing,andtohunt.(Intheseries,swimmingandfishingaregerunds;tohuntisaninfinitive.Thestructureisnotparallel.)
CorrectIlikeswimming,fishing,andhunting.(Threegerunds.)Iliketoswim,fish,andhunt.(Threeinfinitives.)
CorrectParadoxically,thehelicopterhasbeenusedtosavelivesandtotakelives.(Twoinfinitives.)Thecoachstressedtwoideas:playhardandwin.(Playandwinbothimperative,secondperson.)Thecoachstressedtwoideas:playinghardandwinning.(Twoparticiplesmodifyingideas.)
IncorrectThecoachstressedtwoideas:playhardandwinning.(Theimperativeplayisincorrectlycombinedwiththeparticiplewinning.)
31.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethemistakesinparallelconstructionandcorrectthem,asshownintheseexamples:MarianneMoorewasanoutstandingAmericanpoet,lovedbaseball,andaDodgerfan.
Whenjobsarehardtofind,peoplewhowantajobmustlookforworkconstantly,keeptheirspiritsup,andbealerttoeveryopportunity.
1.Poordirectionbymanagementcancauseemployeestomakemanymistakesandcreatingpoormorale.
2.Rhododendronsshouldnotbeplantedinnorthernclimatesorbecultivatedclosely.
3.Headmiresgoodbooks,lovesclassicalmusic,andadoresbeautifulwomen.
4.Neitherborrowingnortolendwillleadtohappiness.
5.Shespentherdayspeacefully,butshewasfindingthattheeveningsdragged.
6.ThePresident’sgoalistohelpothernationsandpreservingthe
independenceofherownpeople.
7.Blendinganacceptablespaghettisauceandcookingitproperlyareeasytasksevenforanovicecook.
8.Ketchupisanall-purposefooddisguise,capableofmaskingtheworstinameatloafandtoruinthebestscrambledeggs.
9.Harryshatteredthewindowandthenwentrighttohisfathertoaskforgiveness.
10.CommencementexercisesseemedtoJackbothaboreandannoying.
CHAPTER4Pronouns
Apronounisawordorwordsusedinplaceofanoun,anounanditsmodifiers,oranotherpronoun.Theelementreplacediscalledtheantecedentofthepronoun.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Secrecycharacterizeseveryactionoftheleadingpoliticalparties.Itisacceptedunquestioninglybythevoters.(ThewordItsubstitutesforSecrecy.ThenounSecrecyinthefirstsentenceistheantecedentofthepronounIt.)Thevotersinourtownvotedagainstthebondissue.Theyvowedtovotenoadditionalfunds.(Theysubstitutesforthenounvotersanditsmodifierinourtown.ThevotersinourtowninthefirstsentenceistheantecedentofThey.)Shebakedbreadsowellthathercustomersboughtexclusivelyfromher.(herandherarepronounswiththecommonantecedentShe.)Larryworkedsowellthathisbosspromotedhim.(himisapronounwiththeantecedentLarry.)
1.Inthefollowingsentences,identifythepronounsandtheirantecedentsasshownintheseexamples:
JohngavethemoneytoJane.Hegavethemoneytoher.
Deirdrebalancedhercheckbook.Shethendepositedadditionalfunds.
1.KateandLeonardsavedregularlyforthehousetheyknewtheywouldpurchaseoneday.
2.Thedogchasedthemouseandfinallykilledit.
3.Thepainterpreparedfivebrushes,andhefinallygottousethem.
4.HeinrichBöllwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteratureafterhehadachievedworldwiderecognitionforhiswork.
5.Longafterhehadreturnedtocivilianlife,thewarveteranfoundhewasstillanxiousfromtimetotime.
6.JohnandSallyworkedhardtogether.Hedidthephysicallabor,andshedidtheclericalwork.
7.JohnandSallyworkedhardtogether.Theysharedtheworkfairly.Shedidthephysicallabor,andheattendedtotherecords.
8.Thechildrenfoundtheirgametiresome.Itconsistedofnothingmorethanrepeatingafewwordsoverandoveruntiltheywerememorized.
9.JoanandAudreyfoundtheywereworkingmoreharmoniouslythantheyhadexpected.
10.Teachersandparentsagreedthattheyhadthesameinterests.
11.Extractionofawisdomtoothcancausegreatpainifitisimpacted.
12.Thegovernorsignedtheproclamationeventhoughshedidnotunderstandthereasonswhyitwasdrafted.
13.Zebrasareprizedforthebeautytheydisplay.
14.Mr.Cunninghamisknownformusiclessonsofquality.Theyhavealivelinessoftheirownthatheneverfailstocommunicate.
15.Dantoldhissonthathewouldbegivenawatchthatwouldhelphimgethomeontime.
16.Textbookscostmoney,buttheyareworthit.
17.Maryleftallthedishesinthesink,eventhoughsheknewshewouldhavetodothemwhenshereturnedfromthemovies.
18.Marjorie’smothergaveherabracelettowearwhensheattendedtheparty.
19.ThedoctorwilltestJonagainwhenheisfiveyearsold.
20.Ruthisboundtosellsomeantiquesifshetrieslongenough.
21.SanFranciscohasitsadvantages,buttheycosttouristsdearlywhentheyarenotcareful.
22.TwoatomicbombsendedWorldWarII,andtheyarestillrememberedtoday.
23.Vermontimposesheavyincometaxeswhenitneedsfunds.
24.Inademocracy,citizenshaveequalrights,butnotallofthemexercisetheirrights.
25.Chicagoisabeautifulcity,butitlacksproximitytoNewYork.
TYPESOFPRONOUNSTherearemanytypesofpronouns.Themostimportantarepersonal,
impersonal,relative,demonstrative,interrogative,reflexive,intensive,reciprocal,andindefinite.Asafirststepinlearningtheseterms,examinethefollowingexamplesofeachtype:
Personalpronouns:I,you,he,she,we,they,oneImpersonalpronouns:it,they
Relativepronouns:who,which,that,whoever,whicheverDemonstrativepronouns:this,that,these,thoseInterrogativepronouns:who,which,what,whoever,whateverReflexivepronouns:myself,yourself,himself,herself,ourselves,yourselves,
themselves,itselfIntensivepronouns:myself,yourself,himself,herself,ourselves,yourselves,
themselves,itselfReciprocalpronouns:eachother,oneanotherIndefinitepronouns:each,either,any,anyone,some,someone,all
PersonalandImpersonalPronouns
Personalpronounsrefertopeople.Impersonalpronounsrefertoeverythingbutpeople.
Personalandimpersonalpronounscanbesingularorplural.Theycanalsobeinthesubjective,possessive,orobjectivecase.Personalpronounsmayalsoindicategender.
Thefollowingtablesummarizespersonalandimpersonalpronounsinnumber,case,andgender:
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheusesofpersonalandimpersonalpronounsineachofthethreecases:
pronounsineachofthethreecases:
SubjectiveCaseI(We,You,They)seetheentirescene.He(She,It,One)seestheentirescene.
PossessiveCase(Seepages103–104foradiscussionofpossessiveadjectives.)Themistakewasmine(ours,yours,hers,his,theirs).Mine(Ours,Yours,His,Hers,Theirs)wastheonlypartthatrequiredrevision.
ObjectiveCaseTheeditorcriticizesme(us,him,her,one,them,it).
2.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpersonalandimpersonalpronounsasshownintheexamples:
Theinstructorgradedthestudent’spaper.gradedthestudent’spaper.
Theinstructorgraded .Thegovernorsignedtheproclamation.
signed .
1.Forveryyoungchildren,MissGrantdidnotstressattentiontodetail.Forveryyoungchildren,___________didnotstressattentiontodetail.
2.Inwritingbiographyandcriticism,anauthormustobserveallscholarlytraditions.Inwritingbiographyandcriticism,___________(or___________)mustobserveallscholarlytraditions.
3.FewvalidstudiesofQueenElizabethIIareconcernedwiththeconditionsunderwhichBritishroyaltylive.FewvalidstudiesofQueenElizabethIIareconcernedwiththeconditionsunderwhich___________live.
4.Mrs.Kayeisresponsibleforoverseeingbothsalesandmarketing.___________isresponsibleforoverseeingbothsalesandmarketing.
5.IdecidedtogiveAliceandBobtheportraittheyadmiredsomuch.Idecidedtogive___________theportraittheyadmiredsomuch.
6.TheagentsagreedthatJohn’sgiftwasworthmorethanexpected.___________agreedthat___________wasworthmorethanexpected.
7.YourviewofLondonandmyviewdifferwidely.YourviewofLondonand___________differwidely.
8.Americanballetisparticularlyinterestingsince___________isnotconfinedbytradition.
9.John’sviewofLondonandminedifferwidely.___________differwidely.
10.FranklinandEleanorRoosevelthadseveralchildren.___________hadseveralchildren.
11.Whensubmittingmanuscriptsforpublication,thewritermustsupplytwoclearcopies.Whensubmittingmanuscriptsforpublication,___________(or___________)mustsupplytwoclearcopies.
12.Whateverpreferenceyoumayhave,therestauranthasasuitablewine.Whateveryourpreference,therestauranthasawinesuitablefor___________.
13.Istherenowayofforcingthehandsoftheopposingattorneys?Istherenowayofforcing___________hands?
14.DoyouknowwhenDublinerswasfirstpublished?Doyouknowwhen___________wasfirstpublished?
15.ItischaracteristicofNormathatsheagreedtogotothedinnerpartyeventhoughtheinvitationarrivedlate.Itischaracteristicof___________thatsheagreedtogotothedinnerpartyeventhoughtheinvitationarrivedlate.
16.DoesthisbookbelongtoStanandEthel?Doesthisbookbelongto___________?Isthisbook___________?
17.IcannotrecallwhetherthepoemyourefertoisbyeitherRobertorElizabethBrowning.Iamcertainthepoemyourefertoisbyoneof___________.
18.Bill’sinformationwaslesscompletethantheinformationsuppliedtoLouise.Bill’sinformationwaslesscompletethantheinformationsuppliedto___________.
19.NoonebutPhylliscandothatjobproperly.Noonebut___________candothatjobproperly.
20.JanewasinstructedtogivethepapertonoonebutJoe.Janewasinstructedtogivethepapertonoonebut___________.
21.TheLopezfamilyisgoingtohaveitsannualreunion.___________aregoingtohaveanannualreunion.
22.ItistimetogivePoochthemedicinetheveterinarianprescribed.ItistimetogivePoochthemedicine___________(or___________)prescribed.
23.Hasthecatmadeamessagain?Has___________madeamessagain?
24.Doesthepaintingbelongintheneighbors’collection?Isthepaintingoneof___________?
25.Wastheportraitofhisfirstwife?Wastheportrait___________?
RelativePronouns
Relativepronounsrefertopeopleandobjects.Theyareusedinthethreecases:
Whoreferstopeople;thattopeopleorobjects;whichtoanimals,objects,orcollectivenouns.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheusesofwho,that,andwhichinalltheircases:
SubjectiveCase
Awomanwhowantstosucceedinbusinessmustdedicateherselftothatend.Theboatthatwontheracehadanoutstandingcrew.Whichofthecontractswaswitnessedbyanotarypublic?
PossessiveCaseWhoseautomobilegaveoutfirst?Ihavehadenoughofthat.Theproblemofwhichyouspokehasasimplesolution.
Theboardoftrustees,whoseunanimousapprovalisneeded,failedtoactintime.
ObjectiveCaseTheminorliteraryfigurestowhomyourefersurelymeritnofurtherstudy.Youcannotobjecttothat!Thejournalstowhichhecontributesmakenoclaimsabouthisprofessionalintegrity.AmericanauthorstowhomrespectisdueincludeHemingway,Fitzgerald,andFaulkner.
Whoever,whomever,whichever,andwhateverarealsoclassifiedasrelativepronouns:
WhoeversaidAmywouldbecomeanoutstandingcomputerprogrammermusthavehadacrystalball.Giveittowhomeveryoudecideneedsmosthelp.Youhavethreechoices:whicheveryouoverlookwillbringyounothingbuttrouble.Whateversoldiersdo,theymustbepreparedtostandbytheiractions.
3.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingrelativepronounsasshownintheseexamples:
turnsinthebestessaywillreceivetheaward.Thetable yourefinishedisstandinginthestudy.
1.Thisessay,___________istheworstshehaseverwritten,willsurelybejudgedunworthyofpublication.
2.Thestory___________Itoldyoumustnotberepeated.3.Actresses___________aregoodenoughfortheBroadwaystagemust
surelybegoodenoughforregionaltheaters.4.Theantiquesof___________youboastmaywellturnouttobe
worthless.5.Plays___________plotsarethatobviouscannotholdtheinterestofany
matureaudience.
6.Of___________Ihavenoopinionworthdeclaring.7.Peoplein___________youplacegreattrustaresurelyspecialpeople.8.Theparagraphsto___________youalludehavebeenlostinthe
computerprintout.9.Theanswerto___________isclearlybeyondmylimitedknowledge.10.___________findsthedogwilldemandarewardforitsreturn.11.Coatsandhats___________areleftinthecloakroommustbeclaimed
bytheirownerswithinanhouraftertheperformance.12.___________youcite,becertainthatyourfootnotefullycreditsthe
source.13.Horses___________findtheirwayagreatdistancefromhomecannot
bethoughtofasdumbanimals.14.___________ofthetwopaintingsyoubuyiscertainlygoingtoplease
her.15.Blueflowers,for___________Ihaveaspecialfondness,arenotoften
foundinamoderngarden.16.Idecidedtolike___________shechoosestomarry.17.Thehouse___________Iliveinisforsaleatanyreasonableprice.18.Myhouse,___________isforsale,sitsonacrampedbutattractiveplot.19.Houses___________designsareunconventionalmaynotbereadily
marketable.20.Despiteherprotests,Iproceededtobuythechair___________shedid
notwant.21.Thepartners___________signedtheagreementhappilylivedtoregret
doingso.22.Youngmen___________youseeinbarsarespendingtheirtime
unwisely.23.___________agreestoundertakethisprojectwillfindthatheorshehas
contractedforagreatdealofwork.24.___________oftheseminormasterpiecesdoyouprefer?25.To___________shallIaddresstheletterofapplication?
DemonstrativePronouns
Demonstrativepronounsreplacenounsandfunctioninthesamemannerasnounsinasentence.
Theprincipaldemonstrativepronounsare:this,that,these,andthose.(Seedemonstrativeadjectives,page103.)Thisandthataresingular.Theseandthoseareplural.
Demonstrativepronounshavenogender,buttheydohavecase.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheusesofthedemonstrativepronounsinalltheircases:
SubjectiveCaseThisismorethanIcanpossiblyeatinonesitting.Thatremainsmylastobstacletosuccessincollege.Thesearemyonlyobjectionstotheentireplan.Thosewerethebequeststhatcausedsomuchfamilywrangling.
PossessiveCaseTheprincipaladvantagesofthisareeconomy,beauty,andstrength.Ofthese,onlyafewareworthyoffullconsideration.Ofthose,noneisworthyofseriouscomment.
ObjectiveCaseWeagreedtogivethisourfullattention.Theydecidedagainstthatatleasttenyearsago.Theharshweatherkilledtheselastmonth.Chooseamongthoseandletmeknowyourdecisionsassoonaspossible.
Otherdemonstrativepronounscommonlyencounteredareformer,latter,other,such,so,same,andtheordinalnumbers:first,second,third,etc.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheuseofthesedemonstrativepronouns:
Theformer,notthelatter,wastheoneIintendedtobidon.Suchisnotthecase,despitewhatyouthinkshesaid.Hetoldherso.Nowgivemetheother.Enclosedfindpaymentforsame.(Old-fashionedbusinesscorrespondenceusage.)Thefirstwasmychoice,eventhoughthefourthandsixthalsocaughtmyeye.
4.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingdemonstrativepronounsasshownintheseexamples:
suitsmebetterthanthepreviouschoice.Thelattersuitsmebetterthanthe .
1.Indeed,ifitwerenot___________,Isurelywouldhavetoldyoubynow.
2.Isewedafewof___________beforeIwentontoasecondbatch.3.Let___________standasmybesteffort.4.Hedecidedtosellme___________insteadofthese.5.Picture___________hanginginyourlivingroom.6.Whenyouconsiderfamousthoroughbredsofalltime,itisdoubtfulthat
Secretariatwouldbethe___________thatcomestomind.7.Weatealittleof___________andalittleof___________.8.Weateafewof___________andafewof___________.9.Whenconditionsare___________thatairlinesclosedownflightstoour
city,wenolongercanexpecttohavefullemployment.10.___________whoarewillingtostandforofficemustbewillingto
debatecampaignissuesontelevision.
InterrogativePronouns
Interrogativepronounsareusedinaskingquestions.Theprincipalinterrogativepronounsarewho,which,andwhat.Whoeverandwhateveroccurlessfrequently.Whoisusedforpeople.Whichandwhatareusedforthings.Thesepronouns
donothavegender.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheusesofinterrogativepronounsinalltheircases:
SubjectiveCase
Whostolehercollectionofcompactdisks?Whichperformsbestwhenthestockmarketisgoingdown?Whatisgoingtohappentousaftersheleavesthecompany?
PossessiveCase
Whosedidyoutake?Ofwhichdidyoudespairfirst?Whatdoyouthinkofalldaylong?
ObjectiveCase
Whomdidyoutaketotheseniorprom?Whichdidyouselect?Whathaveyoudecidedtodoabouttheproblemweallface?
5.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissinginterrogativepronounsasshownintheseexamples:
hascompletedtheentireEnglishassignment?canItellyouabouthersituation?
1.___________isyourfavoriteclassicalcomposer?2.___________shouldwedoaboutallthebrokenwindows?3.___________ofthosebirdsdidmybrotherAlshoot?4.___________wereyoutalkingwithwhenIhappenedtowalkby?5.___________canyouseethroughthetelescope?6.___________wasplayingnineinningsofbaseballintherain?
7.___________doyouwantmetodoforyou?8.___________isthemanEdithpraisessomuch?9.___________wereyouabouttodowhenIinterruptedyou?10.___________doyouthinkofherasacandidateforchiefexecutive?
ReflexivePronouns
Reflexivepronounsareusedinsentencescontainingverbswhoseactionsaredirectedtowardthesubjectsoftheverbs.Thesepronounsareformedbyadding-selfor-selves,asappropriate,tothepersonalpronounsorpossessiveadjectivesmy,your,him,her,our,them,oneandtheimpersonalpronounit.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheusesofreflexivepronouns:
Healmostalwayscuthimselfwhileshaving.Youarelosingyourselfinyourwork.Shediscoveredherselfafteraperiodofintenseintrospection.Janusuallysupportedhimselfbyteachingkarate.Wefailourselveswhenwefailothers.Askyourselveswhetheryouhavedonerightbyyourfamilies.Theytoldthemselvesonlywhattheywantedtohear.Ifoneonlydidwhatwasrightforoneself!Thegiraffefounditselfintroubleafteritshabitatwasthoroughlysprayedwithherbicide.
6.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingreflexivepronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Unfortunatelyheexcused early,leavinguswithoutguidance.Nomatterhowbadlythemerchandisewasdisplayed,itseemedtosell .
1.Garyhelped___________toasecondlargepieceofcake.2.Youowe___________alongvacationfarfromhome.3.Ourwishes___________aretoblameforourmostseriousfaults.4.Nancywashed___________intheicystream.
5.Iusuallygive___________thebenefitofthedoubt;doesn’tonealwaysgive___________thesameadvantage?
6.Godissaidtohelpthosewhohelp___________.7.Aftereverymealsheate,thecatwashed___________thoroughly.8.Youshouldstopfooling___________aboutyourhealth.9.Mr.Saundersmade___________successfulthroughhardworkover
longyears.10.Pamtaught___________SpanishandFrench.11.Youmenshouldnotblame___________forwhatwentwrong.12.Iamforcing___________toloseatleastthirtypounds.13.Shewillenduphurting___________ifsheisnotcareful.14.Manyawriterhasfound___________atlooseendsaftercompleting
herfirstnovel.15.Thetownwasruining___________bypermittingneighboringtownsto
dischargewasteintoitssewagesystem.
IntensivePronouns
Intensivepronounsareusedasappositives(seepages100–101)tostrengthenthesubjectofaverb.
Intensivepronounshavethesameformsasreflexivepronouns:myself,yourself,himself,herself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves,oneself,anditself.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratetheusesoftheintensivepronouns:
Imyselfcanseelittleuseinfollowingapoorlyconceivedplan.Icanseelittleuseinthatactionmyself.Youyourselfwillhavetotakefullresponsibilityforyourbudget.Youwillhavetotakefullresponsibilityyourself.Henryhimselfwasnotatfaultinthatmatter,wehavebeentold.Henrywasnotatfaulthimself.Ericaherselffoundlittleofinterestinthenewsymphony.Ericafoundlittleofinterestinthesymphonyherself.Weourselvesarecontenttoletthematterdropeventhoughwehavebeenhurt.Wearecontentourselvestoletthematterdrop.
Youyourselvescanfindtheanswersifyoutryhardenough.Youcanfindtheanswersyourselves.TheFrenchthemselvesareabusingtheirlanguage.TheFrenchareabusingtheirlanguagethemselves.Themagazineitselfisoflittlevalue.Themagazineisoflittlevalueitself.
7.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingintensivepronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Hecoulddolittle toeasetherecurrentpain.Mary foundthesituationhopelesslyludicrous.
1.We___________areresponsibleformostofourownactions.2.TheJonesfamily___________wasnotinvited.3.Ifhe___________understoodtheproblem,hewouldfindanacceptable
answer.4.Onemust___________bealerttopeople’sneeds.5.WhenI___________amtoblame,IdonothesitatetodowhatIcanto
helpout.6.Youcannotconsiderthatthetwoofyouhavecompletedtheexercise
___________.7.Oscar___________wasagoodhorsemaninmostrespects.8.You___________mustfindanacceptablesolution.9.Alicewasdeterminedtocompletethemeal___________.10.Hugh___________designedandbuiltthehouse.11.Weconcludedthatwe___________wereentirelyfreeofguilt.12.Television___________doeslittletoraisetheliteracylevelinthis
country.13.You___________willhavetoactasstrongleadersorrisklosingthe
election.14.Youwillhavetoshowhimtheway___________.15.Doyoumeanthatyou___________willdothisworkwithoutanyhelp?
ReciprocalPronouns
Thereciprocalpronounsareoneanotherandeachother.Oneanotherisgenerallyusedwhenwritingofmorethantwopeople.Bothreciprocalpronounshavepossessiveandobjectivecases.
Thefollowingsentencesillustrateusesofthesepronouns:
JohnandJerryfoundeachother’scompanysatisfying.Allthirtystudentssoughtoneanother’sassistance.Heandhiswifecaughtthemselvesshoutingateachother.He,hiswife,andtheirdaughtercaughtthemselvesshoutingatoneanother.Neighborsupanddowntheroadstoppedspeakingtooneanother.
8.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingreciprocalpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Thecouplehasonly toblameformismanagingtheirbudget.Ifthetriplets oneanotherlessfrequently,theywouldbehappier.
1.Theentirekitchenstaffoftwelvecookshelpedinslicingandbuttering___________bread.
2.Theyoungestchildandhisolderbrothersandsistersallmadethingsasdifficultaspossiblefor___________.
3.GilbertandSullivanhadanintensedislikefor___________duringmuchoftheircollaboration.
4.HeandMaryfound___________companyalmostunbearablebythetimetwoweeksofsummerhadpassed.
5.Wemustdofor___________whatwewouldliketohaveothersdoforus.
6.Theyfind___________housesmoreinterestingthantheirown.7.Childrentendtoprefer___________companytothatofmostadults.8.Thethreewivesdiscoveredthattherewasmuchtheylikedabout
___________.9.Musicandartcomplement___________inthelivesofmanypeople.
10.Alltheseniorfacultymembersagreedthattherewasnopracticalwaytheycouldconsult___________onallproblemsthathadtoberesolved.
IndefinitePronouns
Indefinitepronounsconstitutealargenumberofimprecisewordsthatcanfunctionaspronouns.Themostfrequentlyusedare:all,another,any,anybody,anyone,anything,both,eachone,either,everybody,everyone,everything,few,little,many,more,much,neither,nobody,none,noone,nothing,oneself,other,others,several,some,somebody,someone,something,andsuch.
Thefollowingsentencesillustratesomeusesofindefinitepronouns:
Allwecandoistryourbestandhopethingsturnoutallright.Thissweaterfitsanybodysixormorefeettall.Eachoneisreviewedinturnandgivenaproficiencyrating.Igavehimnothingforhislabors.Ifotherswereasconcernedashe,therewouldbenoproblem.Someonemustbeheldresponsibleforthisheinousdeed.Thecrowdwassuchthatthepolicefearedabreak-inatthegate.
9.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingindefinitepronounsasshownintheseexamples:
portrayedinthismannerusuallycansueforlibel.Wespoketo inturn.Thepolicesuspectedthat hadbeentakenbytheintruders.
1.When___________hadleft,Ibegancleaningtheauditorium.2.___________wasabletocompletethecrosswordpuzzle,becauseitwas
exceptionallydifficult.3.Thoughmanywantedtogoaboard,___________waspermittedtodo
so.4.Samsaidhewouldbuyher___________sheaskedforaslongasthe
presentwouldcostlessthanahundreddollars.5.___________wereindictedforperjury,butonlytwowereconvicted.
6.Thepartyisopento___________whowantstocontributetothecharity.
7.IgavehermostofwhatIhad,butsheinsistedonhaving___________.8.Unfortunately,thereis___________thatcanbedone.9.Investigatorsfinallydecidedthat___________hadbeentaken.10.WhenIgotthroughwithit,therewas___________left.11.___________whoworkslongenoughandhardenoughisboundto
succeed.12.Youcantellme___________youwant,butIprobablywillnotbelieve
you.13.___________wasdiscussed,butwasdone.14.Ihavedone___________Ican,andnow___________willhaveto
waitandhope.15.___________whoiscompletelysanecouldhavecommittedsucha
crime.16.Peterasked___________heknew,but___________gavehima
straightanswer.17.Theweatherwas___________thataturbulentflightwasinevitable.18.Onlya___________wereabletoqualifyfortheOlympicstrackevents
onthefirstday.19.Peoplealwaysneed___________toblametheirtroubleson.20.___________wasthrownintothewaterinturn.21.Thesmokebotheredalmost___________whowasthere.22.___________wereabletopasstheexamination,but___________did
exceptionallywell.23.Richardtold___________,notevenhiswife,abouttherobbery.24.Thebooksaresittingthere,waitingfor___________toreadthem.25.TamarawantedtobuythebrownshoesforSam,buthepreferredthe
___________.
PRONOUNAGREEMENT
PluralandSingularAntecedents
Apronounissingularwhenitsantecedentissingular,pluralwhenitsantecedentisplural.
antecedentisplural.
SingularandPluralAnywomanwhoisfriendlywithherneighborswillbewellregarded.(Thepronounwhoissingular,becauseitsantecedent,woman,issingular.)TheinterestingthingaboutJohnisthathealwayscompleteshisjokeswhetherornothehasanattentiveaudience.(Thepronounsheandhearesingular,becausetheircommonantecedent,John,issingular.)Allthreejudgesstatedthattheybelievedtheconvicthadbeenaccusedunjustly.(Thepronountheyisplural,becauseitsantecedent,judges,isplural.)Mentalhealthinstitutionscareforpatientsaswellastheycan.(Thepronountheyisplural,becauseitsantecedent,institutions,isplural.)
10.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Afilefoldermustbeputbackintheplacewherebelongs.Books arewidelyreadarefrequentlystolen.
1.TheMexicangovernmentreliesheavilyonthetourists___________canattractfromtherestofNorthAmerica.
2.Collegeprofessorsusuallysaythat___________believethequalityoftheirstudentsisimprovingyearbyyear.
3.Radioactivewastescanbeathreattothelivesoftheresidentsofatownif___________donottakestepstosafeguardtheirwatersupply.
4.AfterHazelandHarryhadfinishedtheirwork,___________wenttothemovies.
5.TheNewYorkYankees,___________flourishedduringtheeraofBabeRuth,havefound___________frequentlylongingforhisreturn.
6.___________ofthethreevirtuosoviolinistsisbestknownbyconcertgoers?
7.Afteranelectricalstormleavesanarea,___________eitherdissipatesorgoesontodoitsmischiefinanotherarea.
8.Englishteacherscontinuetomakethesamemistakesintheclassroom___________havealwaysmade.
9.GeneralMotors,___________ofthelargestenterprisesintheworld,isalwaysconsciousofthepublicimageitprojects.
10.Thepolicemansaidthat___________hadcaughtallthreeburglarsas___________wereleavingthestore.
11.ManyexpertsdenytheauthenticityofthatVermeer,claimingthat___________lacksthequalityoflight___________associatewiththemaster.
12.Although___________donotoftenadmittheirdebt,manyAmericanswouldbelostif___________couldnotturntotheirfreezersandmicrowaveovensahalfhourbeforestartingdinner.
13.Aman___________istruetohisownconsciencemayfind___________introublewiththeauthorities.
14.HowardCarter,___________studiedinEgyptin1922,discoveredthetombofTutankhamen,thefamousEgyptianking___________diedwhen___________wasonlyeighteen.
15.Myneighborisgoodattrainingherowntwohorses,butnot___________that___________boards.
16.Inthemiddleoftheexamination,Ibrokemypencilandwasnotallowedtosharpen___________.
17.RogerleftonatriptoPeruwithoutrememberingtocarrytheSpanishdictionary___________neededsobadly.
18.OfalltheplaysofShakespeare,KingLearistheoneIlikebest,althoughtheothertragediessurpass___________asfarasmywifeisconcerned.
19.___________ofDora’scatsisgentler,thebrownorthegray?20.Thisbook,___________Ifoundinasecondhandbookstore,isproving
valuable.21.GrahamGreeneismuchadmiredforhisearlynovels,butmanysaythat
___________likeallthework___________published.22.Fujiyamaisafamoustouristattraction,butmanytouristscomplainthat
onmostdays___________arenotabletosee___________.23.AnneFrankrecordedherdeepestfearsandhopesinadiary
___________keptduringthetragiceventsofWorldWarII,butneversaw___________published.
24.Afterfightingthefishforhours,thefishermanfoundthat___________couldnotbring___________in.
25.WhenJoeDiMaggiowasinhisprime,___________wastheheroofallyoungboys,___________dreamedofseeing___________playoneday.
AntecedentsJoinedbyAnd,Or,orNor
PluralApronounispluralwhenitsantecedentistwoormorewordsjoinedbyand.
RichardandJeffreyarecompletingundergraduatedegreestheyhopetoputtouse.Boysandgirlsarefindingthemselvesincreasinglydisenchantedwithschool.
SingularApronounissingularwhenitsantecedentistwoormoresingularwords
joinedbyorornor.
Idon’tknowwhetherJoanorEdnamadeherselfclearintheargument.NeitherSinclairLewisnorThomasWolfehasyetreceivedthefinalcriticaljudgmenthedeserves.
Whenasingularantecedentandapluralantecedentarejoinedbyorornor,thepronounagreesinnumberwiththeantecedentthatiscloser.
EitherBarbaraorthetwinswillhavetodowhattheycan.Neitherthesalesmennorthemanagerlearnedthathewasatfault.Neitherthemanagernorthesalesmenlearnedthattheywereatfault.
Ifuseofthisrulerisksambiguity,thesentencemustberecast.
11.Inthefollowingsentencessupplythemissingpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Amalesiblingandhissisterssometimesgothroughlifewithout
knowingwhat reallybelieve.Icannotunderstandwhythebrothersbelieve willworktogetherharmoniously.Ifahotelormotelopensitsdoorsnextyear, willbeoperatingprofitablywithintwoyears.
1.NeitherIdahonorMontanacanboastoftheseverewinterweather___________receives.
2.Themountainsandbeachesarecrowdedbytouristseveryyeareventhough___________arebecomingincreasinglyinaccessible.
3.Myparentsraisecowsandsheepeventhough___________arenotprofitable.
4.Wehavebeengivenourpaychecks,butneitherCarolenorSusanhasreceived___________yet.
5.Eitherthebrothersorthesisterwillhavetopayherdebtbeforethecreditmanagerwillgive___________additionalcredit.
6.Eitherthesisterorthebrotherswillhavetopaytheirdebtbeforethecreditmanagerwillgive___________additionalcredit.
7.Neithertheunionmembersnortheirleadersshowedanyinterestinaquicksettlementofthedisputebetween___________.
8.Eithertheunionpresidentorthememberswillhavetoshowinterestinaquicksettlementif___________aretohavelaborpeace.
9.Thelibrariansandthelibraryboardaremeetingtonighttoadoptthebudgetweoffered___________fornextyear.
10.NeitherTednorhisbrothersfound___________wereentirelyhappywhenthefamilyattorneyreadtheirfather’swillaloud.
CollectiveNouns
Ifanantecedentisacollectivenountreatedassingular,thepronounaffectedbyitissingular.
Thecommitteeismeetingnextweektoreachthedecisionitwants.Theboardoftrusteeshasdecidedtonameaschairpersonthecandidateitfirstmet.
Ifanantecedentisacollectivenountreatedasplural,thepronounisplural.
Ifanantecedentisacollectivenountreatedasplural,thepronounisplural.
Thecommitteearemeetingnextweektoreachthedecisiontheywant.Theboardoftrusteeshavedecidedtoreversethedecisiontheymade.
Collectivenounsmustbetreatedconsistentlywithinagivenunitofwriting.Theymustneverbetreatedasbothsingularandplural.
12.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Theboardofdirectorshasnotmetsince recessedinJanuary.
Theboardofdirectorshavebeeninconstantconsultation,because anticipateagrowingfiscalproblem.
1.Thedebatingteamishavingitsbestseasonsince___________wasorganized.
2.Thesteeringcommitteearemeetingtodeclarethat___________intendtostrike.
3.Noorganizationhasafutureifitsmembersarenotwillingtosupport___________.
4.Iwouldbewillingtobeamemberofagroupthatstandsupforthepositions___________believesin.
5.Thecontentsoftheboxarestampedonthetop,but___________canscarcelybereadwithoutamagnifyingglass.
6.Acrossthestreetliveacouplewhosoonwillannouncethat___________aregrandparents.
7.Adozenistoomuchforasmallmealandtoolittleforalargeone,but___________mightbejustrightforabedtimesnack.
8.Myoffspringaregoingtobepermittedtogotothetheaterby___________.
9.Thecompanyhassponsoredapicniceverysummersince___________startedinbusiness.
10.Ajuryusuallyisnotunanimousinitsjudgmentunlessoneattorneyor
theotherisextremelyskillfulinarguingbefore___________.
SingularPronounsasAntecedents
Asingularpronounisusedwithanyofthefollowingpronounsasantecedent:one,anyone,anybody,someone,somebody,everyone,everybody,each,kind,sort,either,neither,noone,nobody.
Everyonewhothinksrealisticallythatheorshecanwriteprofessionallyneedsanagent.(Everyoneistheantecedentofheorshe.)Eachoftheactorsintheauditionrecitedthelinesheknewbest.Therightsortofbookwillinevitablyfindamarketforitself.
13.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpronounsasshownintheexamples:
NeitherManuelnorJuanwaswillingtosaythatknewtheanswers.Anyonewhoworkshardwillreceivetherewarddeserves.
1.Iwouldliketolocatesomebody___________doeshousepainting.2.Somebodyhastodohis(her)workbetterthan___________hasbeen
doingit,orsomebodywillfind___________outofajob.3.Noonecandomorethan___________hasdonetohelppeopleless
fortunate.4.Herecommendedthesortofprogramthatusuallycommends
___________totheuninformedviewer.5.Anybodywhofinds___________inconflictwiththelawiswell
advisedtofind___________alawyer.6.MaryfoundForWhomtheBellTollsthesortofbookthatworksitsway
deepintotheconscienceofanysensitivepersonwhoreads___________.
7.Oneoftheeggswasstillstickingtothepan,asssertingthat___________hadarighttoremainuneaten.
8.Eitherofthegirlsconsiders___________fortunatewhenshehas
enoughtoeat.9.Studentswereaskedtosharetheirdormrooms,butnobodywantedtobe
thefirsttooffer___________.10.Awomanwhoasserts___________isthekindofwomanneededforan
executiveposition.11.Hefoundthateachofthedefectsbecameimmediatelyapparentonce
___________waspointedout.12.TheDeanofWomenclaimedthatnooneinthewomen’sdormitorywas
interestedinsteppingforwardtodeclare___________availableforaleadershipjob.
13.Neitheroftheorganizationsdesiredtoreviewtheentirespectrumofpolicies___________stoodfor.
14.Everybodyintheextendedcommunitywasgoingtoassert___________.
15.Oneofthefellowswasdeniedpermissiontocompletetheprojectby___________.
16.Anysortoffoodisacceptableaslongas___________ispalatable.17.Anyonewhowantstousemyrazorcandosoif___________iswilling
tocleanitafterwards.18.Eitherwasacceptable,providedthat___________metthefulltestof
credibility.19.Everybodywillbeallowedtojoinaslongas___________hasthe
initiationfee.20.Shedeclaredthatnoonehadestablishedfullclaimtoownership,
becausenoonehadfiledthepapers___________wasobligedtosupply.
PRONOUNSINTHESUBJECTIVECASEApronounusedasthesubjectofaverbisinthesubjectivecase.
Shewasoneofthebrightestpupilsintheschool.Iknowthatmostpeoplewanttomarry.Thepeoplewhowerewillingtowaitinlinefoundthattheywereabletopurchaseticketsatareducedrate.Theconcertthatheattendedwasrewarding.
14.Inthefollowingsentencessupplythemissingpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Bythetimetheirdinnerwasover, wereexhausted.
Ruthfoundthat shewasunabletocompleteherwork.
1.___________isthemostbeautifulflowerintheentiregreenhouse.2.___________amongyouiswillingtotakeoverthejobIamleaving?3.Itoldherthat___________wasthemosttalentedartistintheclass.4.Theroles___________playedmadeJohnBarrymoresoughtafterbyall
theatricalproducers.5.PabloCasalswasabletoperforminconcertevenwhen___________
wasinhisnineties.6.Ownersoflittledogsmustseetoitthat___________alwayshave
enoughtoeatanddrink.7.Persianmelonsarenotalwaysassucculentas___________appearto
be.8.TheTempestappealstomemoreandmoreeachtime___________see
it.9.Atelephonecompanyemployee___________helpscustomersintimes
ofemergencyiseligibleforaspecialaward.10.AUnitedStatesSenator___________ispresentonthefloorofthe
Senateduringdebateisasrareas___________isvaluabletothecommunity___________serves.
PRONOUNSINTHEOBJECTIVECASEApronounusedastheobjectorindirectobjectofaverbisintheobjective
case.
Veterinariansinspectthemeachyear.Lawyerscanbecountedontogiveuscompetentinterpretationsofthepenalcode.
15.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpronounsasshowninthese
examples:
Thefirmdismissed fornoapparentreason.Theoutfieldertossed theball,becausesheaskedforit.
1.AlthoughMrs.GilberttestifiedthatIhadmisledher,IinsistthatItold___________theentiretruthbeforeasking___________tosignmypetition.
2.Theboyto___________Igavethebookisnolongeramemberofthegroup.
3.___________shallweinvitetotheofficeparty?4.Theydecidedtogive___________trouble,becauseIwouldnotbea
partytotheirconniving.5.Televisioncandistract___________fromourlegitimatework.6.Goingtochambermusicrecitalsgave___________muchpleasurein
theiroldage.7.Wouldyoufinditwrongof___________tooffer___________my
handwhenyouareleavingabus?8.Hismotherslapped___________ashardasshecouldwhensherealized
thathehadtoldlies.9.___________mustwesendthelastfivecopiesto?10.Isthereanywaywecanfindofhelping___________anonymously
whensheneedshelp?
PronounsasObjectsofVerbalsApronounusedastheobjectorindirectobjectofaverbalisintheobjective
case.
Havingsurveyedit,thegeneraldecidedthattherivercouldnotbeforded.(itdirectobjectofpastparticiplehavingsurveyed.)Whilequestioningme,theaccountantfoundmanymorelegitimatetaxdeductions.(medirectobjectofpresentparticiplequestioning.)Togivehimallthecredithedeserves,Iwillgrantthathetriedhard.(himindirectobjectofinfinitivetogive.)
FightingherprovedmoredifficultthanIexpected.(herdirectobjectofgerundfighting.)
16.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpronounsasshownintheexamples:
Constantlyquizzing isnotgoingtomakeyourstudentshappier.Wewantedtodistract asmuchaspossible,soshewouldspendherlastdayscontentedly.
1.Thestaffinsiststhateverythingpossiblebedoneforstudentstogive___________theopportunitytheyneed.
2.Troublemakersarenotgoingtobechangedbyrestricting___________toafewareas.
3.Havinginvited___________,wemustdoallwecantotreatourguestswell.
4.Memorizingaroleisnotasdifficultasperforming___________.5.Aftercapturingenemysoldiers,wemusttreat___________humanely.6.Togive___________hisdue,Juanhasalwaysbeenfaithfultothe
people.7.Whilewehavebeenabletoidentifychildabuse,wearehaving
difficultyineradicating___________.8.Toprepareforexaminationsisonlyhalfthejob;wealsohavethe
responsibilitytopass___________.9.Elizabethfoundherselffacingallherproblemshonestly,butfailingin
hereffortstosolve___________.10.Herguesthadstayedsolatethatmysisterdecidedtoinvite
___________tohavesomebreakfast.
PronounsasObjectsofPrepositions
Apronounusedastheobjectofaprepositionisintheobjectivecase.
Wespoketoherasforcefullyaspossible.Thelibrarianpromptlygavethemanuscripttohim.Towhomdidyoudeliverthebouquet?
17.Inthefollowingsentencessupplythemissingpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
Susan’smotheroftenaskedfor.
Thecattrailedafter alldaylong,eventhoughItriedtogetawayfrom .
1.Anniedoesnotcareforamomentthatpeoplearetalkingabout___________.
2.Tryashardaswecan,wecannotchooseamong___________.3.Thesubjectwasclearlybeyond___________,soIdecidedtoendmy
presentation.4.AsDicklookedoutuponthecity,hefeltthatallhehadtodowasreach
outandgraspwhatlaybefore___________.5.Within___________wasbeautifulmusicwaitingtobereleasedbythe
youngcomposer.6.Hismotherprovedobdurate:hehadreceivedthelastdollarhewould
evergetfrom___________.7.By___________wasthisobsceneletterwritten?8.Inside___________stillwasthefearhehadknownforsolong.9.Among___________aretwoorthreeluckyindividualswhowillwin
substantialamounts;therestwillinsisttheirfeeshadbeentakenfrom___________withoutachanceofwinning.
10.AfterlearningthatRebeccahadpaidforthebook,wereturnedthemoneyto___________.
PRONOUNSINTHEPOSSESSIVECASEApronounindicatingpossessionisinthepossessivecase.
YoursisthelastoneIwillaccept.Jonmadefullrestitutionbecausethebookhedestroyedprovedtobemine.Whosewillyoubecarrying?
18.Inthefollowingsentencessupplythemissingpronounsasshownintheexamples:
Wefound thebestoftheentries.hadbeendamaged,butnot .
1.Ourbookhadbeenleftunopenedallthoseyears,so___________wasused.
2.Wetookeverythingtheymade,because___________weretheleastexpensiveandmostreliabletablesavailable.
3.Severalartistsenteredpaintingsinthecompetition.___________didyouchoose?
4.Harrytoldus___________wasbestbecausewehadcompletelythoughtthroughtheproblem.
5.Ellenphrased___________socarefullyandappropriatelythatminewastotallyignoredbyallthejudgesonthecommittee.
6.Allthingsconsidered,Amypreferstomarket___________becausesheadmirestheworkwedo.
7.JonandRoryenjoytheirnewhomemorethanwecanpossiblyenjoy___________.
8.Readingisvaluablefortheirchildrenaswellasfor___________.9.Ifyouwilldowithoutyours,Iwilldowithout___________.10.Whenthebigcontributorannounceshergenerousgift,wewillannounce
___________.
PRONOUNSASAPPOSITIVESApronounusedasanappositive—awordorphrasethatexplainsoridentifies
awordorphrasenearby—isinthesamecaseasthewordwithwhichitisinapposition.
Subjective
We,LindaandI,willunderwritethecostofSam’seducation.(IisinthesubjectivecasebecauseitisinappositionwithWe,thesubjectoftheverbwillunderwrite.)
Objective
Allthedamageincurredintheaccidentwascausedbyus,Mickeyandme.(Meisintheobjectivecasebecauseitisinappositionwithus,theobjectofapreposition.)
Possessive
Sheaskedwhosebicyclehadbeenbroken,Margaret’sormine.(Mineisinthepossessivecasebecauseitisinappositionwithwhose,whichisapossessiveadjective.)
19.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythemissingpronounsasshownintheseexamples:
We,Johnand ,candoallthework.Shefoundus,Caroleand ,inthemidstofpreparingdinnerforeightpeople.Iaskedhimwhoseclassmetfirst, ormine?
1.Thejudgewassterntobothofus,theclaimant’sattorneyand___________.
2.Bothofus,thedistrictattorneyand___________,werecalledbeforethejudge.
3.Idonotknowwhoseinterestsarebeingconsidered,butIbelieveweshouldtakecareofourown,yoursand___________,beforeweworryaboutastranger’s.
4.Theoldman’swillreferredtothetwoofthem,Robertand___________,as“goodsons___________andworthy.”
5.Thetwoofus,Jennyand___________,wereinvitedtothesameinauguralball.
6.Walshlikelywillinviteneitherofus,Emmanor___________.7.Webothhaveaninterestinthematter,andIwonderwhose
understandingisclosertothetruth,yoursor___________.8.Bothourfamilies,hisand___________,areuncomfortableatthe
thoughtofanotherdismalreunion.9.Lastyear’selectionfoundus,mywifeand___________,illpreparedto
votewithanydegreeofenthusiasm.10.Wecouldfindnovalidsolutionsforourjointproblems,sheinregardto
financialmattersand___________inregardtosocialrelationships.
CHAPTER5Adjectives
Adjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns:
Ahappymanfaceseachdayoptimistically.(Theadjectivehappymodifiesman,anoun.)Thefirstonetofinishreceivesaprize.(Theadjectivefirstmodifiesone,apronoun.)
Adjectivesmayalsobeusedtocompleteacopulativeverb:
Aliceissad,becausehersonpaysherlittleattention.(Theadjectivesadcompletesthecopulativeverbis.Suchanadjectiveiscalledapredicateadjective.)
1.Underlinetheadjectivesinthefollowingsentencesasshownintheseexamples:
leavesare signofspring.menfeel whentheyachievesuccess.
1.Tenapplesareenoughfortwolargepies.
2.Oakenbucketswereusedbyearlysettlers.
3.TheonlyoneIsawwasalittlechild.
4.Hardcheesecanbeeatenwithgreatdelight.
5.Anorangejacketisadvisableonaskislope.
TYPESOFADJECTIVESTherearethreetypesofadjectives:descriptive,limiting,andproper.Descriptiveadjectivesnameaqualityorconditionoftheelementmodified:a
perfectmarriage,areddress,anhonestattorney,runningwater,abrokenaxle.Limitingadjectivesidentifyorenumeratetheelementmodified:thattable,
presentcompany,manyillnesses,hislove,sevendays,fifthstanza.Properadjectivesaredescriptiveadjectivesthatarederivedfromproper
names:Indiancustoms,Frenchperfume,Austriancuisine,Chinesecheckers,Africanviolets.
2.Inthefollowingsentences,classifytheadjectivesasdescriptive,limiting,orproperasshownintheseexamples:
ThelecturerspenthistimeonFrenchculture,nothistory.
Beautifulvolumeshaveappearedinthatseries.
1.Improperaccountingalmostruinedhercateringbusiness.
2.Carefulanalysisuncoveredseveralflawsinhisexperimentaldata.
3.Mexicanfoodisnotfavoredbyhisparents.
4.PoorWillylosthisIrishsetter.
5.Onedishdoesnotaperfectmealmake.
LimitingAdjectives
Limitingadjectivesareclassifiedaccordingtotheirfunctionsasdemonstrative,indefinite,interrogative,numerical,possessive,orrelative.
Ademonstrativeadjectiveindicatesorspecifiesthenounorpronounitmodifies:thisone,thatone,thesemen,thosewomen.
Anindefiniteadjectiveindicatesmorebroadlythenounorpronounitmodifies:allpeople,anyperson,eachone,mostpeople,manypennies,nobook,somesupport,severalothers.Therearemanyotherindefiniteadjectives.
Aninterrogativeadjectiveasksaquestionasitmodifiesanounorpronoun:Whosehatismissing?Whattimeisit?Whichonewillyoutake?
Anumericaladjectivespecifiesanumberasitmodifiesanounorpronoun.
Numericaladjectivesmaybeeithercardinalorordinal.Cardinal:sixrobins,twenty-fourounces.Ordinal:thirdhorse,firstviolin,thirty-sixthPresidentoftheUnitedStates.
Apossessiveadjectivedenotesownershipasitmodifiesanounorpronoun:mymistake,one’stennisserve,hiselbow,herprerogative,itsaroma,ourcompany,theirpride.
Arelativeadjectiveintroducesasubordinateclausethatmodifiesanounorpronoun.Whoseistheonlyrelativeadjective.Itsfunctionisillustratedinthefollowingsentence:
Theladwhosemotherdiedhasleftschool.(Thesubordinataeclausewhosemotherdiedmodifieslad.Theclauseisintroducedbytherelativeadjectivewhose,whichispartofthemodifier.)
3.Inthefollowingsentences,identifytheitalicizedlimitingadjectivesasdemonstrative,indefinite,interrogative,numerical,possessive,orrelativeasshownintheseexamples:
Whichsideareyouon?
Myfirstbadmistakewasfollowedbymanyothers.
1.Hisignorancewasmatchedbyhisstupidity.
2.Elevenplayersareneededifwearetohaveagoodgame.
3.Sheaskedadviceofhermotherbeforecookingbreakfastforhersisters.
4.Thatshirtgoeswellwithbothmysuits.
5.Whatnonsenseareyoutellingme?
6.Policeofficerswhoseonlydutiesareclericalreceivethesamepaythatallpatrolofficersreceive.
7.Eachsentencehespokerevealedhisdisappointment.
8.Nodecentpersonwouldeverholdsuchopinions.
9.Parentswhosechildrenplaybaseballhavebeenknowntocarryonlikemaniacs.
10.Theirturnisnextintheexaminingroom.
11.Hisshoelaceswereuntiedonceagain.
12.Whichchanneldidshewastehertimeonlastnight?
13.Thefirstpointtorememberisthatherroleisworthyofrecognition.
14.Thatboywillbetheonlyoneinyourclass.
15.Anystudentwhousesmaterialwithoutproperattributionisguiltyofplagiarism.
PredicateAdjectives
Predicateadjectivescompletecopulative,orlinking,verbs:act,be,become,feel,prove,seem,etc.
Copulativeverbsarealsocompletedbypredicatenouns.Together,predicateadjectivesandpredicatenounsarereferredtoaspredicatecomplements.(Seepage22.)
Thefollowingsentencesillustratebothtypesofpredicatecomplements:
SheactssickwheneverMondayarrives.(Thecopulativeverbactshasasitscomplementsick;sickisanadjective,sosickisapredicateadjective.)Anneisaradiologist.(Becauseradiologistisanoun,radiologistisapredicatenoun.)Harryishappy.(Becausehappyisanadjective,happyisapredicateadjective.)
4.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethepredicateadjectivesasshownintheseexamples:
Hewillacthappierastimegoesby.Dickbecameaneditor.(none)
Dickbecameaneditor.(none)
1.Thisprintlooksfinetome.
2.Jane’sstorywasexcellent.
3.Henry’sfirstnovelwasexciting.
4.Shefeltbad.
5.Ifeelbetterthismorning.
6.Herhairappearedradiant.
7.Bob’snosehasbecomelarger.
8.ThisisthebestnovelIown.
9.Jennyappearsdisconsolate.10.PogoactssadwhenRayleavesforwork.
POSITIONOFADJECTIVESExceptforpredicateadjectives,adjectivesareusuallyplacednexttothe
nounsorpronounstheymodify,andthemostcommonpositionofallisimmediatelybeforetheelementmodified:
beautifulshoes,happychild,oldwoman(descriptiveadjectives)thisbook,manypoems,sixmonths(limitingadjectives)Greekgrammar,Italiancooking,Russianmusic(properadjectives)
Insomeconstructions,adjectivescanalsobeplacedimmediatelyaftertheelementmodified:
apoemshortandbeautiful(Thewriterhaschosenthisconstructionforitspleasingrhythm.)attorneygeneral,court-martial(ThesetermswereexpressedthiswayinFrenchandareacceptedasEnglishexpressions.)atalesosadthatallwhohearditcried(Becausetheadjectivesad
isitselfmodifiedbytheclausethatfollows,itsnormalpositionischanged.)
Exceptinrareconstructions,predicateadjectivesfollowtheverbstheycomplete:
Jacklookeddoubtful.Barbaraseemedangry.Johnfelthopeless.InnocentwastheChild.(Thistypeofconstructionisreservedforspecialstylisticeffect.)
5.Insertadjectivesinappropriatepositionsinthefollowingsentencesasshownintheseexamples:
COMPARISONOFADJECTIVESAdjectiveshavethreecomparativeforms:absolute,comparative,and
superlativetoindicategreaterorlesserdegreesofthequalitydescribed:
Thecomparativeformofthegreatmajorityofadjectivescanbeachievedintwoways:byadding-ertotheabsoluteorbyaddingtheadverbmore.Similarly,thesuperlativecanbeachievedintwoways:byadding-esttotheabsoluteorbyaddingtheadverbmost.Someadjectiveschangeformsradicallytoexpresscomparison:good,better,best;bad,worse,worst.
Thecomparativeformisusedwhendiscussingtwoitemsorindividuals,thesuperlativeformwhendiscussingthreeormore:
Ofthetwosisters,Nolaisthemoreintelligent.Ofthefiftystates,Vermontisthemostbeautiful.Sheisabetterstudentthanherbrother.ShewasthebeststudentIhadeverknown.
Thecomparativeisalsousedwhencomparingasingleitemorindividualwithaclassofitemsorindividuals:
Shewasabetterswimmerthananyofthemeninherschool.Thatmountainistallerbyfarthananyofthemountainsinourstate.
6.Supplythepropercomparativeorsuperlativeformsoftheadjectivesinthefollowingsentences,asshownintheseexamples:
Dorothywasa(good)cookthanhersister.Julianwasthe(good)copywriterinNewYorkCity.
1.Broccoliusuallytastes(good)whencookedinoilthaninbutter.___________
2.Ibelievemysocialsecuritycheckswillbe(small)thanyours.___________
3.The(young)studentintheclassmaynotalwaysbethemostprecocious.___________
4.Ifoundhisstyle(suitable)tofictionthantojournalism.___________
5.Hawaiiformerlyhadthe(broad)ethnicmixtureofanystate.___________
6.Richardfindshisnewassistant(competent)thanheexpected.___________
7.Afinepaintingisworthmoreaestheticallythanthe(good)photographmoneycanbuy.___________
8.OfallthepaintingsbyRenoirintheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,the(good)oneispracticallyignoredbythepublic.___________
9.IbelievethecoastlineofCaliforniais(long)thanthatofanyotherstateinthecountry.___________
10.IbelieveCaliforniahasthe(long)coastlineinthecountry.___________
ADJECTIVEPHRASES
Anadjectivephraseisaphraseusedtomodifynounsorpronouns.Adjectivephrasesareformedbycombiningaprepositionwithanounorpronounanditsmodifiers:
Thechairinthelivingroomneedstoberepaired.(Thephraseinthelivingroommodifiesthenounchair.Theprepositioninhasroomasitsobject.Roomismodifiedbytheliving.)Theoneintherearismychoice.(intherearmodifiesthepronounone.)
Themostcommonprepositionsareat,between,by,for,from,in,of,on,through,to,andwith.
Adjectivephrasesmustbekeptnearthewordorwordstheymodifyinordertoachieveclarity.Theyusuallyareplacedimmediatelyafterthewordstheymodify.
7.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheadjectivephrasesasshownintheseexamples:
Thegirl ismydaughter.Thelight isdim.
1.Communicationbetweenyouandmeisnolongersatisfactory.
2.Assistanceforindigentpersonsisasocialobligation.
3.Hatsarenotwornasoftenasmillinerswithfailingbusinesseswouldlike.
4.Theapplicantswithlittlehopearecomplainingloudly.
5.Thosewithsubstantialfortunesarehappiestaboutthestockmarket.
6.Gardensbetweenhousesarewelltendedinmytown.
7.ThebestoftheImpressionistpaintingshaveneverbeenshownintheUnitedStates.
8.Theviewthroughmywindowisaslivelyasever.
9.ThetelephonelinestoEuropeareseldomout.10.Hefoundthatthelesiononhisrightlungwashealingrapidly.
ADJECTIVECLAUSESAnadjectiveclauseisaclauseusedtomodifynounsorpronouns.Likeall
clauses,adjectiveclausesusuallyconsistofsubject,verb,modifiers,andobjectifappropriate.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Everychangethatismadebetweennowandopeningnightwillcausedifficultyfortheactors.(Theadjectiveclausethatismadebetweennowandopeningnightmodifiesthenounchange.)Anyonewhoinsistsongettinghisduemustbepersistent.(Theadjectiveclausewhoinsistsongettinghisduemodifiesthepronounanyone.)
Adjectiveclausesareoftenintroducedbyrelativepronouns—that,which,who,etc.—asshownintheprecedingexamples.Manytimestherelativepronounsareomitted:
ThewomanIhavesharedmylifewithalltheseyearsisstandingbesidemenow.Gardenshehastendedhaveneverwonhorticulturalprizes.
Adjectiveclausesmustbekeptclosetothewordorwordstheymodifyinordertoachieveclarity.Theyusuallyareplacedimmediatelyafterthewordstheymodify.
8.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheadjectiveclausesasshownintheseexamples:
Theevidence wasenoughtoincriminatethem.Instructors mustpreparetheirlecturescarefully.
1.Theyfoundthepapersthathadbeenmissingformanyyears.
2.Theseanimals,whichareindigenoustoAfrica,willnotsurviveincoldclimates.
3.Engineers,whoareskillfulininterpretingscientificdata,arenotusuallycapableofconductingoriginalresearch.
4.Childrenwhofindtheirimmediatedesiresblockedmayreactbythrowingtempertantrums.
5.Winesofqualitythathavebeenstoredproperlywillretaintheirbouquetforyears.
6.BooksIhavetreasuredsincechildhoodstillintriguemetoday.
7.Hefoundawoundedanimalthathadmanagedtosurvivewithoutcare.
8.Themealheplanstocooktodaywillberichinflavor.
9.Thetreeshefelledwithherlittlehatchetissurprisinglylarge.10.Anyonewhohasfoundhimselfunabletofindajobwillsympathize
withthosewhoarehabituallyunemployed.
RestrictiveandNonrestrictiveAdjectiveClauses
Arestrictiveadjectiveclauseisonethatisessentialindefiningorlimitinganounorpronoun:
ThegirlIadmiremostisonewhostandsupforherrights.(Iadmiremostidentifiesgirl,limitingthegeneralnoungirltooneparticulargirl.)
Anonrestrictiveadjectiveclauseisonethatisnotessentialindefiningorlimitinganounorpronoun:
Thisone,whichIhavenurturedformanyyears,isnotaparticularlyattractiveshrub.(ThepronounoneismodifiedbywhichIhavenurturedformanyyears,butthemodifierdoesnotidentifyoneinawaythatmakesonedistinctive.ThemodifierthatdoesmakeonedistinctiveisThis.ThenonrestrictivemodifierwhichIhavenurturedformanyyearsgivesususeful,butnotessential,information.)
Nonrestrictivemodifiersaresetoffbypunctuation,whilerestrictivemodifiersarenot.Considerthefollowingsentences:
ThewordprocessorIboughtoftenbreaksdown.(TherestrictivemodifierIboughtisnotsetoffbycommasandcannotbeomittedfromthesentencewithoutchangingitsmeaninginacriticalway.Iboughtisneededtoidentifythewordprocessor.)Mywordprocessor,whichIpaid$1500foryearsago,isstillworkingwell.(ThemodifyingclausewhichIpaid$1500foryearsagoisnonrestrictive.Itcanbeomittedwithoutchangingmeaning.)
9.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoretheadjectiveclauses,identifythemasrestrictiveornonrestrictive,andsupplyanypunctuationneeded,asshownintheseexamples:
Igavethemoneytotheonewhoneededitmost.Appletrees,whicharebothbeautifulandproductive,donotliveforever.
1.HelearnedlittlefromtheresearchpapershewroteinhisEnglishcourses.___________
2.ShipsofPanamanianregistrythatwereactiveintheperiodbetweenthe
twoworldwarsarestillseentoday.___________
3.Curriesthathavebeenleftunrefrigeratedlosetheirattractivetasterapidly.___________
4.Petsthathaveservedtheirmasterswellareoftenallowedtodieinpain.___________
5.Shehasasmilethatconveysgratitudebutlittlewarmth.___________
6.ThebookIconsultmostoftenisthedictionary.___________
7.African-Americanswhohavemademanyimportantculturalcontributionstoourcountryareoftenreviledbytheignorant.___________
8.Swisscheesewhichhasadistinctivetextureandappearanceissoldthroughouttheworld.___________
9.MoremaplesyrupisprocessedinNewYorkStatethaninVermontwhichcallsitselftheworldleaderinmaplesyrupproduction.___________
10.Themultinationalcorporationwhichisarelativelynewphenomenonhasbecomeapowerfulforceininternationalpoliticsaswellaseconomics.___________
ThatandWhichwithAdjectiveClauses
Itiscustomarytousethattointroducerestrictiveadjectiveclauses;whichtointroducenonrestrictiveadjectiveclauses.Whentherelativepronouncanbeomittedbeforeanadjectiveclause,theclauseisrestrictive.Considerthefollowingsentences:
ThebookthatIboughtyesterdayhasbeenstolen.(TheadjectiveclausethatIboughtyesterdayisrestrictive,sinceitcannotbeomittedwithoutmakingbookunidentifiable.Asarestrictiveclause,itisintroducedbythat.Nocommasareusedtosetofftheclause.Becausetheclauseisrestrictive,therelativepronounthatcanbeomitted:ThebookIboughtyesterdayhasbeenstolen.)Cabell’sfirstbook,whichwasoneofmyfavorites,isnolongerin
print.(Theadjectiveclausewhichwasoneofmyfavoritesisnonrestrictive.Forthisreasonitisintroducedbywhichandissetoffbycommas.Therelativepronounwhichcannotbeomitted.)
10.Insertthatorwhichinthefollowingsentencesandsupplyneededpunctuation,asshownintheseexamples:
Clothingthatwebuywithourownmoneyfitswell.Thiscoat,whichIboughtinapawnshop,fitsbetterthanIexpected.
1.ThepipeIleftbehindwasoneofthebestIeverowned.
2.MylastdollarIwantedtospendonfoodwassupposedtokeepmealiveuntilpayday.
3.TwoquartsofmilkcostmuchlessthanapoundofmeathavemorefoodvalueasfarasIamconcerned.
4.Yesterday’snewspaperwasleftonmydoorstepbelongstomyneighbor.
5.Themessagethefieryministerconveysisnottobeignored.
NOUNSUSEDASADJECTIVESNounsoftenfunctionasadjectives:theCarteryears,theNixonWhiteHouse,
theClintonadministration,thebarbershop,thetailorshop,thetoystore,thestationerystore,collegelife,organizationman,streetsmarts.
11.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethenounsusedasadjectivesasshownintheseexamples:
Suchawomanwasonceknownasagrasswidow.Givemethebachelorlife.
1.Thesenatorcoulddowithalittlebooklearning.
2.Farmercheeseishardtofindinsupermarkets.
3.Afterheleftthepoliceforce,hebecameastoredetective.
4.Phonographrecordsarenolongersoldinmostmusicstores.
5.Progressivefurnituremanufacturersemployindustrialdesigners.
AdjectivesUsedasNouns
Justasnounscanbeusedasadjectives,manyadjectivescanbeusedasnouns:thehighandmighty,TheBestandtheBrightest,TheNakedandtheDead,TheJustandtheUnjust,therich,thepoor,thedestitute.
12.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheadjectivesusedasnouns,asshownintheseexamples:
Thelameandthehaltgatheredbeforeher.Hewasexpertintreatingtheoldaswellastheyoung.
1.Theproudwillonedayhavetolearnhumility.
2.Ourcountryhasalwaysbeenknownforitssympathyforthepoor.
3.Theraceisnotalwaystotheswift.
4.Thewealthyareturnedawayalongwiththeindigent.
5.Whoisthereamonguswhodoesnotrespectthelearned?
PARTICIPLESASADJECTIVESPresentandpastparticiplesareoftenusedasadjectives:usedcars,growing
pains,worntires,leaningtower.Likeotheradjectives,presentandpastparticiplesmaythemselvesbemodifiedbyadverbsandprepositionalphrases.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Watchingcarefully,hesaweverythingthemendid.(Thepresentparticiplewatchingmodifiesthepronounheandisitselfmodifiedbytheadverbcarefully.)Thebrisket,barbecuingslowly,gaveofftantalizingaromas.(Thepresentparticiplebarbecuingmodifiesthenounbrisketandisitselfmodifiedbytheadverbslowly.)MarilynMonroe,adoredbymany,diedprematurely.(Thepast
participleadoredmodifiesMarilynMonroeandisitselfmodifiedbytheprepositonalphrasebymany.)
Participlesusedasadjectivesmayalsotakeanobject.
Watchinghercarefully,hequicklylearnedthesecretofthetennisbackhand.(Theparticiplewatchingmodifiesheandhasasitsobjecther.Itisalsomodified,ofcourse,bycarefully.)Thedetective,alertlypursuingeveryclue,finallydecidedthatthebutlerhadnotcommittedthecrime.(Theparticiplepursuingmodifiesdetectiveandhasasitsobjectclue.Theparticiplepursuingismodifiedbytheadverbalertly.)
13.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheparticiplesusedasadjectives,asshownintheseexamples:
Runningwaterisoftenfitfordrinkingbyanimals,butnotbyhumanbeings.Changingquicklytohisofficialuniform,thepoliceofficerbegantopursuethesuspect.
1.Somecitiesactuallydefaultedontheirbonds,soldassafeinvestments.
2.Undeterredbytheteacher’swarnings,theclasscontinuedtodelayworkonthefinalproject.
3.Strugglingagainsttheundertow,Alicemanagedtoreachshore.
4.Sprinkledlightlyonasalad,rosemarycanbringouttheflavorofthemostcommongardenlettuce.
5.Policeofficers,victimizedbycrimethemselves,oftenharborfearandhostilitytowardordinarycitizens.
6.Manyofmybooks,unopenedonmylibraryshelves,oughttobegiventohospitalsortotheSalvationArmy.
7.Shefinallyabandonedtheproject,findingitdullandunrewarding.
8.Harassedanddispirited,Lucydecidedtogiveuptheoboe.
9.Gaspingforbreath,themarathonrunnerscompletedthelongrace.10.Onceachieved,acollegeeducationcanberegardedwithsomeaffection.
DanglingParticiples
Whenaparticiplefunctionsasanadjective,caremustbetakentomakesurethereadercaneasilyidentifythenounorpronountheparticiplemodifies.Whenthereaderisleftuncertainofwhatisbeingmodified,thewriter’smistakeisreferredtoasadanglingparticiple.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Dangling
Cookedrare,Icouldnotchewthesteak.(ObviouslyIwasnotcookedrare.Thesteakwas.ButrareistooclosetoI.)
CorrectIcouldnotchewthesteakbecauseitwascookedrare.
DanglingWhilewatchingclosely,myleatherhandbagwasstolen.(Obviouslymyhandbagwasnotwatchinganything.Whowaswatching?Iwaswatching.ButIisnotinthesentence.)
CorrectWhileIwaswatchingclosely,myleatherhandbagwasstolen.
DanglingStrollingblissfullydownthegardenpath,Isawascorpion.(Whowasstrolling?AssumingthatIwas,thesentencecanberecastoneway.Assumingthatthescorpionwas,thesentencecanberecastanotherway.)
CorrectWhileIwasstrollingblissfullydownthegardenpath,Isawascorpion.Whilewalkingtoday,Isawascorpionblissfullystrollingdownthegardenpath.
Danglingparticiplesarecorrected,therefore,by(1)rearrangingthesentence
Danglingparticiplesarecorrected,therefore,by(1)rearrangingthesentencetobringtheparticipleclosertothenounsorpronounsbeingmodified,(2)insertingthemissingwordstobemodified,or(3)rewritingthesentencecompletely.
14.Wherenecessary,correctthefollowingsentencesasshownintheseexamples:
Whilethinkingoftheapproachingexaminations,myclasscametoanabruptend.
Completelytakenbysurprise,sheofferednoresistancetothemugger.
1.Runningashardaspossible,mybreathwashardtocatch.
2.Consideringhertheleastlikelycandidatefortheoffice,Iignoredhercompletely.
3.Afterhavingwalkedincirclesforthreehours,thewaywaslost.
4.Beingstudiousatthatcollege,thelibrarywasheavilyused.
5.Oncecooked,Icanenjoyafineroast.
6.AfterIhavedinedwell,Iamquitecontenttositdreamingattheopera.
7.Consideringeverythinghehasdonefortheparty,hisdefeatwasacompletesurprise.
8.Stuckintrafficforhours,afeelingofdespairisnosurprise.
9.Whilesittingquietlybeforeawoodfire,thenoisychildrenareanuisancetoyoungandold.
10.Uponmeetingoldfriends,one’snaturalresponseispleasure.
INFINITIVESASADJECTIVES
Infinitivesoftenfunctionasadjectives.
Infinitivesoftenfunctionasadjectives.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Shehasthemosttogainofanyoneonthestaff.(Theinfinitivetogainmodifiesmost.)Thewaytoproceedhasnotbeendetermined.(Theinfinitivetoproceedmodifiesway.)Herurgetopraywasoverwhelming.(Theinfinitivetopraymodifiesurge.)
Infinitivephrases—infinitivestogetherwiththeirmodifiersandobjectsorcomplements—mayalsofunctionasadjectives:
Thegeneralorderedhisarmyintoactiontodefeattherebelforce.(Theinfinitivephrasetodefeattherebelforcemodifiesaction.)SamuelBridgehadcutlerytocarveeverytypeofroast.(Theinfinitivephrasetocarveeverytypeofroastmodifiescutlery.)Forhisbirthday,hewasgivenadevicetouseinopeningclams.(Theinfinitivephrasetouseinopeningclamsmodifiesdevice.)
15.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoretheinfinitivesandtheinfinitivephrasesusedasadjectivesandidentifytheelementstheymodify,asshownintheseexamples:
Weallhaveourownlivestolead.Shewantedpermissiontoarresttheoffendingmotorist.
1.Thefulljurywillsurelyreconsideritsvotetoacquit.___________2.Wellpreparedfoodtosuitthehappyoccasionwasservedalldaylong.
___________3.Fortunatecatshaveownerstofeedthem.___________4.Hisworkconsistedsolelyofmusictodanceto.___________5.Judyhopedtofindagoodbiographytoread.___________6.Shealwayshadasmartjoketomeeteverysituation.___________7.Thecorrecttooltouseforthisjobisarubbermallet.___________8.TheministergaveherparishionerspermissiontomissSundayservices.
___________
9.Eileenpredictablysaidshehadnoclothestowear.___________10.Thefirstreportertocoverthestorywillgetabyline.___________
CHAPTER6Adverbs
Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.
Shewalkedquickly.(Theadverbquicklymodifiestheverbwalked.)Theysnoredmelodically.(Theadverbmelodicallymodifiestheverbsnored.)Theywerereallyunhappy.(Theadverbreallymodifiestheadjectiveunhappy.)Mydaughtersarecompletelyfearless.(Theadverbcompletelymodifiestheadjectivefearless.)Heplaystennisverywell.(Theadverbverymodifiestheadverbwell.)Childrenarealmostalwayshungry.(Theadverbalmostmodifiesalways,whichisanadverbthatmodifiestheadjectivehungry.)
Adverbsalsocanmodifyentireclauses:Perhapsyouarewrong,butIwilllistentoyourclaims.(TheadverbPerhapsmodifiestheclauseyouarewrong.)Surelythetrainwillbeontime,butIhopenot.(Surelymodifiesthetrainwillbeontime.)
Adverbsalsocanmodifyalltherestofasentence:
Perhapsyoupickedupthewronghat.Surelythetrainwillsoonbereadyforservice.
1.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoretheadverbsandidentifytheelementsofthesentencestheymodifyasshownintheseexamples.Notethattherecanbemorethanoneadverbinasentence.
Theyplaytheirinstrumentslovingly.
Certainlywewillcometodinner.Ithoughtshewasextremelycareful.Shewascompletelyexhaustedandthoroughlywet.
1.Shebegantoweepquietlywhenthepoliceofficercametothedoor.______________
2.Shewascompletelyhonestinherworkandinherdealingswitheveryone.______________
3.Ideally,thedoctorwillhavecompletedherexamination.______________
4.Partiallyclosedearsareusuallyineffectiveagainstquietlyspokengossip.______________
5.Althoughtheypracticediligently,theyneversatisfytheirteacher.______________
6.Hesatpatientlythroughthespectaclebutfinallywithdrew.______________
7.Hazelworksquitecarefullyonherhomework.______________8.Subsequently,wediscussedthebillwiththemanager.______________9.Thedistrictattorneyopenlyrebukedthewitnessforwhatwasafairly
obviousexaggeration.______________10.Younevercanworktoocarefully.__________________
RECOGNIZINGADVERBS
AdverbsEndingin-ly
Theeasiestadverbstorecognizearethosethatendin-ly.Theonlypitfalltoavoidisconfusing-lyadverbswith-lyadjectives.Rememberthatadjectivesmodifyonlynounsandpronouns.Adverbsmodifyeverythingelse.
Thefollowingwordsaresomeoftheadjectivesthatendin-ly:comely,costly,early,lively,lovely,surly.Seehowtheyareusedinthesesentences:
Acomelyappearanceisalwaysadmired.Costlyjewelryisbeyondthereachofmoststudents.Theearlybirdcatchestheworm.
Thefiddlerplayedalivelytune.Thelovelysunsetprovidedafittingclimaxtoourday.Thetrainerwasasurlyone,allright.
Inthefirstfivesentences,theitalicizedadjectivesmodifynouns:appearance,jewelry,bird,tune,sunset.Thelastitalicizedadjective,surly,modifiesone,apronoun.
Adverbsthatendin-lyareformedbyadding-lytoanadjective,apresentparticiple,orapastparticiple.
Whenanadjectiveendsin-ableor-ible,theadverbisformedbychangingthefinaletoy:peaceable,peaceably;horrible,horribly;terrible,terribly.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Heregardedherhatefully.Surelytheywillreconciletheirdifferences.Rosewillfinallyreceiveherpermanentappointment.Theywereterriblymangledintheaccident.
Alltheitalicizedwordsinthesesentencesperformadverbialfunctions.Surely
modifiestheentiresentenceitappearsin.Theothersmodifytheverbsintheirsentences.Theymustnotbeconfusedwithadjectives.
2.Inthefollowingsentences,classifytheitalicizedwordsendingin-lyasadjectivesoradverbsasshownintheseexamples:
ThelivelymelodywastypicalofSchubert.Afriendlygestureisalwayswelcome.Heregardedtheworldhostilely.Sheclosedherprogramfittinglybysingingthenationalanthem.
1.Disorderlyconductisavaguechargethatcoversmanytypesofactions._____________
2.Themanagerclosedhisfirstyearsuccessfully.______________3.Theywentalongunwillinglytoschool.______________4.Hewasslightlyupsetbytheincident.______________5.Mostmotherslooklovinglyattheirnewinfants.______________6.Alovelydessertisafittingendtoagoodmeal.______________7.Mysisterinferredcorrectlythatshewasnolongerwanted.
______________8.Helookedabouthimcalmlyandproclaimedhisinnocence.
______________9.Toeveryone’ssurprise,theexpertcopyeditormadeacostlyerror.
______________10.Hewillassuredlyfindsomethingtopraiseinmywork.
______________11.Thecatwillfinditsfoodeventually.______________12.Homelyvirtuesaredisappearingfromcitylife.______________13.Headdedparentheticallythathewaspleasedwiththeoveralloutcome.
______________14.Thedeclineinqualitywasconsiderablygreaterthanwewouldhave
liked.______________15.Onecouldquestionwhetherthestatementwasfavorablyreceived.
______________
RecognizingAdverbsbyTheirFunctions
Adverbsanswerthefollowingquestions:how?howmuch?when?where?why?trueorfalse?Wethuscanclassifyadverbsasadverbsofmanner,degree,time,place,causeorpurpose,orassertion.
Adverbsofmanneranswerthequestionhow?Heworkscarefully.Ruthcookswell.
Adverbsofdegreeanswerthequestionhowmuch?Youareinadequatelypreparedforgraduatestudies.Hehascompletelyexhaustedhisinheritance.
Adverbsoftimeanswerthequestionwhen?Theyarrivelateformostappointments.Shehasnotplayedtennisrecently.
Adverbsofplaceanswerthequestionwhere?Hewalkeddownstairs.Theywentsouthforthewinter.
Adverbsofcauseorpurposeanswerthequestionwhy?Iwillthereforequittheteam.Shewillconsequentlybedismissed.
Adverbsofassertionanswerthequestiontrueorfalse?Shewillsurelybehiredforthejob.Sheisnotacceptableinmyhome.
3.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinealladverbsandidentifytheirfunctions—manner,degree,time,place,causeorpurpose,assertion—asshownintheseexamples:
Icannotforgiveyoucompletely.LatelyIhavehadmanycolds.Shecertainlyisourbestspeaker.
1.Teacherssometimesmakemistakesinscoringquizzes.___________2.Imaypossiblyjointhetwoofyou.___________3.Healmostlosthistemper.___________4.Hefellawkwardlytothekitchenfloorandfainted.___________
5.Mennevermakepassesatgirlswhowearglasses.___________6.Helivedfrugallyduringbadtimes.___________7.Finallyourtrainarrived,twohoursbehindschedule.___________8.Haveyouevergonethere?___________9.HehasbeenpaidlessthanIfromhisfirstdayonthejob.___________10.Thebusyoumusttakeleavessoon.___________11.Yes,Iwillgotosleep.___________12.Youwillundoubtedlybereprimanded.___________13.Iamguardedlyoptimistic.___________14.Youmustmovequicklyifyouaretosucceed.___________15.Gowest,youngman.___________
DISTINGUISHINGADVERBSFROMADJECTIVESManywordsinEnglishfunctionbothasadjectivesandasadverbs.Thesurest
waytotellwhetheraparticularwordisanadjectiveoranadverbinagivensentenceistodeterminewhatitsfunctionisinthesentence.Forthisyoumustgobacktothefundamentaldistinctionbetweenanadjectiveandanadverb:adjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns;adverbsmodifyeverythingelse.
Thefollowinglistsuppliessomeofthewordsthatareusedbothasadjectivesandadverbs:
Manyofthesewordsalsohaveformsendingin-ly:badly,brightly,cheaply,deeply,etc.The-lyformsarepreferredinformalEnglishbysomegrammariansand,inmanyinstances,areusedexclusivelyincertainidiomaticconstructions.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Thearrowfellclosetothemark.Watchthemclosely.Shepracticeshardallday.Shecouldhardlybendherfingers.
Inbothpairsofsentences,themodifiersclose,closely,hard,andhardlyperformadverbialfunctions.Closemodifiestheverbfell.Closelymodifiestheverbwatch.Hardmodifiestheverbpractices.Hardlymodifiestheverbbend.Thus,theyarealladverbs.
Bycontrast,closeandhardareusedasadjectivesinthefollowingsentences:
Closeworkstrainsmyeyes.Hardtimeswillsoonbeuponus.
Closemodifiesthenounwork.Hardmodifiesthenountimes.Thus,theybothareadjectiveshere.Ofcourse,closelyandhardlyareneverusedasadjectives.
4.Inthefollowingsentences,identifytheitalicizedmodifiersasadjectivesoradverbsasshownintheseexamples:
Shewasabadwriter.Hewilldoubtlessbefired.
1.Driveslowifyouwanttoenjoyyourvacationtrip.__________2.HewasmuchbetteratbridgethanIwas.__________3.Evenasmallamountofthatchemicalwillhurtyou.___________4.Hewasaneven-temperedman.___________5.Wewenttoseeherlateintheafternoonafterthebabyhadbeenborn.
___________6.Shewasfairandwellgroomed.___________7.Youcaneasilylearntoswimwellwhenyouhaveagoodinstructor.
___________8.Areyousureyouarewell?___________9.Arethereenoughknivesandforkstosetthetablefordinner?
___________
10.Shesleptenoughfortwo.___________11.IhopeyouhavebetterluckinLasVegasnexttime.___________12.Iwasbetterrestedthatafternoon.___________13.Hewasasmoothtalker.___________14.ThetabletopultimatelywasassmoothasIcouldmakeit.___________15.Tryharderandyouwillhaveallthesuccessyouwish.___________
COMPARISONOFADVERBSLikeadjectives,adverbshavethreecomparativeforms—absolute,
comparative,andsuperlative—toindicategreaterorlesserdegreesofthecharacteristicsdescribed.
Adverbsthatareidenticalwithadjectivesformtheircomparativesandsuperlativesinthesamemanner:bad,worse,worst;well,better,best,etc.Evenwhentheabsoluteformofanadverbendsin-ly,thecomparativeandsuperlativeareidenticalwiththecorrespondingformsoftheadjective:badly,worse,worst.
Adverbsalsoadd-erand-esttotheabsolutetomaketheircomparativesandsuperlatives:deep,deeper,deepest;deeply,deeper,deepest.
Adverbsalsoemploymoreandmostbeforetheabsoluteformtoexpressthecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees:timidly,moretimidly,mosttimidly;happily,morehappily,mosthappily.Moreandmostarecommonlyusedwithadverbscontainingmorethanonesyllable.
Thedictionaryistheultimateauthorityforthecomparisonofadverbs.Whenindoubt,consultyourdictionary.
5.Inthefollowingsentences,supplythepropercomparativeorsuperlativeformoftheadverbenclosedinparenthesesasshownintheseexamples:
Ofalltheboys,Corkystayedunderwater(long).Shefelttheloss(keenly)thanhersister,becauseshewasclosertothechild.
1.Jonslept(comfortably)thanshe,becausehehadworkedhardallday.___________
2.Thebirdlifeinthetropicsaffectedhim(deep)thanthewildlifein
Vermont.___________3.Shecertainlytreatedhersisters(lovingly)thantheytreatedher.
___________4.Rembrandtpainted(vividly)thanDelacroix.___________5.OfalltheImpressionists,Renoirpainted(colorfully).___________6.Dorothytook(long)todressthansheorherhusbandexpected.
___________7.Yourpoodleeats(hungrily)thananyotherdogIeverhaveseen.
___________8.Thewomen’ssixty-yarddashwasthe(hotly)contestedraceoftheentire
afternoon.___________9.Theschoolbusisthe(heavily)overloadedofallthebusesonthisroute.
___________10.Somesaytheroleissopassionatelyportrayedthattheplaywillbethe
(heavily)patronizedofferingoftheseason.___________
NOUNSANDPHRASESUSEDASADVERBS
Nounsandphrasesareoftenusedasadverbs,particularlytoindicatetimeanddegree.
Shestayedhomeevenings.(Theverbstayedismodifiedbythenounevenings.)Iwouldliketopracticemornings.(Theinfinitivetopracticeismodifiedbythenounmornings.)Theyjoggedamile.(Theverbjoggedismodifiedbythenounphraseamile.)Heswamtwohundredmeters,whichwasmorethananyotherswimmercouldmanage.(Theverbswamismodifiedbythenounphrasetwohundredmeters.)Heswamtwohundredmetersfartherthananyotherswimmer.(Theadverbfartherismodifiedbythenounphrasetwohundredmeters.)Thesuitisnotworthfourhundreddollars.(Theadjectiveworthismodifiedbythenounphrasefourhundreddollars.)Shealwaysworkedinthemorning.(Theverbworkedismodified
bytheprepositionalphraseinthemorning.)
6.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinethenounsandphrasesusedasadverbsasshowninthefollowingexamples:
HaveyoueverseenNewYorktheNewYorkway?Hedecidednottogotothebeach.
1.Allthechildrenhadbeenwarnednottowalkbeyondthelasthouseontheirstreet.
2.Coleridgewrotemornings.
3.Coleridgewroteinthemorning.
4.Inthecoolevenings,theyusuallywalkedafterdinner.
5.VermeercontinuedtopaintintheFlemishmanner.
6.Theypaidseventydollarsattheboxoffice.
7.Sundaystheyalwayswatchedfootballgamesontelevision.
8.Theywaitedtenminutesandthenlaunchedtheirattack.
9.Thathousecostsfivehundredthousanddollars.10.Sheweighedtwentypoundsmorethanheryoungersister.
ADVERBIALCLAUSESAdverbialclausesmodifyverbs,adverbs,andadjectives,buttheymostoften
modifyotherclauses.Adverbialclausesarebestclassifiedaccordingtothetypeofmodification
theyprovide:cause,comparison,concession,condition,manner,place,purpose,result,andtime.Cause—introducedbyas,because,since:
Astherewasnootherwaytoaccomplishherpurpose,shefinallyannouncedherdecision.(Theadverbialclauseanswersthequestionwhy?Itmodifiestheentiremainclause.)Wewenthomebecausetherewasnothingelsetodo.(The
adverbialclauseanswersthequestionwhy?Itmodifiestheentiremainclause.)
Comparison—introducedbyasandthan:Nuclearenergyisasexpensiveasfossilenergy.(Theverbisisunderstoodintheadverbialclauseasfossilenergy[is].Theadverbialclausemodifiestheadjectiveexpensive.)ThatcarwillcostmorethanIwanttopay.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheadverbmore.)
Concession—introducedbyalthough,evenif,eventhough,though:AlthoughIremainpoor,Iamquitecontent.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)IshallattendtheconcerteventhoughIcanillaffordit.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)
Condition—introducedbyif,onconditionthat,providedthat,unless:Ishallbegladtoconcludethisagreementifyouarewillingtomakesmallconcessionsonsomeoftheterms.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)Theyofferedtogoonconditionthatwesupplythefoodanddrink.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)Hadshegivenherconsentearlier,wewouldhavecompliedaswell.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheverbwouldhavecomplied.Thesubjectandverbintheadverbialclauseareinverted—hadsheinsteadofshehad.)
Manner—introducedbyas,asif,asthough:Corporateofficersactastheyareinstructedtoact.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheverbactinthemainclause.)Herunsasifthedevilwereafterhim.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheverbruns.)
Place—introducedbywhere,wherever:Wherethebeesucks,theresuckI.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheadverbthere.)ImeetthemwhereverIgo.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)
Purpose—introducedbyinorderthat,so,that:Weprepareddinnerearlyinorderthattheteamwouldnotbeheldup.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)
Wesenthimtocollegesohecouldearnagoodlivingandleadafulllife.(Theadverbialclausemodifiesthemainclause.)
Result—introducedbyso,that:Theelectricityhadbeenturnedoff,soweshiveredallnight.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)Shedelayedsomanyyearsthathegrewtiredofwaiting.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheentiremainclause.)
Time—introducedbyafter,as,before,since,when,while,until:Afterdinnerwasfinished,shepickedupherhatandleft.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheverbspickedandleft.)WhileIwaswalkingdowntown,ImetHarrietandClara.(Theadverbialclausemodifiestheverbmet.)
7.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoretheadverbialclausesandindicatetheirfunctionsandwhattheymodify,asshownintheseexamples:
Shereceivedpreferentialtreatmentthoughhergradeswerepoor.
Wehavebeenattendingclassessincethetermbegan.
1.TheairwassofetidthatIcouldnolongerremainintheroom.
2.HadIpaidadequateattentioninclass,Isurelywouldhavedonebetteronthefinalexamination.
3.Asalways,Felixbehavedasifhedidnotcareatallaboutmyfeelings.
4.Faulknerisstillconsideredamoreprofoundnovelistthanmostofhiscontemporaries.
5.Cindywasallowedtostayoutlateprovidedthatshesignedthedormitoryregisteruponleaving.
6.YouwillsoonfindagasstationwhereveryoudriveinNewJersey.
7.IhadtoregisterforthedraftbecauseIhadreachedtheageofeighteen.
8.Thestudentwouldnotsubmiteventhoughtheplagiarismcommitteequestionedhimallday.
9.Beforeyougatherupyourbooks,becertainyournotesarecomplete.
10.Sinceaquorumisnotpresent,voteswillnotbetaken.
11.Althoughhetriedeverytrickheknew,hecouldnotmanagetoputthesideout.
12.Ifnooneshowsupforthepicnic,Iwillgivethefoodtothepoor.
13.IlosttheheelofmyrightshoeasIwascrossingthestreet.
14.IneveragainhadasgoodarecordasIhadinmyfirstterm.
15.HadIrememberedwhattheinstructortoldme,Iwouldhavefinishedthefinalexaminationwithtimetospare.
16.Underthestressofadogshow,puppiesdonotbehaveastheirmastershavetaughtthem.
17.Becausetherewasnothinglefttodobutsurrender,thetroopslaiddowntheirarms.
18.IampermittedtoleavemystationwheneverIcanfindareplacement.
19.Openadmissionsisasplendidpolicyifcollegesmaintaintheiracademicstandards.
20.Ihavebeeninthisroomonlyoncesinceitwaspainted.
21.Shepleadedalmostinaudiblyasifshewasthoroughlyexhausted.
22.Sincethereareonlyfourofus,whynotplaybridgeinsteadofpoker?
23.Althoughnothingappearedtobewrongwiththecar,itwouldnotstart.
24.WhereverIgoinNewYork,Imeetoldfriends.
25.WhileIwashavingmylunch,afrienddroppedbymytable.
CONJUNCTIVEADVERBSConjunctiveadverbsareadverbsusedasconjunctions.(Conjunctionsare
treatedinChapter7.)Theyjoinelementsofasentenceandaffectmeaninginawaythatordinaryconjunctionscannot:
Thecommitteehadformallyrejectedhisapplication;however,heimmediatelydecidedtoexercisehisrightofappeal.(Whilehoweverjoinstwoindependentclauses,itindicatesarelationshipbetweentheclausesthatisnotindicatedbythemostcommonlyusedconjunctions:and,or,but,etc.Thewordhoweverisaconjunctiveadverb.)Hillaryrelinquishedherpositionaschairmanofthegroup;moreover,sheseveredallconnectionwiththepartythatsponsoredthegroup.(Again,moreover,aconjunctiveadverb,joinstwoindependentclauses,butindicatesaspecialrelationshipbetweenthetwoclauses.)
Thisuseofconjunctiveadverbsbetweenindependentclausesrequiresasemicolonbeforetheconjunctiveadverbandacommaafteritasshowninthetwoexamplesabove.
Whenconjunctiveadverbsareplacedwithinaclause,commasareusedtosetthemoff:
Shewill,therefore,establishheridentitybeforetheformalinterrogationbegins.(Thisuseofaconjunctiveadverbsuggeststhatsomethinghasbeensaidintheprecedingsentencethatjustifiestheuseoftherefore.Forexample,theprecedingsentencecouldhavebeen:Therulesofinterrogationarequiterigorousindemandingthatthewitnessbeidentifiedfully.Shewill,therefore,establishetc.)
Whenusedatthebeginningofasentence,aconjunctiveadverbissetoffbyacomma:
Therulesofinterrogationarequiterigorousindemandingthatthewitnessbeidentifiedfully.Therefore,shewillestablishheridentitybeforetheinterrogationbegins.
Themostcommonconjunctiveadverbsare:accordingly,also,anyhow,
besides,consequently,furthermore,hence,henceforth,however,indeed,instead,likewise,meanwhile,moreover,namely,nevertheless,otherwise,still,therefore,andthus.
8.Punctuatethefollowingsentencesasshownintheseexamples:
TheUnitedStatescelebrateditsbicentennialin1976;meanwhile,manycitiesandtownscelebratedtheirtricentennials.Theexperiencegainedinthatwarshouldhaveprovedconclusivelythatcolonialwarsalwaysendindisaster;manynations,nevertheless,pursuepoliciesthatleadtowarfarfromtheirshores.
1.IinsistongoingtothebaseballgameIinsistmoreoverthatyougowithme.
2.Theorganizationtreasuryiscompletelyemptyitwillneverthelesscontinuetoattempttoraisefundssothatitcanpayitsdebts.
3.Thefinaldateforsubmittalofproposalshasnotyetpassedwewillthereforereceiveallproperlyexecutedoffersuntilthatdatearrives.
4.Completeagreementbetweenthetwocontestantsisnotlikelyhoweverwecanalwayshopethatbothpartieswillsomehowseethattheirinterestslieinmutualtrust.
5.Thepatientshowsnosignsofrecoveringdespiteallthemedicaltreatmenthehasbeengiventhusthereisnothingtodobuthopethatcarefulnursingandtheprocessesofnaturewillseehimthrough.
INTENSIFIERSCertainadverbs,suchascertainly,extremely,highly,least,much,quite,
somewhat,such,too,tremendously,andvery,areusedtoemphasizethemeaningofanadjectiveoradverb.Theseadverbsareclassifiedasintensifiers.Intensifiersmaydolittletoenrichadjectivesandadverbsthatarealreadymeaningful.Whendecidingwhethertouseanintensifierinasentenceyouarewriting,readthesentencefirstwiththeintensifierandthenwithoutit.Considerwhethertheintensifieraddstomeaning.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Sheisaveryprettygirl.(Doesveryaddmuchtopretty?)Iamnottoointerestedinhisremarks.(WhynotsayIamnotinterestedorIamuninterested?)
Yet,intensifierssometimesconveyimportantmeaning:
Iamtoofattogetintomyclothes.Heistoobigforhisbritches.
Themessageisclear:useintensifierswhentheyaddsignificantlytomeaning;omitthemwhentheydonot.
9.Underscoretheintensifiersinthefollowingsentencesandindicatewhethertheyshouldbekeptordeleted,asshownintheseexamples:Ihadsuchtroublefindingmyway.Heistheleastlikelycandidateforthatoffice.
1.Herteachersfoundhertobeanextremelycapablestudent.___________
2.Hefoundhimselfsufferingmuchthesamepovertyhehadknownbeforeenteringgraduateschool.___________
3.Thiscolorschemeistooviolentformytaste.___________4.IamsomewhatembarrassedbyalltheattentionIhavebeengetting.
___________5.Thecrowdwastremendouslyfascinatedbythefineaddressesdelivered
thatday.___________6.Iamextremelyeagertocontinueuntiltheyear2010.___________7.Thiscarisquitenewindesign,butitstillmakesbadmileage.
___________8.Iamverysorryourbelovedprofessorhasdied.___________9.Iwasquitedisappointedinmygrades.___________10.Youaretoobeautifulforwords.___________
INFINITIVESASADVERBSInfinitivesandinfinitivephrasesfunctionasadverbsinmanysentences:
EdwardknowsFrenchwellenoughtopassasaFrenchman.(TheinfinitivephrasetopassasaFrenchmanmodifiestheadverbenough.)TheSenatorreturnedtoMainetocampaignforreelection.(Theinfinitivephrasetocampaignforreelectionmodifiestheverbreturned.)Heworkstosurviveandreadstolive.(Theinfinitivetosurvivemodifiestheverbworks.Theinfinitivetolivemodifiesreads.)
10.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoretheinfinitivesandinfinitivephrasesusedasadverbs,andidentifytheelementstheymodifyasshownintheseexamples:TheYugoslaviandiplomatfeltconfidentenoughtoreturnhome.
Theysoldtorealizeaprofit.
1.Jerrytendstobecomeviolentwhenheisfrustrated.__________2.ThestormseemstocoverseveralSouthernstates.__________3.Resolutionswereintroducedtorepealtheabortionlaws.__________4.Hebatsleft-handedtoutilizehisgreatspeed.__________5.Shedidn’tdaremockanyone;shewastoogentleaperson.__________6.TheyintendtotraveltoScotlandagainthissummer.__________7.Dogsareinclinedtodrinkagreatdealofwater.__________8.Thelandlordtriedtoevicthisobjectionabletenant.__________9.Librariansareeagertostocktheirshelveswithworthwhilebooks.
__________10.Mostadolescentslovetotravelontheirown.__________
CHAPTER7PrepositionsandConjunctions
PREPOSITIONSAprepositionisawordthatconveysameaningofposition,direction,time,or
otherabstraction.Itservestorelateitsobjecttoanothersentenceelement.Aprepositionalphraseconsistsofapreposition,itsobject,andanymodifiers
oftheobject.IntheprepositionalphrasebythegreatestGermanmusician,theprepositionisby,theobjectismusician,andthemodifiersoftheobjectarethegreatestGerman.
Prepositionalphrasesareusedtomodifyverbs,nouns,pronouns,andadjectives:
RelatingtoVerbsShefoundthesleepingchildinherroom.(Wheredidshefindthesleepingchild?Inherroom.)Theystoredtheirfilesunderthetable.(Wheredidtheystoretheirfiles?Underthetable.)
RelatingtoNounsandPronounsShefeltthehatredoftheentirefamily.(Whosehatred?Thehatredoftheentirefamily.)Iwantanythingbythatauthor.(WhatdoIwantbythatauthor?Anything.)
RelatingtoAdjectivesShewasyounginheart.(Younginwhatsense?Younginheart.)Thebookwasconsideredprofaneinintent.(Inwhatsenseprofane?Profaneinintent.)
Theninemostcommonlyusedprepositionsare:at,by,for,from,in,of,on,to,andwith.Therearemanymore,andyouwillshortlybegivenalistofotherfrequentlyusedprepositions.
1.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoreallprepositionalphrasesasshownintheseexamples:Wehaveworkedhardallweekforourcause.Wewenttothestoreyesterdayatnoon.
1.Shewastreatedforhepatitisbythedoctor.
2.I’mjustalittlegirlfromLittleRock.
3.Sheoftengoestothetheaterwithherfather.
4.TheGardnerswillbeattheseashoreduringtheentiresummer.
5.Ihopeyoureachtheairportintimeforthelateflight.
6.Ontwooccasions,youhaveforgottenyourappointmentwiththedentist.
7.Forallweknow,lifewillneverbethesame.
8.Thetreesarealivewithcolorintheautumn.
9.Therearethreepeopleinthehousewhowillstayforlunch.10.Thismoneywillbereservedforcharitablepurposes.
2.Inthefollowingsentences,identifytheprepositionsandtheobjectsofprepositionsasshownintheseexamples:Thesurgeonoperatedforappendicitis.Theywenttotheplanetariumintimefortheafternoonshowing.
1.Heconsiderspriceincreasesaprecursorofeconomicrecession.
2.Yourenthusiasmforhardworkisnotthegreatest.
3.Someofmyfriendswillnotbeatthenextreunion.
4.ThepostalservicehasnotdeliveredthemailforwhichIhavebeenwaiting.
5.Shewenttothestadiumonceagainindreadofaboringafternoon.
6.AsymphonybyBeethovenisalwaysafreshexperience.
7.Shewentfromthenurserytotheemergencycareroom.
8.Daffodilstellusofthearrivalofspring,butsaynothingofhowcoldspringcanbe.
9.Literaturewasoneofherfavoritestudies,yetshewasalsofondofthesciences.
10.WeshallbeleavingforAntarcticainafewmonths.
3.Inthefollowingsentencesunderscoretheprepositionalphrasesandidentifytheverbs,nouns,pronouns,oradjectivesmodified,asshownintheseexamples:Hisrespectforhiselderswasapparent.Fewofthelaterpoemsshowanyspecialqualities.
1.Duringtheraidthreeguardswerewounded.___________2.Theylosttheirpursesinthebusstation.___________3.Iremovedmyhatastheflagpassedbythereviewingstand.
___________4.Bytheendoftheperformance,noonewasleftintheaudience.
___________5.Closetoourschoolisanewpublichousingdevelopment.___________6.Hewasrewardedforhiscourtesybytheoldwoman.___________7.Hetookgreatdelightinhiscoincollection.___________8.Isthisthemostdirectwaytothehospital?___________9.Elementarydecencyisneverrecognizedbysomepeople.___________10.SheselectedherEuropeanitinerarywithgreatcare.___________
CommonlyUsedPrepositions
Thefollowinglistidentifiesthoseprepositionsmostcommonlyencountered;itisbynomeanscomplete.Amongthewordslistedherearethenineprepositionsthatweregivenpreviously.Inadditiontothesinglewordsthatconstitutemostoftheentriesinthislist,therearesomephrasesthatfunctionasprepositions:inbackof,inadditionto,etc.
Witheachentryinthelist,twophrasesaresuppliedtoillustrateuseofthe
Witheachentryinthelist,twophrasesaresuppliedtoillustrateuseoftheprepositions.
aboardaboardtheship,aboardtheairplaneaboutabouttown,aboutpeopleaboveaboveall,abovemyheadaccordingtoaccordingtothenewspapers,accordingtocustomacrossacrosstheway,acrossourfrontyardafterafterawhile,aftermealsagainstagainstpublicopinion,againstthewallaheadofaheadofthecrowd,aheadofhistimealongalongthestreet,alongtheroutealongsidealongsidethecaravan,alongsidetheprisonamidamidourpreparations,amidouractivityamidstamidstallmyactivity,amidstthelocalpeopleamongamongotherthings,amongthecrowdapartfromapartfrommyownfeelings,apartfromtheexpenseinvolvedaroundaroundthecorner,aroundherwaistasfarasasfarasWashington,asfarasthetraindepotasidefromasidefromhispublishedwritings,asidefrommyownthoughtsastoastothepointyouraised,astotheperformanceitselfatatnopoint,atthefinalmomentbackofbackofthebus,backoftheobjectionbecauseofbecauseofhispoverty,becauseofourcompleteapathybeforebeforedinner,beforeleavingbehindbehindhissmile,behindcloseddoorsbehindinbehindintherent,behindinhispaymentsbelowbelowtheroof,belowthelivingroombeneathbeneathmystandards,beneathrespectbesidebesideagardenwall,besideherselfbesidesbesidesthedeanhimself,besidestheimmediatefamilybetweenbetweenyouandme,betweenJulyandSeptemberbeyondbeyondmyken,beyondthemountainsbutbutme,butahandfulofpeoplebybythesamewriter,bytomorrowconcerningconcerningtaste,concerningherobstinacycontrarytocontrarytomyadvice,contrarytotheConstitutiondespitedespiteallourbestefforts,despitehislatenessdowndownthestairs,downthestreetduetoduetolackofsleep,duetohabitualabsences
duringduringhistenure,duringtheBushyearsexceptexceptme,exceptmybrotherforforyourownsafety,forthesakeofGodfromfromnowhere,fromthewesternskyininback,inexpectationinadditiontoinadditiontoherefforts,inadditiontoAIDSinbackofinbackofthehouse,inbackofhermindinfrontofinfrontofit,infrontofthestoreinlieuofinlieuoflovingcare,inlieuofafull-timechairmaninlightofinlightofheraccomplishments,inlightofthechild’sageinplaceofinplaceoftheflowers,inplaceofthecurrentexhibitinregardtoinregardtoyourletter,inregardtoherrequestinsideinsidehishead,insidethevaultinspiteofinspiteofhismother’srequest,inspiteofhisgoodintentionsinsteadofinsteadofthemarines,insteadofgoinghomeintointoadeepdepression,intotheFrenchquarterinviewofinviewofherprejudices,inviewofyourdemandslikelikeabee,likeanangelnearneartheoldhouse,neardespairofofpioneerstock,ofgreatreputationoffofftheroof,offhisoutstandingdebtononmyaccount,onoccasiononaccountofonaccountofthedelay,onaccountoftheinconvenienceonboardonboardtheoceanliner,onboardtheOrientExpressontoontotheplatform,ontohershouldersoutoutthedoor,outthewindowoutofoutofsightandoutofmind,outofthehalloveroveryourhead,overthepartyowingtoowingtoyouranxiety,owingtohiseagernesspastpasttheschoolyard,pastmycomprehensionperpersecond,perminuteroundroundthebarnyard,roundmyheadsincesinceherdeath,sincetheturnofthecenturythroughthroughmythoughts,throughthegatethroughoutthroughoutherlife,throughoutthenighttilltilldeath,tilltodaytotonopurpose,toNewYorktowardtowardbetterunderstanding,towardlateafternoontowardstowardsNewYork,towardsthenorth
underundertwoflags,undersuspicionuntiluntilmorning,untildeathuntountoeachother,untoourselvesupupthestaircase,upthewalluponuponwell-foundedsuspicions,uponfurtherthoughtuptouptonow,uptothelimitofhisabilityviaviatheAlcanHighway,viaRoute66withwithcare,withnofriendswithinwithinhishearing,withinthetimewithoutwithoutarms,withoutassistance
4.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheprepositionalphrasesasshownintheseexamples:Hewasseensmokingbehindthebarn.ThelaptopcomputerIwantedwasoutofstock.
1.Throughouttheterm,hefoundherbehaviorutterlyincomprehensible.
2.Heturnedtheproblemintoamajorexercise.
3.TheMercedesswervedpasttheguardrailandontothelawn.
4.Italianvintnersareknownfortheirinexpensivewhiteandredwines.
5.AcrosstownthereisalittlerestaurantthatservesfoodlikethatofFrance.
6.Yourrequestwillbegrantedifitiswithinreason.
7.Becauseofhisdelayinpaying,electricalservicehasbeenterminated.
8.Outofthepitchblacknightcameacreatureofthreateningappearance.
9.Margaretlivednearthecitycenter,butsheplayednopartincitylife.10.Theysweptpastthemaîtred’hôtelanddemandedtobeseatednearthe
band.11.Theactressfelloffthestageandbrokeoneofherlegs.12.Sinceherhusband’sdeath,Paulahadhadnolifeofherown.13.Ifyouagree,Ishallgoinsteadofyou.
14.Inspiteofeverythingyousay,Iamsureyouhadagoodtime.15.Hewentstraighttowardthebar,despitemyrepeatedwarnings.
ObjectofPreposition
Theobjectofaprepositionisalwaysintheobjectivecase.
Hegavethebooktome.(Theobjectoftheprepositiontoisthepronounme,whichisintheobjectivecase.)Whomdidyougivethebookto?(Whomistheobjectoftheprepositiontoandisintheobjectivecase.)
Despitethetendencyofmanyspeakersandwriterstousewhowhenwhomispreferred,asinthesecondsamplesentence,anyoneinterestedingoodgrammarshouldusewhomastheobjectiveformofthepronounwho.
5.Inthefollowingsentences,supplytheproperformsofthepronounsasshownintheseexamples:Ifoundthechildwith(he)Ifyouwon’tdothisfor(she),(who)willyoudoitfor?
1.Doyouthinkanyonebut(she)candoit?_____________2.Iwillnotgotoseeyouifyouhaveherwith(you)._____________3.Shirleytoldhimshewouldgivethepresentto(we)._____________4.Thecommitteedecidedtoawardtheplaqueto(whoever)Ichoose.
_____________5.Ishallgowith(she)whenshecallsupon(they)._____________6.Ifyoulackconfidencein(they),whydon’tyousayso?_____________7.Ruskinhadadmirationfor(he)asapainter._____________8.Williamaddressedhisletterto(she)becauseheknewnooneelseonthe
committee._____________9.(Who)areyoureferringto?_____________10.Theletteryousenthasbeenforwardedto(I)attheaddressIgave(she).
_____________
DifferentiatingPrepositionsfromOtherPartsofSpeechManyprepositions,suchasafter,but,for,andsince,arealsousedasadverbs,
adjectives,orconjunctions.Thewaytodifferentiatethevarioususesofthesewordsistoexaminetherolestheyplayinasentence.
Considerthefollowingsentences:
Theduckswereinarow,oneafteranother.(preposition)Donotfollowafterhim.(preposition)Haveyouinquiredafterher?(preposition)Afterdinnerweweretreatedtocupsofsuperbcoffee.(preposition)Shewasnamedafterheraunt.(preposition)Jillcameafter.(adverb)Theylivedhappilyeverafter.(adverb)Theafteryearsoftenareterrible.(adjective)AfterIfindtheplaceIwant,Ishallbuyitandsettledown.(conjunction)
Intheaboveexamples,after,whenusedasanadverboranadjective,directlymodifiesawordorwords:cameafter,livedafter,afteryears.Inthesentenceinwhichafterisusedasaconjunction,itisfollowedbyaclause:AfterIfindtheplaceIwant.Whenusedasapreposition,afterintroducesaprepositionalphrase:afteranother,afterhim,afterher,afterdinner,afterheraunt.
6.Inthefollowingsentences,underlinetheprepositions,ifany,asshownintheseexamples:Thishasbeenthewarmestwintersince1940.Shehassinceleftthispartofthecountry.AfterherdepartureIhavenotbeenthesame.
1.Shewillnotbeeligible,forshehasnotpaidtaxeshere.
2.Shewillcompetefortheprize,sinceitrepresentsherfondestdream.
3.Weallagreedthatnoonebuthercanevenbeconsidered.
4.Alicebegantoshoutforjoy,butsoonstoppedbecauseofherirritatedthroat.
5.Theyhaveaneyeforbeauty,butwhatevertheychoosetopaintpleasesnoonewithanytaste.
6.Theyfollowedcloselyafter,butnomatterhowhardtheytried,thethiefgotaway.
7.Ihavenotseenanythingofhimsince.
8.Aftertheballwasover,manyaheartwasbroken.
9.Hefollowedafterherdutifully,wishingnothingelsebutherhappiness.10.Forallweknow,wemaynevermeetagain.
PrepositionalPhrasesasModifiers
Prepositionalphrasesfunctionasadverbsoradjectives.Considerthefollowingsentences:
Wedecidedatthelastminute.(adverbmodifyingdecided)TheycomefromPuertoRico.(adverbmodifyingcome)Mostgovernmentofficialsspeakwithcaution.(adverbmodifyingspeak)ThefamilyvacationedinSaratogaSprings.(adverbmodifyingvacationed)Peopleofqualitydonotgossipallthetime.(adjectivemodifyingPeople)Thefamilyinmourningworeblackclothing.(adjectivemodifyingfamily)Theheroasanti-herocharacterizesAmericandetectivefiction.(adjectivemodifyinghero)Traininginmartialartshasneverlostitspopularity.(adjectivemodifyingTraining)
7.Inthefollowingsentences,identifytheitalicizedprepositionalphrasesasadverbsoradjectivesasshownintheseexamples:
Shewasrecognizedasaleader.
Thepictureinthewindowwasstunning.Wedinedinanelegantrestaurant.
1.OnThursdaysIdinealoneinamodestrestaurant,hopingtohavecompleteprivacy.________________
2.Ahouseinaneighborhoodthatiswellmaintainedwillalwaysappreciateinvalue.________________
3.Hebehavedinamannerthatcancharitablybedescribedaspoortaste.________________
4.Herattitudetowardtheexcellentjobofferstaggeredthoseofuswho,likeher,wereusuallyunemployed.________________
5.Thesailorindressuniformsaunteredintothecafeandorderedaglassofmilk.________________
6.Thetraditionalattitudetowardsgraduatestudieshasshiftedsomewhatinlightofincreasingsalaries.________________
7.Thetreesbehindourschoolneedprofessionalcareforsurvival.________________
8.Canyoumanagetoinspectandrepairourplumbinginasinglevisit?________________
9.Littleinthisworldcanbeaccomplishedwithouthardwork.________________
10.Theonlyflawinhissolutionisthathehascompletelyoverlookedthebestofclues.________________
8.Inthefollowingsentences,underscoreallprepositionalphrases,ifany,asshownintheseexamples:Whenmyclothesneedlaundering,Itakethemtotheautomaticlaundryforquickandinexpensivewashing,butIusuallycannotaffordtousethedryers,soIputmywashedclothesonaline.Besideshoping,therewaslittleIcoulddo,sincenothingwasleftofthemoney.
1.Ofallthemembers,sheisthefirstIwouldaccuseofdoingsuchmischief.
2.Thecottagestoodonalittlehillbehindthewall,waitingforsomeonetocomealongandbuyit.
3.Paperiswastedinofficesthatareequippedwithcopyingmachines.
4.Apipefilledwithgoodtobaccocanhelpalonelyman.
5.Nearthefarmstoodthreeunusedkilnsoncedevotedtothemakingoflime.
6.Amapletreewillgivesweetsapifthenightsarecoldandthedaysarewarm.
7.Shestoodbythefirehouse,wonderingwhetherthealarmwouldringduringherlunchhoursoshecouldseehowquicklythehandsomefiremenwouldrespond.
8.Intheafternoons,hewouldwalkaboutthecity,lookingforsomediversionthatwouldcheerhiminhismisery.
9.Theapartmentwasfilledwithsmokeafterthefiremenstoppedsprayingtheirwaterontheupperfloors.
10.Oncehehadcompletedhisessay,heleftthelibraryandwalkedhome.11.Thetreeswereinfullleafandlookedasthoughtheywerehappythat
springhadcome.12.Ihadtospendmostofmytimeonchoresthatleftlittleevidenceof
completiononcetheyweredone.13.Children,asweallknow,oftenfindamusementintormentingyounger
children.14.Fordaysonend,thepairworkedtorepairthedamagetothesidewalk.15.Intheafternoons,shefoundthatthesunlightwastoostrongforhereyes,
whichweremoreaccustomedtothesubduedlightofthenursinghomewheresheworked.
CONJUNCTIONSConjunctionsconnectwords,phrases,orclauses.Theyareclassifiedas
coordinatingorsubordinating.Subordinatingconjunctionsjoinonlyclauses.Coordinatingconjunctionsjoinwords,phrases,andclauses:
HeandI,SheorI(coordinatingconjunctionsjoiningwords)
Thechairinthelivingroomandtheoneintheden;theredcarorthebluecar(coordinatingconjunctionsjoiningphrases)Shehasbeennominated,butIhopeshewillwithdraw.(coordinatingconjunctionjoiningclauses)Therestillistimetogettothegame,forwehavefifteenminutes.(coordinatingconjunctionjoiningclauses)
Themostcommoncoordinatingconjunctionsareand,but,for,nor,or,so,andyet.(Soandyetsometimesactassubordinatingconjunctions.)
Otherconjunctionsclassifiedascoordinatingaretheso-calledcorrelatives,whichoccurinpairs:either…or,neither…nor,notonly…but,notonly…butalso,andboth…and:
EitheryouleaveatonceorIshallcallthepolice.NeitherJanenorAlicedeservestobeconsideredforpromotion.Notonlyhasthenationsuffereddomestically,butourreputationabroadispoor.Notonlydoesshewritemaudlinnovels,butshealsowritesbatheticpoetry.Bothcoffeeandteaweredrunktoexcess.
Ascanbeseen,coordinatingconjunctionsareusedtoconnectsentenceelementsthathaveequivalentvalue.
Subordinatingconjunctionsconnectsentenceelements—clauses—oflessthanequalvalue.Themostcommonsubordinatingconjunctionsareafter,although,as,asif,aslongas,because,before,how,if,inorderthat,since,so,sothat,though,till,unless,until,when,where,wherever,while,why,andyet.Therelativepronounsthat,what,which,andwhoalsoactassubordinatingconjunctions.
Thefollowingsentencesshowsomeusesofsubordinatingconjunctions:
Iwilltakecareofherafterthedoctorhasgone.Icannottakealltheblame,althoughIwillacceptpartialresponsibility.Theyarrivedinourtownbeforetheothersdid.TheyhavebeenstudyingLatinsincetheyenteredsecondgrade.
Therecomesatimewhenallbillsmustbepaid.RichardsatinthelibrarywhileJonwasoutontheplayingfield.
9.Inthefollowingsentencesunderscoretheconjunctionsandindicatewhethertheyarecoordinatingorsubordinatingasshownintheseexamples:Helenworkedasanengineeranddesigner,whileherhusbandcontinuedhisgraduatestudies.
Heenjoyedworkingonthefarm,buthiswifeobjectedtothestrenuousandlonelylife.coordinating,coordinating
1.Notonlyhavewewastedourhealth,butwehavelostthewilltolive.
2.Ididallthissothatourchildrenmighthavebetterlives.
3.Sinceyoulefthome,everythinghasbeenthesameexceptforthedeterioratingconditionofyourroomandtheincreasingcostoffeedingthefamily.
4.Untilyoufindyouhaveworktodoandresponsibilitiestomeet,youcannotsayyouhavereachedadultstatus.
5.Eitherthehusbandorthewifewillhavetomakepeacewiththeother,becauselifeismuchtoohecticwithbothofthemforeverfighting.
6.Whenyoudecidetosubmityourcompletemanuscript,pleaseletmeknowsoIcanarrangetohaveyoupaid.
7.Thechairyougavemehasnospringsorcover,yetithasacharmallofitsown.
8.HenryorDeirdrewillhavetobepresentwhenweselectadelegatetothenationalconvention.
9.Sotherewillbenomisunderstanding,letmeexplainthatweallmustworktogetherandchooseourwordscarefullyinaddressingoneanother.
10.Whereverthejobtakesus,wemustbepreparedtogo,withoutcomplainingorclaimingthatwewerekeptinthedark.
Answers
Chapter1
1.1.Verbreceive,Subject,Playwrights,authors,Directobjectacclaim,Complementnone2.Verbpreserve,SubjectLibraries,Directobjectwisdom,Complementnone
3.Verbare,Subjectstores,Directobjectnone,Complementbusiest4.Verbhas,SubjectBuenosAires,Directobjecthouse,Complementnone5.Verbis,SubjectReligion,Directobjectnone,Complementcourse6.Verbwere,SubjectEli,Samuel,Directobjectnone,Complementprophets
7.Verbhaveproduced,SubjectWars,Directobjectdeath,destruction,Complementnone
8.Verbtelephoned,SubjectTamara,Directobjectbrothers,Complementnone
9.Verbserved,Subjectwaiter,Directobjectwater,Complementnone10.Verbwasransacked,Subjectdormitory,Directobjectnone,Complement
none11.Verbwereransacking,SubjectBurglars,Directobjectdormitory,
Complementnone12.Verbstudied,SubjectHelen,DirectobjectItalian,Complementnone13.Verbfelt,SubjectShe,Directobjectlining,Complementnone14.Verbfelt,SubjectHe,Directobjectnone,Complementwell15.Verbcalled,Subjectdefendants,Directobjectlawyer,Complementnone16.Verbensures,Subjectmind,Directobjectsuccess,Complementnone17.Verbhaverevolutionized,SubjectMicrochips,Directobjectindustry,
Complementnone18.Verbis,Subjectbibliography,Directobjectnone,Complementlist19.Verbcarry,Subjectteenagers,Directobjecttelephones,Complement
none20.Verbwear,Subjectprofessionals,Directobjecthats,Complementnone
21.Verbsuited,Subjectshirt,tie,Directobjecthim,Complementnone22.Verbarerespected,Subjectmatadors,Directobjectnone,Complement
none23.Verbareairconditioned,Subjecthomes,Directobjectnone,
Complementnone24.Verbcleans,cools,SubjectAirconditioning,Directobjectbuildings,
Complementnone25.Verbwrote,SubjectConrad,Directobjectnone,Complementnone
2.1.vacationers,2.museum,3.clients,4.customer,5.him,6.museum,7.judges,8.Marie,9.roommates,10.BritishMuseum,11.him,12.readers,13.witnesses,14.clients,15.parents
3.1.outdoor,enthusiastic;2.patient,joyfully;3.tired,very,late;4.tasty,spaghetti,always;5.regularly,serviced,safer;6.large,carefully;7.neighborhood,early,late;8.always,clean,neatly;9.never,news;
10.Our,best,almost;11.tonight;12.Our,weekly,only,local;13.nighttime,old;14.never,broken;15.White,roast;16.Herman’s,good,dance;17.Bertha’s,blue;18.never,before;19.tall,gently,frightened;20.Please,two,sharp;21.red,slowly;22.stormy,high;23.Happy,hard;24.Robert’s,old,new;25.million,annually
4.1.thatthechampionwore,onthetenniscourt,withgreenpiping;2.intheskimask,downthestairs;3.oncoldnights,withoutacoat;4.ofthevisitingteam,aroundrightend;5.inwhichweareliving;6.thatisdoubleparked,intheentirestreet;7.carryingthebrownportfolio,onhisdesk;8.acrossthesidewalk;9.ofallages;10.onthecorner,frommanycities;11.ofunemployedmenandwomen,attheofficedoor;12.inthereddress,downthestreet;13.ofmorning,throughthewindow;14.wehadyesterday,onstreets,alloverthecity;15.ofredflowers;16.ofblackbirds,underthatbridge;
17.fromourschool;18.withbrowneyes,acrosstheroom,withherlefthand;19.ofourbus,toallhispassengers;20.atourhouse,onSaturday;21.whospeaksonlyEnglish,withmanycustomers;22.whohittoleftfield,beforetheballwasthrownin;23.thatiswelltrained,well-trained;24.inourparish,whocomestohim;25.whoknowswhatsheisdoing,withgreatcaution
5.1.Verbwrote,SubjectLisa,Directobjectletter,Complementnone,Indirectobjectmother,Modifiershastily,angry,her
2.Verbis,SubjectBeethoven,Directobjectnone,Complementcomposer,Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersgreatest,ofalltime
3.Verbmet,SubjectI,Directobjectfriend,Complementnone,Indirectobjectnone,ModifiersWhileIwaswaitingforJon,another,old
4.Verbis,SubjectMichelle,Directobjectnone,Complementstudent,Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersworst,inthejuniorclass
5.Verbgave,SubjectDemocraticcandidate,Directobjectspeech,Complementnone,Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersimportant,overtheradio
6.Verbgave,SubjectNola,Directobjectpresent,Complementnone,IndirectobjectMarla,Modifiersvery,expensive
7.Verbrose,Subjectwoman,Directobjectnone,Complementnone,Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersold,fromherchair,nearthewindow
8.Verbare,Subjectcritics,Directobjectnone,Complementauthors,Indirectobjectnone,ModifiersLiterary,often,frustrated
9.Verbidentified,Subjectornithologist,Directobjectbirds,Complementnone,Indirectobjectnone,Modifierscompetent,many,rare
10.Verbhaswritten,SubjectEmmaDally,Directobjectnovels,Complementnone,Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersthree,interesting,onmodernEnglishlife
11.Verbgives,SubjectWorking,Directobjectheadaches,Complementnone,IndirectobjectGary,Modifiersfarintothenight,bad
12.Verbexperience,Subjectnations,Directobjectdifficulties,Complement
none,Indirectobjectnone,ModifiersMost,ThirdWorld,economic13.Verbare,Subjectautomobiles,Directobjectnone,Complementburden,
Indirectobjectnone,ModifiersOld,totheirusers14.Verbhasbeen,SubjectLife,Directobjectnone,Complementbetter,
Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersnever,forthisgeneration15.Verbstudy,SubjectI,Directobjectnone,Complementnone,Indirect
objectnone,Modifiersalways,atnight16.Verbare,Subjectpuppies,Directobjectnone,Complementenvy,Indirect
objectnone,Modifiersnew,oftheneighbors17.Verbwas,SubjectH.L.Mencken,Directobjectnone,Complementcritic,
Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersirreverent18.Verbmade,SubjectKate,Directobjectdresses,Complementnone,
Indirectobjectherself,friends,Modifiersattractive,her19.Verbreceive,SubjectActors,Directobjectletters,Complementnone,
Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersmany,everyday20.Verbdamages,SubjectPoverty,Directobjectlives,Complementnone,
Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersofmanyruralchildren21.Verbgo,SubjectWe,Directobjectnone,Complementnone,Indirect
objectnone,Modifiersstill,tothetheater,asoftenaspossible22.Verbare,Subjectprices,Directobjectnone,Complementhigh,Indirect
objectnone,ModifiersCommodity,everywhere23.Verbbleeds,Subjecthe,Directobjectnone,Complementnone,Indirect
objectnone,ModifiersWhenDickcutshimself,foralongtime24.Verbfly,Subjectairplanes,Directobjectnone,Complementnone,
Indirectobjectnone,ModifiersPaper,rarely,formorethanafewminutes
25.Verbis,SubjectFishing,Directobjectnone,Complementfun,Indirectobjectnone,Modifiersgreat,onceyouhavelearnedthefundamentalskills
6.1.Someofuslikedtheprogramthatnight;manypeoplewereenthusiasticaboutit
2.Manyvotersmisinterpretedtheremarksofthecandidate;shetriedtorestateherposition
3.weconsideredtheproblemcarefully4.Willielivedalongandhappylife;histimehadcometodie
5.Theyhadmanyhappyexperiences6.Cigaretteshavelongbeenknowntobedangeroustohealth;manypeoplecontinuetosmoke
7.Hewantedtojoinherinthenewbusiness;hehadlittlecapitaltoinvest8.itsqualitywaspoor9.Hisfirstremarksweregreetedwithderision;theaudiencesoonbegantoapplaud
10.Wellresearchedpapersusuallygethighermarksthanhastilypreparedpapers
7.1.eventhoughtheypassedDriverEducation2.none3.aftertheirchildrenfinishedcollege4.eventhoughtherestofherfamilydoes5.thatshewasnotafriendofours,hewas6.wheresheteachesremedialreading7.shewouldsurelymeetthetown’sfinancialneeds8.sincetheysavethetravelerlittletimeandcontributeheavilytoairpollution
9.none10.whoyawnedsteadilyandaudiblyfromthetimethemoviebegan
8.1.acrossthewindingriver;2.Afterherdivorce;ofhername;3.pinnedtothewall;4.soontobereleasedbythetowingairplane;5.inhope,ofsnaringsomething,fordinner;6.tobe;7.none;8.oftea,inlateafternoon,tosurvive,untilevening;9.Inthelibrary;10.topickupourgearandretreattothenearesttownasquicklyaspossible
Chapter2
1.1.HarpoMarx;comedian;2.sky;parachutes;3.cuisine;hamburgers;chickenwings;4.Bill;coat;father;5.Charity;home;6.football;statue;Hamilton;7.avenue;restoration;8.speech;hour;9.chairmen;order;10.puppy;spots;nose;11.hotel;casino;12.neighbor;car;13.world;MartinLutherKing;14.Love;world;15.pens;handwriting;16.train;Chicago;time;show;17.Mary;roses;18.fluid;stain;19.woman;bus;danger;20.Lois;seat;21.Mary;sweater;father;22.Joe;tire;car;23.hands;24.Bridge;cup;tea;25.Planning;time
2.1.Librarians(subjectofverb),people(objectofverbal),books(objectofverbal)
2.McDonald(subjectofverb),farm(directobject)3.zoo(objectofpreposition),Monday(objectofpreposition),year(objectofpreposition)
4.Piano(modifier),music(subjectofverb),glass(objectofpreposition),wine(objectofpreposition),candlelight(objectofpreposition)
5.music(directobject);all(directobjectofverb)said
6.child(subjectofverb),front(objectofpreposition),car(objectofpreposition),chance(directobject)
7.Father(subjectofverb),videos(objectofverbal)8.Louis(subjectofverb),painter(objectofverbal),illustrator(objectofverbal)
9.mountain(objectofpreposition),chairlift(objectofpreposition)10.Attending(subjectofverb),church(objectofverbal),Sundays(objectof
preposition),custom(predicatecomplement),family(objectofpreposition)
11.wife(subjectofverb),dishes(objectofverbal)12.marrying(subjectofverb),Avis(objectofverbal),life(directobject)13.Sam(indirectobject),ticket(directobject),football(modifier),game
(objectofpreposition)14.Alfred(indirectobject),sweater(directobject),father(objectof
preposition)15.family(objectofpreposition),laundry(modifier),day(subjectofverb),
event(predicatecomplement)16.Eyeglasses(subjectofverb),sign(predicatecomplement),age(objectof
preposition),bifocals(subjectofverb)17.Acura(subjectofverb),car(predicatecomplement),investment(direct
object)18.wine(subjectofverb),California(modifier),grapes(objectof
preposition)19.Term(modifier),papers(subjectofverb),research(modifier),papers
(directobject)20.advantages(objectofverbal),microwave(modifier),ovens(objectof
preposition)21.Sculpture(subjectofverb),hobby(predicatecomplement)22.advice(objectofpreposition),doctor(objectofpreposition),Fred
(subjectofverb),cigarettes(objectofverbal),day(objectofpreposition)23.cabbage(subjectofverb),room(directobject),garden(objectof
preposition)24.Cindy(subjectofverb),bourbon(modifier),whiskey(directobject)25.couch(subjectofverb),room(objectofpreposition)
3.1.road(common),James(proper),wife(common),chains(common),familycar(common)
2.Siberia(proper),thousands(common),deer(common)3.Atlantic(proper),oil(common),NewYork(proper),Portugal(proper)4.students(common),college(common),cost(common),tuition(common)5.physics(common),textbooks(common),Lorimer(proper),students(common),exercises(common)
6.seats(common),England(proper),tourists(common),play(common),night(common),week(common)
7.people(common),restaurants(common),patronage(common)8.lexicographers(common),guardians(common),language(common)9.BernardMalamud(proper),author(common),stories(common),books(common)
10.RogerCasement(proper),patriot(common),traitor(common)
4.1.foxes,2.chiefs,3.attorneys,4.potatoes,5.spoonfuls,6.valleys,7.formulasorformulae,8.genera,genuses,9.addenda,addendums,10.knives,11.laboratories,12.vocabularies,13.absences,14.cupfuls,15.babysitters,16.crises,17.diagnoses,18.synopses,19.athletics,
20.libraries,21.Joneses,22.quotas,23.data,24.booths,25.buzzes,26.axes,27.loci,28.skies,29.echoes,30.preferences,31.loaves,32.lives,33.matrices,34.actuaries,35.bases,36.neuroses,37.privileges,38.freshmen,39.parentheses,40.attorneysgeneral,attorneygenerals,41.analyses,42.psychoses,43.theses,44.chassis,45.quanta,46.Smiths,47.symphonies,48.axes,49.secretaries,50.levities
5.1.John’s,
2.team’s,3.Nations’,4.Korea’s,5.Yankees’,6.Ruskin’s,7.neighbor’s,8.men’s,9.cook’s,10.Keats’s,Keats’,11.wife’s,12.Year’s,13.Mickey’s,14.Johnsons’,15.Jones’
6.1.singular,2.singular,3.plural,4.plural,5.singular,6.singular,7.plural,8.singular,9.singular,10.plural
7.1.Whetherwegotomorroworstay2.thatwepoolourremainingcapital3.whatevercameintohisheadfirst4.whathappenedduringhisjobinterview5.everythinghischildrendo6.whatmodernarchitecturecanusuallysupply7.thatthebookwasonreserve8.Whenthepicnicisheld
9.Whateveryoudo10.Whoeverattendsthemeeting
8.1.a;2.the;3.the;4.(nonerequired);5.a;6.the;7.An;8.anhonortoreceivethe;9.thecabdriverswarnedmenottostayatthe;10.An,The;11.the,an;12.aseaworthysailboat,theabilitytooperateit,andthe;13.the;14.(nonerequired);15.(nonerequired)
Chapter3
1.1.verbboarded,subjectRichard;verbleft,subjectit2.verbfound,subjectdefendant3.verbclosed,subjectdoor;verbleft,subjectshe4.verbtolled,subjectbell;verbgathered,subjectpeople5.verbagreed,subjectEileen;verbwas,subjecttrip6.verbremained,subjectbooks7.verbwas,subjectPhilosophy;verbearned,subjectknowledge8.verbEat,subjectyou[understood];verbwillhave,subjectyou9.verbleaves,subjecttrain10.verbplayed,subjectchildren;verbwerecalled,subjectthey
2.1.isnolongersharpenoughtocutgrass2.hasnotimprovedheroutlook
3.arehardtofindinwinter4.havenotyetreadthecompletetrialtestimony5.hasbecomebigbusinessallovertheworld6.Can…imagineaworldwithoutwar7.interruptedmysleep8.appearstobethemaininterestofAmerica’syoung9.ranhistractorrightintothehaystackandruinedaweek’swork10.willonedayreappearasastylishfashion
3.1.blackenedtransitive;2.strucktransitive,burnedintransitive;3.smiledintransitive;4.hurtstransitive;5.indicatedtransitive;6.gavetransitive;7.ranintransitive;8.gointransitive;9.incensedtransitive;10.attracttransitive
4.1.soundscopulative,correctpredicateadjective;2.seemedcopulative,companionspredicatenoun;3.becamecopulative,importantpredicateadjective;4.actcopulative,childishpredicateadjective,arecopulative,busypredicateadjective;
5.appearedcopulative,uncannypredicateadjective;6.wascopulative,physicianpredicatenoun;wascopulative,availablepredicateadjective;
7.seemedcopulative,eagerpredicateadjective;8.grewcopulative,livelypredicateadjective;9.actedcopulative,sickpredicateadjective;10.wascopulative,manpredicatenoun
5.1.shall,
2.can,are,3.is,4.is,5.is,6.have,7.Might,8.Do,should,9.are,10.Would,11.should,12.have,13.will,14.is,15.does
6.1.should,2.would,would,3.should,4.will,5.should,6.will,7.will,8.Would,9.should,10.would,11.Will,12.Shall,13.will,14.will,15.should
7.1.subjunctive,2.subjunctive,3.indicative,
4.indicative,5.indicative,6.imperative,7.indicative,8.indicative,9.indicative,10.subjunctive,11.imperative,12.indicative,13.indicative,14.indicative,15.imperative
8.1.forbid,2.pay,3.were,4.insists,5.were,6.be,7.Come,8.be,9.be,10.were,11.was,12.be,13.was,14.were,15.apologize
9.1.passive,2.active,3.active,4.active,
5.passive,6.passive,7.active,8.passive,9.active,10.active
10.1.willbegoingplural,2.issingular,3.issingular,4.cooperateplural,5.hasbeensittingsingular,6.Havebeensittingplural,7.willbeleavingsingular,8.findplural,9.willbehavingplural,10.hasseensingular
11.1.have,2.has,3.is,4.willachieve,5.go,6.collect,7.are,8.has,9.finds,10.are
12.1.was,2.are,3.lie,4.was,5.is,
6.are,7.is,8.were,9.are,10.are
13.1.is,2.are,3.wants,4.carves,5.areallowed,6.are,7.take,8.goes,9.are,10.feeds,11.swim,12.is,13.stand,14.agree,15.is,16.has,17.has,18.wereproduced,19.comfort,20.carry
14.1.expects,2.votes,3.makes,4.are,5.works,6.leaves,7.have,
8.amaze,9.is,10.is
15.1.thirdpersonplural,2.thirdpersonplural,3.secondpersonsingular,4.firstpersonplural,5.firstpersonplural,6.thirdpersonplural,7.secondpersonsingularorplural,8.firstpersonsingular,9.thirdpersonplural,10.thirdpersonplural
16.1.present,active;2.presentperfect,passive;3.present,active;4.presentperfectprogressive,active;5.future,active;6.futureprogressive,active;7.present,passive;present,passive;8.presentprogressive,passive;9.future,active;10.past,passive;11.pastperfect,active;12.present,passive;13.past,active;pastperfect,passive;14.future,active;15.presentperfect,active
17.1.diving,2.ran,3.fall,
4.wrung,5.shown,6.hadled,7.laid,8.eaten,9.got,10.doveordived,11.lay,12.shrankorshrunk,13.lent,14.rangorrung,15.spoken
18.1.willbe,2.havebeeneaten,3.hurts,4.became,5.haveraised,6.willbe,7.calls,8.Is,9.inhale,10.willleave,11.hadescaped,12.willhaveleft,13.learned,14.turns,15.have
19.1.liked,2.hadlearned,3.hadbeendelivered,4.gave,5.like,
6.hadmissed,7.watched,8.waited,9.comes,10.willbeoris,11.was,12.is,13.hadarrived,14.areacted,15.is
20.1.was,2.is,3.entails,4.willhave,5.willdepartordeparts,6.use,7.was,8.was,9.knew,portrayed,10.willcontinue
21.1.Thefirstthingyoushoulddoisremovethewheelandthenexaminethebrakes.orThefirstthingtodoisremovethewheelandthenexaminethebrakes.
2.Somewritersworkonlyfourhoursaday,becausetheycannotdocreativeworkforlongerperiods.
3.Theyfoundthattheycouldnotsewtheseamswell,sincetheyalwaysmademistakeswhentheyfirsttriedtolearnanewskill.
4.Whenonehaslittlemoneytospend,oneiscarefulabouteverypurchase.orWhenyouhavelittlemoneytospend,youarecarefulabouteverypurchase.
5.Ifyougotothedance,youwillfindunescortedwomenwelcome.6.Becauseheconsideredthedesignperfect,thejudgesruledagainsthim.
7.correct8.Heselectedthematerialforthecoat,andthetailorwasthentoldtobeginwork.
9.Thewomenhadinsistedonadmittingmentotheirgroup,butmostofthemenfoundthemeetingsdull.
10.Nightmaresdisturbhissleepnightafternight,andhefindsnoreliefinsedatives.
22.1.complement,2.adverb,3.adverb,4.noun,5.adverb,6.complement,7.noun,8.noun,9.noun,10.noun
23.1.theemployeestocompletethejobonscheduleFunctionofphrase:objectofordered;Functionsofwords:themodifiesemployees,employeesissubjectofinfinitivetocomplete,themodifiesjob,jobisobjectoftocomplete,prepositionalphraseonschedulemodifiestocomplete,onintroducesprepositionalphrase,scheduleisobjectofprepositionon
2.ToidentifyenemiesFunctionofphrase:modifiesmet;Functionsofwords:enemiesisobjectofinfinitivetoidentify
3.hertoforgetherachievementscompletelyFunctionofphrase:objectoftold;Functionsofwords:herissubjectofinfinitivetoforget,hermodifiesachievements,achievementsisobjectoftoforget,completelymodifiestoforget
4.metoanswerthephoneinherabsenceFunctionofphrase:objectofasked;Functionsofwords:meissubjectofinfinitivetoanswer,themodifiesphone,phoneisobjectoftoanswer,prepositionalphraseinherabsencemodifiestoanswer,inintroducesprepositionalphrase,hermodifiesabsence,absenceisobjectofprepositionin
5.ToachievehisambitionFunctionofphrase:subjectofrequired;
Functionsofwords:hismodifiesambition,ambitionisobjectofinfinitivetoachieve
24.1.tohavetaken,2.toforgive,3.todelay,4.tobefed,5.tohavebeenfed,6.totell,7.totell,8.toplay,9.toadmit,10.tohaveprepared
25.1.tomorethanlose;tolosemorethan2.correct3.Tomorethantwohoursworkovertime;Toworkovertimemorethantwohours
4.tonotboardthebus;nottoboardthebus5.wastosafeandsoundfindthechild;wastofindthechildsafeandsound6.tofirmlybutrespectfullydemand;todemandfirmlybutrespectfully7.Tohavewithinaperiodofanhourwalkedaroundthepark;Tohavewalkedaroundtheparkwithinanhour
8.correct9.towithouthesitationtelltheentirestory;totelltheentirestorywithouthesitation
10.towithoutdelayselltheircar;toselltheircarwithoutdelay
26.1.RushingmodifiesChristopher,2.HavingbeentoldmodifiesHillary,3.Foundmodifiesmoney,4.SustainedmodifiesI,5.lockedmodifieschild,6.Swallowingmodifiesboy,
7.LeftmodifiesFelice,8.HavingrefusedmodifiesWilliam,9.Tiredmodifiesattorney,10.CongratulatingmodifiesHingis
27.1.Havingbeentold,2.Finding,3.Havingleft,4.Havingrefused,5.Havingoffered,6.arriving,7.omitted,8.challenging,9.realizing,10.havingretired
28.1.function:subjectofverb;modifiers:none;object:none2.function:objectofverb;modifiers:interestingadjective;object:none3.function:objectofpreposition;modifiers:none;object:none4.function:objectofverb;modifiers:none;object:none5.function:complementofverb;modifiers:none;object:enough6.function:subjectofverb;modifiers:none;object:specimens7.function:subjectofverb;modifiers:quicklytotheboneadverbialphrase;object:none
8.function:subjectofverb;modifiers:rapidlyadverb;object:papers9.function:subjectofverb;modifiers:goodadjective;object:none10.function:objectofverb;modifiers:his,tediousadjectives;object:none
29.1.Foracompanytosellthatmanyautomobiles,agreatmanypeoplemustlikethedesign.
2.Aplanewillhitpeoplestandingintherunway.3.Theplayhavingrunformanyweeks,mostpeopleconsidereditasuccess.
4.Beforegainingadmittancetohisapartment,onemustringabell.
5.AfterIhadhelpedtheoldmancrossthestreet,therestofthewalkwasuneventful.
6.Forthepaintingtoachieveevenmodestacceptance,allaspectsofitmustbeconsideredcarefully.
7.correct8.AsIstumbledblindlyinthefog,Isawamanappear.9.Havingassembledallthenecessaryingredients,sheiscertainofafinedinner.
10.Toprepareafinedinner,acookmustusefreshingredients.
30.1.correct,2.aregoingtodobadly,3.correct,4.correct,5.areleavingbyJanuary,6.correct,7.arewillingtotakejobs,8.totakeanapartment,9.correct,10.andleavingtheirdyingbodies
31.1.andcancreatepoormorale,2.correct,3.correct,4.norlendingwilllead,5.butshefound,6.andpreservetheindependence,7.correct,8.andruiningthebest,9.correct,10.bothboringandannoying,or:bothaboreandanannoyance
Chapter4
1.1.pronounthey,pronounthey,antecedentKateandLeonard;
2.pronounit,antecedentmouse;3.pronounhe,antecedentpainter,pronounthem,antecedentbrushes;4.pronounhe,antecedentHeinrichBöll;5.pronounhe,pronounhe,antecedentveteran;6.pronounhe,antecedentJohn,pronounshe,antecedentSally;7.pronounthey,antecedentJohnandSally,pronounshe,antecedentSally;pronounhe,antecedentJohn;
8.pronounit,antecedentgame,pronounthey,antecedentwords;9.pronounthey,pronounthey,antecedentJoanandAudrey;10.pronounthey,antecedentteachersandparents;11.pronounit,antecedenttooth;12.pronounshe,antecedentgovernor,pronounit,antecedentproclamation;13.pronounthey,antecedentZebras;14.pronounThey,antecedentlessons,pronounhe,antecedentMr.
Cunningham;15.pronounhe,pronounhim,antecedentDan;16.pronounthey,antecedentTextbooks,pronounit,antecedentmoney;17.pronounshe,pronounshe,pronounshe,antecedentMary,pronounthem,
antecedentdishes;18.pronounher,pronounshe,antecedentMarjorie;19.pronounhe,antecedentJon;20.pronounshe,antecedentRuth;21.pronounthey,antecedentadvantages,pronounthey,antecedenttourists;22.pronounthey,antecedentbombs;23.pronounit,antecedentVermont;24.pronounall,pronounthem,antecedentcitizens;25.pronounit,antecedentChicago
2.1.she,2.heorshe,3.they,4.She,5.them,6.They,it,
7.mine,8.it,9.They,10.They,11.heorshe,12.you,13.their,14.it,15.her,16.them,theirs,17.them,18.her,19.she,20.him,21.They,22.heorshe,23.it,24.theirs,25.hers
3.1.which,2.that,3.who,4.which,5.whose,6.that,7.whom,8.which,9.that,10.Whoever,11.that,12.WhomeverorWhatever,13.that,
14.Whichever,15.which,16.whomever,17.that,18.which,19.whose,20.that,21.who,22.whom,23.Whoever,24.WhichorWhichever,25.whom
4.1.so,2.these,those,3.thisorthat,4.those,5.thisorthatortheseorthose,6.firstorlast,7.this,that,8.these,those,9.such,10.Those
5.1.Who,2.What,3.Which,4.Whom,5.WhatorWhomorWhich,6.Who,7.What,8.Who,9.What,10.What
6.1.himself,2.yourself,3.themselves,4.herself,5.myself,oneself,6.themselves,7.herself8.yourself,9.himself,10.herself,11.yourselves,12.myself,13.herself,14.herself,15.itself
7.1.ourselves,2.itself,3.himself,4.oneself,5.myself,6.yourselves,7.himself,8.yourselforyourselves,9.herself,10.himself,11.ourselves,12.itself,13.yourselves,14.yourselforyourselves,15.yourselforyourselves
8.1.oneanother’s,
2.oneanother,3.eachother,4.eachother’s,5.oneanotheroreachother,6.oneanother’soreachother’s,7.oneanother’s,8.oneanother,9.eachother,10.oneanother
9.1.everyone,2.NooneorNobody,3.nooneornobody,4.anything,5.AllorManyorSeveral,6.anyoneoranybodyoreverybodyoreveryone,7.everythingormoreorall,8.littleornothing,9.littleornothingoreverythingorsomething,10.nothingorlittle,11.AnyoneorEveryoneorAnybodyorEverybody,12.anything,13.MuchorEverything;littleornothing,14.alloreverything;everybodyoreveryone,15.NooneorNobody,16.everyoneoreverybody;nooneornobody,17.such,18.few,19.someoneorsomebody,20.EveryoneorEverybody,21.everyoneoreverybody,22.Many,few,23.nooneornobody,
24.someoneorsomebody,25.others
10.1.it,2.they,3.they,4.they,5.who,themselves,6.Which,7.it,8.they,9.one,10.he,they,11.it,they,12.they,they,13.who,himself,14.who,who,he,15.those,she,16.it,17.he,18.it,19.Which,20.which,itself,21.they,he,22.they,it,23.she,it,24.he,it,25.he,who,him
11.1.it,2.they,3.they,4.hers,5.her,
6.them,7.them,8.they,9.them,10.they
12.1.it,2.they,3.it,4.it,5.they,6.they,7.it,8.themselves,9.it,10.it
13.1.who,2.heorshe,himselforherself,3.heorshe,4.itself,5.himselforherself,himselforherself6.it,7.it,8.herself,9.hisorhers,10.herself,11.it,12.herself,13.it,14.himselforherself,15.himself,16.it,
17.heorshe,18.it,19.heorshe,20.heorshe
14.1.ItorThisorThat,2.Who,3.she,4.he,5.he,6.they,7.they,8.I,9.who,10.who,heorshe,heorshe
15.1.her,her,2.whom,3.Whom,4.me,5.us,6.them,7.me,you,8.him,9.Whom,10.her
16.1.them,2.them,3.them,4.it,5.them,6.him,7.it,
8.them,9.them,10.herorhim
17.1.herorhimorit,2.themoryouorus,3.meoryouorusorhimorher,4.him,5.himorher,6.her,7.whom,8.him,9.themoryouorus,them,10.her
18.1.hisorhersoryoursortheirs,2.theirs,3.Whose,4.ours,5.hers,6.ours,7.ours,8.mineoryoursorhisorhers,9.mine,10.ours
19.1.me,2.I,3.mine,4.him,5.I,6.me,7.mine,8.mineorours,
9.me,10,I
Chapter5
1.1.Ten,enough,two,large,2.Oaken,early,3.only,little,4.Hard,great,5.orange,advisable,ski
2.1.Improperdescriptive,herlimiting,cateringdescriptive2.Carefuldescriptive,severallimiting,hislimiting,experimentaldescriptive
3.Mexicanproper;hislimiting4.Poordescriptive,hislimiting,Irishproper5.Onelimiting,perfectdescriptive
3.1.Hispossessive,hispossessive,2.Elevennumerical,3.herpossessive,herpossessive,4.Thatdemonstrative,bothindefinite,mypossessive,5.Whatinterrogative,6.whoserelative,allindefinite,7.Eachindefinite,hispossessive,8.Noindefinite,9.whoserelative,10.Theirpossessive,11.Hispossessive,12.Whichinterrogative,herpossessive,13.firstnumerical,herpossessive,14.Thatdemonstrative,onlyindefinite,yourpossessive,15.Anyindefinite
4.1.fine,2.excellent,3.exciting,4.bad,5.better,6.radiant,7.larger,8.(none),9.disconsolate,10.sad
5.1.freshtrout,2.Rarebooks,3.Italianopera,4.ripepear,5.soexciting
6.1.better,2.smaller,3.youngest,4.moresuitableorlesssuitable,5.broadest,6.morecompetentorlesscompetent,7.best,8.best,9.longer,10.longest
7.1.betweenyouandme,2.forindigentpersons,3.withfailingbusinesses,4.withlittlehope,5.withsubstantialfortunes,aboutthestockmarket,6.betweenhouses,inmytown,
7.oftheImpressionistpaintings,intheUnitedStates,8.throughmywindow,9.toEurope,10.onhisrightlung
8.1.thathadbeenmissingformanyyears,2.whichareindigenoustoAfrica,3.whoareskillfulininterpretingscientificdata,4.whofindtheirimmediatedesiresblocked,5.thathavebeenstoredproperly,6.Ihavetreasuredsincechildhood,7.thathadmanagedtosurvivewithoutcare,8.heplanstocooktoday,9.shefelledwithherlittlehatchet,10.whohaseverfoundhimselfunabletofindajob,whoarehabitually
unemployed
9.1.hewroteinhisEnglishcourses(restrictive)2.thatwereactiveintheperiodbetweenthetwoworldwars(restrictive)3.thathavebeenleftunrefrigerated(restrictive)4.thathaveservedtheirmasterswell(restrictive)5.thatconveysgratitudebutlittlewarmth(restrictive)6.Iconsultmostoften(restrictive)7.,whohavemademanyimportantculturalcontributionstoourcountry,(nonrestrictive)
8.,whichhasadistinctivetextureandappearance,(nonrestrictive)9.,whichcallsitselftheworldleaderinmaplesyrupproduction(nonrestrictive)
10.,whichisarelativelynewphenomenon,(nonrestrictive)
10.1.ThepipethatIleftbehindwasoneofthebestIeverowned.2.Mylastdollar,whichIwantedtospendonfood,wassupposedtokeepmealiveuntilpayday.
3.Twoquartsofmilk,whichcostlessthanapoundofmeat,havemorefoodvalueasfarasIamconcerned.
4.Yesterday’snewspaper,whichwasleftonmydoorstep,belongstomyneighbor.
5.Themessagethatthefieryministerconveysisnottobeignored.
11.1.book,2.Farmer,3.police,store,4.Phonograph,music,5.furniture
12.1.proud,2.poor,3.swift,4.wealthy,indigent,5.learned
13.1.sold,2.Undeterred,3.Struggling,4.Sprinkled,5.victimized,6.unopened,7.finding,unrewarding,8.Harassed,dispirited,9.Gasping,10.achieved
14.1.Runningashardaspossible,Icouldnotcatchmybreath.2.correct3.Afterhavingwalkedincirclesforthreehours,IknewIhadlostmyway.4.Sincemanypeopleatthatcollegewerestudious,thelibrarywasheavilyused.
5.Onceitiscooked,Icanenjoyafineroast.6.correct
7.correct8.Afeelingofdespairisnosurpriseinonestuckintrafficforhours.9.Whilesittingquietlybeforeawoodfire,youngandoldfindnoisychildrenanuisance.
10.Uponmeetingoldfriends,onenaturallyrespondswithpleasure.
15.1.toacquit—vote,2.tosuitthehappyoccasion—food,3.tofeedthem—owners,4.todanceto—music,5.toread—biography,6.tomeeteverysituation—joke,7.touseforthisjob—tool,8.tomissSundayservices—permission,9.towear—clothes,10.tocoverthestory—reporter
Chapter6
1.1.quietlymodifiesweep;2.completelymodifieshonest;3.Ideallymodifiesthedoctorwillhavecompletedherexamination;4.partiallymodifiesclosed,usuallymodifiesineffective,quietlymodifiesspoken;
5.diligentlymodifiespractice,nevermodifiessatisfy;6.patientlymodifiessat,finallymodifieswithdrew;7.quitemodifiescarefully,carefullymodifiesworks;8.Subsequentlymodifieswediscussedthebillwiththemanager;9.openlymodifiesrebuked,fairlymodifiesobvious;10.nevermodifiescanwork,toomodifiescarefully,carefullymodifiescan
work
2.1.adjective,2.adverb,3.adverb,
4.adverb,5.adverb,6.adjective,7.adverb,8.adverb,9.adjective,10.adverb,11.adverb,12.adjective,13.adverb,14.adverb,15.adverb
3.1.sometimes,time,2.possibly,manner,3.almost,manner,4.awkwardly,manner,5.never,time,6.frugally,manner,7.Finally,time,8.ever,time;there,place,9.less,degree,10.soon,time,11.Yes,assertion,12.undoubtedly,assertion,13.guardedly,manner,14.quickly,manner,15.west,place
4.1.adverb,2.adverb,3.adverb,4.adjective,5.adverb,
6.adjective,7.adverb,8.adjective,9.adjective,10.adverb,11.adjective,12.adverb,13.adjective,14.adjective,15.adverb
5.1.morecomfortably,2.moredeeply,3.moreorlesslovingly,4.morevividly,5.mostcolorfully,6.longer,7.morehungrily,8.mosthotly,9.mostheavily,10.mostheavily
6.1.beyondthelasthouse;ontheirstreet,2.mornings,3.inthemorning,4.Inthecoolevenings;afterdinner,5.intheFlemishmanner,6.attheboxoffice,7.Sundays;ontelevision,8.tenminutes,9.fivehundredthousanddollars,10.twentypoundsmorethanheryoungersister
7.1.thatIcouldnolongerremainintheroom(result),modifiesmainclause
2.HadIpaidadequateattentioninclass(condition),modifiesmainclause3.asifhedidnotcareatallaboutmyfeelings(manner),modifiesverbbehaved
4.thanmostofhiscontemporaries(comparison),modifiesprofound5.providedthatshesignedthedormitoryregisteruponleaving(condition),modifiesmainclause
6.whereveryoudriveinNewJersey(place),modifiesmainclause7.becauseIhadreachedtheageofeighteen(cause),modifiesmainclause8.eventhoughtheplagiarismcommitteequestionedhimallday(condition),modifiesverbwouldsubmit
9.Beforeyougatherupyourbooks(time),modifiesmainclause10.Sinceaquorumisnotpresent(cause),modifiesmainclause11.Althoughhetriedeverytrickheknew(concession),modifiesmainclause12.Ifnooneshowsupforthepicnic(condition),modifiesmainclause13.asIwascrossingthestreet(time),modifiesmainclause14.asIhadinmyfirstterm(comparison),modifiesadjectivegood15.HadIrememberedwhattheinstructortoldme(condition),modifiesmain
clause16.astheirmastershavetaughtthem(manner),modifiesverbdobehave17.Becausetherewasnothinglefttodobutsurrender(cause),modifies
mainclause18.wheneverIcanfindareplacement(time),modifiesinfinitivetoleave19.ifcollegesmaintainacademicstandards(condition),modifiesmain
clause20.sinceitwaspainted(time),modifiesmainclause21.asifshewasthoroughlyexhausted(manner),modifiesmainclause22.Sincethereareonlyfourofus(cause),modifiesmainclause23.Althoughnothingappearedtobewrongwiththecar(concession),
modifiesmainclause24.WhereverIgoinNewYork(place),modifiesmainclause25.WhileIwashavingmylunch(time),modifiesverbdroppedby
8.1.Iinsistongoingtothebaseballgame;Iinsist,moreover,thatyougowithme.
2.Theorganizationtreasuryiscompletelyempty;itwill,nevertheless,continuetoattempttoraisefundssothatitcanpayitsdebts.
3.Thefinaldateforsubmittalofproposalshasnotyetpassed;wewill,therefore,receiveallproperlyexecutedoffersuntilthatdatearrives.
4.Completeagreementbetweenthetwocontestantsisnotlikely;however,wecanalwayshopethatbothpartieswillsomehowseethattheirinterestslieinmutualtrust.
5.Thepatientshowsnosignsofrecoveringdespiteallthemedicaltreatmenthehasbeengiven;thus,thereisnothingtodobuthopethatcarefulnursingandtheprocessesofnaturewillseehimthrough.
9.1.extremely(keep),2.much(keep),3.too(keep),4.somewhat(delete),5.tremendously(delete),6.extremely(delete),7.quite(delete),8.very(delete),9.quite(delete),10.too(keep)
10.1.tobecomeviolentmodifiestends,2.tocoverseveralSouthernstatesmodifiesseems,3.torepealtheabortionlawsmodifieswereintroduced,4.toutilizehisgreatspeedmodifiesbats,5.[to]mockanyonemodifiesdidn’tdare,6.totraveltoScotlandagainthissummermodifiesintend,7.todrinkagreatdealofwatermodifiesareinclined,8.toevicthisobjectionabletenantmodifiestried,9.tostocktheirshelveswithworthwhilebooksmodifieseager,10.totravelontheirownmodifieslove
Chapter7
1.1.forhepatitis,bythedoctor;2.fromLittleRock;3.tothetheater,withherfather;4.attheseashore,duringtheentiresummer;5.intime,forthelateflight;6.Ontwooccasions,withthedentist;7.Forall;8.withcolor,intheautumn;9.inthehouse,forlunch;10.forcharitablepurposes
2.1.(of)economicrecession,2.(for)work,3.(of)myfriends,(at)thereunion,4.(for)whichIhavebeenwaiting,5.(to)stadium,(in)dread,(of)afternoon,6.(by)Beethoven,7.(from)nursery,(to)room,8.(of)arrival,(of)spring,(of)howcoldspringcanbe,9.(of)studies,(of)sciences,10.(for)Antarctica,(in)months
3.1.Duringtheraidmodifieswerewounded(verb)2.inthebusstationmodifieslost(verb)3.bythereviewingstandmodifiespassed(verb)4.Bytheendmodifieswasleft(verb),oftheperformancemodifiesend(noun),intheaudiencemodifieswasleft(verb)
5.toourschoolmodifiesclose(adjective)6.forhiscourtesymodifieswasrewarded(verb),bytheoldwomanmodifieswasrewarded(verb)
7.inhiscoincollectionmodifiesdelight(noun)8.tothehospitalmodifiesway(noun)9.bysomepeoplemodifiesisrecognized(verb)10.withgreatcaremodifiesselected(verb)
4.1.Throughouttheterm,2.intoamajorexercise,3.pasttheguardrail,ontothelawn,4.fortheirinexpensivewhiteandredwines,5.Acrosstown,likethat,ofFrance,6.withinreason,7.Becauseofhisdelay,inpaying,8.Outofthepitchblacknight,ofthreateningappearance,9.nearthecitycenter,incitylife,10.pastthemaîtred’hoôtel,neartheband,11.offthestage,ofherlegs,12.Sinceherhusband’sdeath,ofherown,13.insteadofyou,14.Inspiteofeverything,15.towardthebar,despitemyrepeatedwarnings
5.1.her,2.you,3.us,4.whomever,5.her,them,6.them,7.him,8.her,9.Whom,10.me,her
6.1.none,2.for,3.but,4.for,becauseof,5.for,with,6.none,7.of,
8.none,9.after,but,10.For
7.1.adverb,adverb,2.adjective,adverb,3.adverb,adverb,4.adjective,adjective,5.adjective,adverb,adjective,6.adjective,adverb,7.adjective,adjective,8,adverb,9.adjective,adverb,10.adjective,adjective
8.1.Ofallthemembers,ofdoingsuchmischief,2.onalittlehill,behindthewall,forsomeone,3.inoffices,withcopyingmachines,4.withgoodtobacco,5.Nearthefarm,tothemaking,oflime,6.none,7.bythefirehouse,duringherlunchhour,8.Intheafternoons,aboutthecity,forsomediversion,inhismisery,9.withsmoke,ontheupperfloors,10.none,11.infullleaf,12.ofmytime,onchores,ofcompletion,13.intormentingchildren,14.Fordays,onend,tothesidewalk,15.Intheafternoons,forhereyes,tothesubduedlight,ofthenursinghome
9.1.Notonly…butcoordinating;2.sothatsubordinating;3.Sincesubordinating,andcoordinating;
4.Untilsubordinating,andcoordinating;5.Either…orcoordinating,becausesubordinating;6.Whensubordinating,sosubordinating;7.orcoordinating,yetcoordinating;8.orcoordinating,whensubordinating;9.Sosubordinating,thatsubordinating,andcoordinating;10.Whereversubordinating,orcoordinating,thatsubordinating
INDEX
Pleasenotethatindexlinkspointtopagebeginningsfromtheprintedition.Locationsareapproximateine-readers,andyoumayneedtopagedownoneormoretimesafterclickingalinktogettotheindexedmaterial.
Adjective:clauses,108–110comparison,106–107definition,102infinitiveusedas,113–114nounusedas,110–113participleusedas,111–112position,105Adjectiveclauses,thatandwhich,107–110Adjectivephrases,107Adjectivetypes(seedemonstrative,indefinite,interrogative,numerical,possessive,relative)Adjectiveusedasnoun,103Adverb:conjunctive,124–125defined,115distinguishedfromadjective,119–120endingin-ly,116–117functions,115infinitiveas,126–127nounsandphrasesusedas,121–122recognizing,116–119Adverbialclauses,122–124Adverbs,comparisonof,120–121Agreement:collectivenounandverb,53–54
compoundsubjectandverb,51–52subjectofverb,48–49Antecedents:collectivenounsas,91joinedbyand,or,nor,94–95pronoun,89–93singularpronounsas,96–97Article,definition,36Auxiliaryverb:compoundconstruction,75–76definition,42
Clause,definition,16Collectivenouns,34–35Comparisonofadjectives,106Complement,definition,2Compoundpredicate,definition,37Conditionscontrarytofact,44Conjunction:coordinating,135–136definition,135–136subordinating,135–136Conjunctiveadverbs,124–125Consistencyofverbs,62–64Copulativeverbs,41–42
Danglingmodifiers,73–74,112–113Definitearticle:definition,34omission,34Demonstrativeadjectives,99–100Demonstrativepronouns,86–87Dependentclause,definition,15Descriptiveadjective,99–100
Directobject,definition,2
Gerund:definition,71functions,71–72
Idiomaticexpressions,42Imperativemood,definition,40–41Impersonalpronouns,76–77Indefinite,adjectives,96–97Indefinitearticle:choosingcorrectform,36definition,36Indefinitepronouns,87–88Independentclause,definition,15Indicativemood,definition,42Indirectobject,definition,7Infinitive:asadverb,120–121asmodifier,69compoundconstruction,70–71dangling,74–75definition,64functions,64–67split,67–68tenses,66–67Infinitivephrase,definition,65–66Intensifiers,125–126Intensivepronouns,85–87Interrogativeadjectives,86–93Interrogativepronouns,88–89Intransitiveverb,definition,40
Limitingadjective,103–104
Linkingverb,definition,41
Modifier:dangling,73–74definition,8misplaced,73–74Mood:consistency,63definition,44–47idiomaticexpressions,45–46Multiple-wordmodifier,definition,9
Nonrestrictiveadjectiveclauses,108–109Noun:adjectiveusedas110–111capitalization,28collective,33–34common,29definition,19directobjectofverb,20functions,20–22indirectobjectofverb,22modifierofanoun,22objectofpreposition,20objectofverbal,20pluralforms,31possessiveforms,32–33predicatecomplement,22proper,28subjectofverb,20Nounclauses,35–36Nountypes,28–29Nounusedas:adjective,110–111
adverb,121Numericaladjectives,99–100
Parallelconstruction,verbforms,77–78Participle:asmodifier,70dangling,70–71,112–113defined,69misplaced,69–70tenses,70usedasadjective,111–112Pastparticiple,53–54Pasttense,53–54Person:consistency,62definition,54Personalpronouns,82–83Phrase:definition,17usedasadverb,115–116Possessiveadjectives,99–100Predicateadjectives,104–105Predicate(verb):definition,39types,39Preposition:definition,128–129,133objectof,132Prepositionalphrase:asmodifier,133–134definition,123–124Prepositions,common,130–131Presenttenseforideastrueforalltime,57–58Pronoun:
Pronoun:agreement,93–94asappositive,100–101definition,79objectivecase,98objectofpreposition,99–100objectofverbal,98–99possessivecase,100subjectivecase,97–98Pronountypes(seedemonstrative,impersonal,indefinite,intensive,interrogative,personal,reciprocal,reflexive,relative)Properadjectives,97–98Propernoun,27
Reciprocalpronouns,91–92Reflexivepronouns,89–90Relativeadjective,103–114Relativepronouns,85–86Restrictiveadjectiveclauses,108–109
Sentence,elementsof,1–18Shallandwill,43Shouldandwould,43–44Simplepredicate,definition,37Single-wordmodifier,definition,8Splitinfinitive,63–64Subject,definition,1Subjunctivemood:definition,42–43idiomaticexpressions,44thatclauses,44Subordinateclause,definition,15
Tense:
agreement,60–61definition,54–55presentforideastrueforalltime,61–62selection,58–59Thatclauses,42,109Transitiveverb,definition,40
Verb:agreement,49–53auxiliary,42–43copulative,41–42definition,1,38infinitive,41–43moods,44–47number,46–50parallelconstruction,74–76pastparticiple,52–53pasttense,52–53person,53–54predicate,39presentparticiple,54–56principalparts,56–58shallandwill,43shouldandwould,44tenses,53–54Verb,transitive,40Verbal:asmodifier,69definition,64Voice:consistency,62definition,48
Whichclauses,107
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