lds exam notes.docx
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Word Class
Verbs and Tenses
Simple Past (SPs)
Acve: Simple past form (-ed)
Passive: was/were past parciple
Collided, failedWere killed, was passed
Past Connuous (PsC)
Acve: was/were present parciple
Was speeding, was raining
Word Class Example
Noun House, John
Pronoun
Him, His
Adjecve Beauful, stupid
Preposion On, At
Verb Cooking, Running
Adverb Nicely, wonderfully
Conjuncon And, But
Interjecon Wow!
Determiner The, that
Simple Present (SPr)
Acve: Base form, s
Passive: am/is/are past parciple
Collapses, throwsIs swept, are formed
Present Connuous (PrC)
Acve: am/is/are present parciple
Passive: am/is/are being past
parciple
Are (you) listening, is livingAre being eroded, is being built
Present Perfect (PrP)
Acve: has/have past parciple
Passive: has/have been past
parciple
Has done, has providedHave been quesoned
Present Perfect Connuous (PrPC)
Acve: has/have been present
parciple
Passive: rarely used
Has been wanng, have been
watching
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Passive: was/were being past
parciple
Was being cut, were being hangedPast Perfect (PsP)
Acve: had past parciple
Passive: had been past parciple
Had lived, had tornHad been lost, had been xed
Past Perfect Connuous (PsPC)
Acve: had been present parciple
Passive: Rarely used
Had been looking
Acve (FA)
will/shall bare innive (base form)
Will announcePassive (FP)
will/shall be past parciple
Shall be doneConnuous (FC)
will/shall be present parciple
Will be sailingPerfect (FPe)
will/shall have past parciple
Will have spentPerfect Connuous (FPC)
will/shall have been present
parciple
Will have been looking
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
SPs
Tom said, I sawMike at the
cinema.->
PsP
Sue said that she had seen Mike at
the cinema.
PrP
Tom said, I have lost my watch. ->PsP
Tom said that he had lost his
watch.
PrPC
Joe said, I have been waing for
hours.->
PsPC
Joe said that he had been waing
for hours.
PsC
Kate said, I was trying to help. ->PsPC
Kate said that she had been trying
to help.
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Subject-Verb Agreement
1. Countable Nouns = Singular noun -> singular verb, Plural noun -> pluralverb
- A movie cket costsRM8 on weekdays.- Theyleavetheir oce at 7 p.m. everyday.
2. All uncountable nouns -> singular verb- Permissionisgranted for Air Force to land.- Evidenceshowsthat the suspect was in the room with the vicm.
3. Indenite Pronoun (everyone, everybody) -> singular verb- Everyoneassociated with the projectisproud to be part of the eort.- Someonehasto be responsible.
4. Some phrases may contain plural words -> just focus on the subjectpronoun
- Eachof the project partners isresponsible for wring a chaptersummary.
5. All, some -> refer back to the subject whether is countable or not- Someof the studentsin the class havevoted already. *students is
plural = plural verb have is used+
- Someof the grainwasruined by the ood. *grain is uncountable =singular verb was is used+
None can have both plural and singular verb
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o Noneof us haveany idea where did he went. *plural+o Noneof us hasany idea where did he went. *singular+
6. Fraconal -> refer to subject whether it is countable or not - Two-h of the grainisruined. *grain is uncountable = singular verb
is is used+
- One-half of the studentswereconvinced that there would be no nalexam this year. *students is plural = plural verb were is used+
7. Phrases together with, along with, as well as -> can be ignored- Some of the hayin the barn, as well as some major pieces of farm
equipment, wasruined in the ood. *hay is uncountable = singular
verb was is used+
8. Either, Neither when stands alone -> singular verb- Neitherof these choices appearsto be sasfactory.
9. Eitheror, Neithernor (as correlave conjuncon) -> refer to subjectcloser to the verb
- Neitherthe principal northe teachersareat fault.- Neitherthe teachers northe principal isat fault.
10.Empty subject (there is, there are) -> refer to subject that comes aerthe verb
- Thereareseveral explanaonsfor the problem.
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- HerecomeJohn and his two brothers.Phrases
Phrases
Examples
Noun Phrases (determiner noun) The school, the crazy man
Adjecval Phrases (intensier
adjecve)
Very beauful, very small
Adverbial phrases (adverb
intensier / other noun)
More clearly, quickly to the rubbish
bin
Preposional Phrases (Prep det
noun)
To the school, in the bin, in the city
Clauses
Noun Clause can be replaced by other pronouns
a) Type of Clause- Start with these words
that He thinks that this audion is easy.
Wh-word (who, when, what, where,
which, why, how)
Everybody wondered where he lives.
Wh-ever word The prince will marry whoever walks
through that door.
Whether I dont know whether he will recover.
If I dont know if Fadzil has a job.
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b) Funcon of clausesAs subject of sentence
That he has disappearedis a mystery.
(can be replaced with it)
Object of the sentence Her friends didnt like what she was
saying.
(can be replaced with that)
Subject complement Her mistake was that she kept lying.
(can be replaced with this)
Object of preposion The search party looksinto whatever
is applicable.
(can be replaced with it)
Adjecve complement She is afraid that the search is a
failure.
Adverbial Clause (the funcon is usually adverbial too)
- Answers quesons of:
- Introduced by subordinang conjunconsas if he is so smart
Wherever he likes
Why?
When?
Where?
How?
How Long?
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while she is free although he loves her so much
Adjecval Clause
Paern of clause
- Relave Pronoun Subject Verbthat she likes
(Rel. Pro) (Subject) (Verb)
- Relave Pronoun Verbwho sits beside me
(Rel. Pro) (Verb)
Common relave pronouns and adverbswho which whom Whose
that where when why
Funcon of Clause
- Answers queson: what kind? Which one? How many?- Provides extra informaon to the sentence- Subject complement
Faiz, who scored high marks in the exam,lives in Selangor.
Cohesive Devices
a) Logical connectors- Are usually conjuncons- Connects two ideas so they have a ow between them- FANBOYS, subordinang conjuncons, correlave conjuncons
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- E.g.I went to the market and bought some vegetables.
Sally picked up the cat and stroked it gently.
c) Compound Sentences- Made up of 1 independent clause (main clause) 1 dependant clause
(subordinang clause)
- Joined by subordinang conjuncons (because, since, aer, although,before, if, while etc.) and relave pronouns (that, who, whom, which,
whose etc.)
- E.g.The earthquake struck while we were at the study hall.
Although he had studied hard, he sll fails the test.
Sentence Paerns
1. Subject Verb (SV)The chair breaks.
The bird ies.
Fahri smiles.
2. Subject Verb Object (SVO)Joseph kicked the ball.
The boys build the tree-house.
The men captured the thief.
3. Subject Verb Adverbial (SVA)My parents are at the bank.
Miss Florence has been here before.
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We were in the forest.
4. Subject Verb Complement (SVC)Miss Joanne was my music teacher.
The boys are hungry.
My sister is in a bad mood.
5. Subject Verb Object Object (SVOO) (2 objects = Indirect Direct)I gave my mother a bouquet of owers.
Our boss gave us some bonus.
Jimmy cooked some spaghe for his guests.
6. Subject Verb Object Complement (SVOC)The warden found the prisoner dead.
Everyone calls Fahri a genius.
We elected her the president.
7. Subject Verb Object Adverbial (SVOA)Mother cooks for us every day.
John is baking some muns for his children.
Amy is donang some books for the new library.
Direct Speech -> Indirect Speech
1. Change in punctuaon marks.2. Change in reporng verbs.3. Change in pronoun.
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4. Change in tenseDIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
SPs
Tom said, I sawMike at thecinema. -
>
PsP
Sue said that she had seen Mike atthe cinema.
PrP
Tom said, I have lost my watch. ->PsP
Tom said that he had lost his
watch.
PrPC
Joe said, I have been waing for
hours.->
PsPC
Joe said that he had been waing
for hours.
PsC
Kate said, I was trying to help.
->
PsPC
Kate said that she had been trying
to help.
5. Change in modal verb formsDirect Speech Indirect Speech
am/is/were-> was/were
was/were
-> had been
has/have-> had
will/shall-> would
can-> could
may-
>
might
6. Change in me referencesDirect Speech Indirect Speech
tomorrow-> the next day/the following day
Today-> That day/the same day
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Tonight
Yesterday
That night
The day before/ the previous
day
Last night/week/month/year
Next night/week/month/year
-> The previous night/
week/month/year
The following night/
week/month/year
The day before yesterday-> Two days before
The day aer tomorrow
-> In two days me
Two days ago-> Two days before
Now-> Then
Sentence Moods
1. Declarave mood- Stang facts to give details, facts, informaon- Ends with a period (.)- E.g.
Bangkok is the capital of Thailand.
I have completed my work.
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2. Interrogave mood- To ask, to require informaon, to invesgate, to request- Starts with modal verbs (will, should) or wh-quesons (what, who
etc.), ends with a queson mark (?)
- E.g.Is this your son?
Do you need my help?
What is happening?
3. Imperave mood- To instruct, give order, give command- Usually the subject of sentence is dropped
Watch out! (Youwatch out!)
- E.g.Let them go.
Dont pluck the owers!
Do be careful.
4. Exclamatory mood- To express admiraon, strong emoons and feelings- Ends with an exclamaon mark (!)- E.g.
How lovely you look!
Isnt that a shame!
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5. Subjuncve mood- Express doubt, condions that may or may not happen- Express hope, suggeson- Usage of modal verbs (could, should, might, may, would)- Usage of subordinate conjuncon if- E.g.
If I should see her, I will tell her the decision.
If I were you, I would be so happy.
I wish that we will have a beer leader.
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