how plastic affects marine life c. akrivos research paper
Post on 03-Apr-2018
220 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
1/32
Marine Debris Research
How Plastic AffectsMarine Life
Prepared by Constantinos Akrivos Summer 2013
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
2/32
Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................4
Ocean Benefits Earth and Human Communities.........................................................5
What is Marine Debris.................................................................................................7
Sources of Marine Debris............................................................................................8
Mechanical Debris Removal.......................................................................................9
Plastic Decomposition................................................................................................11
Effects on Marine Life...............................................................................................12
Examples of Plastic Pollution....................................................................................12
Categories of Marine Pollution.................................................................................13
Direct Environmental Impacts...................................................................................14
Ingestion Impact........................................................................................................14
Entanglement Impact.................................................................................................15
Ecosystem Alteration.................................................................................................15
Indirect Environmental Impacts................................................................................16
Ecosystem Alteration.................................................................................................16
Transportation of Invasive Species Impact................................................................16
More dangerous in Ocean rather Than in Land........................................................18
Effects on Human Communities................................................................................19
Health Impacts...........................................................................................................19
Economical Impacts..................................................................................................20
Tourism......................................................................................................................20
Fishing.......................................................................................................................20
Navigation.................................................................................................................21
Prevent the Destruction.............................................................................................22
Activism.....................................................................................................................23
International Law about Marine Debris...................................................................23
European Law for Marine Debris.............................................................................24
United States Law for Marine Debris.......................................................................25
2
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
3/32
Other Types of Law for Marine Debris.....................................................................25
Methodology..............................................................................................................26
Conclusion................................................................................................................27
Bibliography...............................................................................................................28
Online Resources.......................................................................................................30
3
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
4/32
Introduction
Over the last decades the marine pollution has become a very important threat to water
habitats and to human communities. The oceans benefit the whole planet but the marine
debris seems to be an unstoppable foe to its procedure. Marine debris is dangerous for all
marine animals. Its main component is human made waste, usually plastic, which does not
biodegrade easily. Plastic bags, cloths, tins, cans, landfills, garbage transportation and
other such items are the main sources of this anthropogenic debris. The consequences of
the plastic debris affect the human societies although there are always ways to prevent the
entire destruction of marine ecosystems. Many activists such as Greenpeace organization
have tried to sensitize citizens and governments for the protection of the marine
environments. For this reason it have been prepared conventions for preventing the
pollution from ships and ocean dumping. Yet, the effects of marine debris in marine life and
as an expansion the effects of marine debris in human communities can be devastating if
drastic measures do not be taken soon.
4
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
5/32
Ocean Benefits Earth and Human Communities
All societies rely on the ocean and its resources, whether is the food we eat or the oxygen
we breath. Before we start analyze the effects of plastic in marine life, lets check briefly the
services that ocean provides us.
Ocean transfers the heat from the equator to the poles and moderates carbon dioxide
levels in the atmosphere, affecting climate and weather patterns. Seafood is a major
source of protein and ocean offers this staple food to us. Seafood helps in economical
terms, because it has alter to one of the most exported items in the global market today.
More than 90 percent of global trade is account on ocean-bound shipping. Marine plants
and animals sources provides new biochemical or medical products that accounts human
health.
More specific all the benefits that ocean offers to the planet life:
Climate Regulation
Food
Economy
Transportation
Medicine
Hence aqua ecosystems are a great fount of aid for our planet, in terms of climate
regulation or in food, economical issues, which aftermaths in helping us. But the marine
debris bottle prevent this process. Before though, we analyze what are actually the effects
5
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
6/32
of plastics in water environments, we have to definite marine debris first.
6
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
7/32
What is Marine Debris
Marine litter is human waste that has been thrown on purpose or accidentally in water
ecosystems like lakes, waterways or in oceans. Now and again, ocean debris tends to
conglomerate on coastlines or at the center of gyres. It is known as beach litter too.
Although the waste at sea is called ocean dumping or marine debris.
Humans have played a major role in the creation of many types of plastic, along with the
increase of plastic itself, which does not biodegrade. Obviously, the marine debris is
comprised of plastic materials. The average proportion varies between 60 to 80 percent of
total marine plastic debris. The 90 to 95 percent of the total amount of marine debris in
many regions, constitute plastic materials.
This waterborne plastics are not only a threat to most marine animals such as fishes,
seabirds, marine reptiles and marine mammals but are threat to boats and coasts as well.
The effects of marine debris in aqua life will be discussed later on, but keep in mind that
the ocean dumping posses danger to the human communities too.
7
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
8/32
Sources of Marine Debris
Eighty percent of the marine debris comes from plastic (Weisman (2007). This 80 percent
of marine debris comes from land-based sources like factories, as clarified in 1991, the
United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution. So,
most of the marine debris is urban runoff and through storm drains gets to the water
environments.
The main sources of types of anthropogenic debris are:
i. litter (bags, cans, singe-use disposable products, food containers)
ii. industrial discharges
iii. garbage transportation
iv. landfills
v. construction debris
vi. debris from commercial establishments and public venues.
Concurrently, the other 20 percent of marine debris comes from ocean-based sources,
such as overboard discharges from ships and discarded fishing gear.
Food containers and packaging are the largest component of the municipal solid waste
stream; 80 million tons or in terms of statistics, 31.7 percent. Together with plastic bags,
these items represent the largest component of marine debris. Lastly, packaging and
single use disposable products manage to unstable use precious resources, like oil, trees,
water or energy sources, as well as harming the water environment.
8
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
9/32
In 1992, thousands of rubber ducks and other toys went overboard during a storm. As a
result the toys have since been found all over the world, providing a better understanding
of ocean currents. Similar incidents have happened before, such as when Hansa Carrier
dropped 21 containers (with one notably containing buoyant Nike shoes) as Marsha
Walton stated in CNN in 2008. Another notable source of marine debris was the container
ship in 2007, MSC Napoli were it beached in the English Channel, dropping hundreds of
containers, most of which washed up on the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site,
according to BBC.
As strange as it seems marine litter can be found on the floor of the Arctic ocean as 2012
CBS News article declares. Another source of debris is in Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia,
where 52 percent of items were generated by recreational use of an urban park, 14
percent from sewage disposal and only 7 percent from shipping and fishing activities
(Walker et all., 2006).
Mechanical Debris Removal
Specialized mechanical equipment such as Trash Hunter have been designed for the
removal of marine debris. These specialized boats can gather easily the manmade and
organic floating debris from the waterway. These activities take place only for emergency
reasons. Trash traps are installed as well on small rivers to capture waterborne debris
before it reaches the sea. South Australia's Adelaide operates a number of such traps, for
example, which are known as "trash racks" or "gross pollutant traps" on the Torrens River,
9
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
10/32
which flows into the large inlet of water, Gulf St Vincent, during wet seasons.
10
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
11/32
Plastic Decomposition
Polyethylene terephthalate or PET is a powerful, nearly indestructible morph of plastic
used to make most containers and bottles. PET like all petroleum-based plastics don't
decompose as the organic material does. Usually it takes plastic over 100 years to
biodegrade in heat temperatures and its biodegradation differs in comparison to wood,
grass or fruits like apples, which biodegrade in one to two months. Plastic is petroleum-
based and this is why it does not biodegrade easily, so it cannot be easy compostable.
In a few words Biodegradable plastic is plastic that has been treated by microorganisms,
like bacteria to be easily broken down and return to the natural enviroment. But most
commonly used plastics do not mineralize in the ocean and instead break down into
smaller and smaller pieces, the microplastics.
Plastic biodegradation in ocean is more difficult to happen than land, because ocean is a
cold place where heat temperatures are quite low. In oceans then, plastic debris do not
mineralize but instead breaks down in small pieces which cannot be seen without a
microscope.
Besides, plastic can degrade quicker at cooler temperatures rather than heat temperatures
according to Japan-based scientists. In 2009 the high school student, Daniel Burd,
managed to discover a microbe that eats plastic and manages to decomposes it. The
result either way is that the plastic when decomposes is leaching toxic chemicals into
seas, putting in danger marine animals and human communities.
11
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
12/32
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
13/32
Fishing nets can be devastating as well for the water habitats. Fishermen use to leave
leave or lose their nets in the ocean. The result of this act is that sea creatures like fish,
dolphins, turtles, sharks, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs and other creatures are being
entangled on these ghost nets. These nets cause to them starvation, restrict movement,
laceration, infection and in animals such as turtles who breath air, suffocation.
According to United Nations Environment Programme plastic shopping bags can clog
digestive tracts when consumed and can cause starvation to marine animals through
restricting the movement of food, or by filling the stomach and tricking the animal into
thinking it is full. A UNEP 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets in the North-Western
Mediterranean around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported mean concentrations
of debris of 1,935 items per square kilometer. Marine debris accounted for 77 percent of
which 93 percent was plastic bags. Note that this pollution harms an estimated of 100,000
marine animals, including sea turtles, as well as 1,000,000 creatures each year (Sea Turtle
Restoration Project. 2010).
Categories of Marine Plastic Pollution
We must highlight that plastic pollution, is known to have two environmental impacts, each
with its own subcategories. The direct environmental impacts, which categorize to
ingestion, entanglement, ecosystem alteration and the indirect environmental impacts
which categorize to ecosystem alteration, transport of invasive species.
13
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
14/32
Direct Environmental Impacts
Ingestion Impact
Marine animals often accidentally ingest marine debris that they mistake it with their every
day food. Ingesting human waste can serious though damage water life. Whales, turtles
sometimes mistake plastic bags with squid for instance and birds frequently
misunderstand plastic pellets with fish eggs. A study of 38 green turtles discovered that 61
percent had ingested some for of marine debris such as plastic bags or cloths. (Bugoni et
all., 2001).
Toxic substances are contained in some plastics and can lead to death or cause
reproductive failure in marine life (Moore, C., 2002). Ingestion of marine debris can cause
also to water habitats starvation or malnutrition, when the waste collects in animal's
stomach, making the marine organism to fell full. Sometimes starvation happens when
marine debris in the animal's system prevents vital nutrients from being absorbed.
Examples of marine debris ingestion:
31 species of marine
mammals are known to have
ingested marine plastic
(Allsopp et al)
Over 100 species of sea
birds are known to ingest
plastic debris (Laist, 1997).
Around 95 percent of
Fulmers have plastic in their
stomachs that affect them in
chemical and mechanical
ways according to Dr Jan
Andries van Frameker.
14
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
15/32
Entanglement Impact
Marine pollution can cause death and injuries to marine life when they become entangled
in marine debris. Entanglement is capable of making marine animals to suffer from
suffocation, starvation, drowning, increased vulnerability to predators, or other injury.
Volunteers participated in the 2008 International Coastal Cleanup event and discovered
443 animals and birds entangled or trapped by marine debris (2008 ICC Report, Ocean
Conservancy). Approximately 80 percent plastic marine debris is responsible for the
entanglement of large numbers of Antarctic fur seals, on the remote sub-Antarctic island of
South Georgia.
Examples of entanglement impact:
Over 250 species
have been known to
have ingested in
plastic (Laist, 1997).
Sea lions and seals have
been discovered with
entanglement rates of up to
7.9 percent (Allsopp et al)
United Nations Environment
Program reports that around
300.000 cetaceans are caught in
nets each year (US EPA, 1992).
Ecosystem Alteration
Except mobile animals in oceans and generally in water ecosystems there other
organisms also, like plants. As with the mobile animals the immobile living organisms like
plants can be harmed too by marine debris. For instance corrals can be damaged by
derelict fishing gear which breaks the corral. Plants can be extinguished by fishing nets or
15
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
16/32
plastic bags. In general, marine environments and especially ocean floor can be harmed
from marine debris.
Indirect Environmental Impacts
Ecosystem Alteration
We have refereed in this research about the mechanical marine debris removal via the
Trash Hunter but machine like these can negatively impact shoreline habitats. In this
way many marine animals like, nesting birds, sea turtles as well as other forms of aquatic
life can be harmed by this removal technique. Coastlines clean up can bring to beaches
erosion, even disturbance natural vegetation of nation when the raking is governed near a
due. Consequently, efforts to remove marine debris may actually harm the water
ecosystems.
Transport of Invasive Species Impact
Invasive species uses marine debris for their movement from one location to another.
Basically, they are carried by the floating by the floating debris in order to transport to
another place.
As a result of the above, the marine litter in particular plastic increases, resulting in a
increase in species invasion (Allsopp et all). Except this man made litter has resulted in a
16
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
17/32
significant increase in the opportunities for the transportation of alien species. A
widespread problem that leads to the transportation of invasive species is the Biotic
Mixing which is a result of human activities (Barnes, 2002). Additionally, a study from the
British Antarctic Survey in 2002 estimated that human debris found in the oceans has
approximately doubled the number of different species found in the subtropics (Barnes,
D.K., 2002).
Non-endemic species can have a catastrophic impact on indigenous species. The non-
biodegradable material pollution and biodiversity increase will accelerate the process of
biodiversity (Gregory, 2009).
Specifically, marine plastic pollution has impacted at least 267 species worldwide,
including 86 percent of all sea turtle species, 44 percent of all seabird species and 43
percent of all marine mammal species.
17
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
18/32
More Dangerous in Ocean Rather Than in Land
Pharmaceuticals, oil spoils, energy consumption, carbon emissions and toxic chemicals
are being thrown into the marine environments making them big threat for the human
communities.
The US hospitals and long-term facilities flush millions of pounds of pharmaceuticals
annually down the drain, according to the Associated Press. As for oil spoils, an estimated
706 million gallons of oil are leaked from ships or wash from land into the ocean every
year. Toxic mercury that ends up in marine environments, is being released by the burning
of coal for the 50 percent of U.S. energy use. The ocean acidity have seen a 30 percent
increase since the Industrial Revolution. This has happened from our carbon emissions
where the 50 percent of the carbon dioxide that has been released, have absorbed by the
oceans.
Toxic additives used in plastic manufacturing can leach into their surroundings. When
exposed to water, these toxic additives used in plastic manufacturing extract into then
ocean. That means, that plastic becomes more deadly in the ocean than in the land when
waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and augment on the surface of the plastic
debris. Carnivores can be presumed by the hydrophobic contaminants bioaccumulate,
bringing biomagnifying problems to the food chain. Some plastic additives disrupt their
endocrine system when consumed; others can suppress their immune system or decrease
their reproductive rates. In the ocean ends also, chemicals that have been implicated in
cancer, development problems or in other health issues.
18
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
19/32
Effects on Human Communities
Plastic debris does not only harms marine life but harms human societies too, in terms of
health and in terms of economy, tourism.
Health Impacts
A research of the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, investigated the plastic in the
North Pacific Central Gyre of the Pacific Oceanm and showed that the mass of plastic
pieces was six times greater than zooplankton floating on the waters surface. Of the 672
fish caught during that voyage, 35% had ingested plastic pieces. The point of these is to
show that the plastic we throw to oceans or leave to the beaches and usually get eaten by
marine animals, returns to us via our fish food, resulting to polluting the human food chain.
With simple words human health is based upon the health of the marine life. Even for our
most basic sustenance, food and water. The seafood we eat due to the plastic debris,
ingest to our organism harmful chemicals and have serious developmental implications. As
for the water our most basic need, more than 3.5 million people die worldwide from water-
related diseases. Water transfers aqua diseases and the toxic chemicals, factories use to
throw in oceans or in lakes.
Marines debris also endangers the safety of swimmers and divers because they can
entangled in abandoned netting and fishing lines. Other than than, people who go for a
19
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
20/32
stroll at the beach can get injured by human waste like glass or cans. If passenger's
vessels become entangled in floating marine debris and are damaged or disabled, the
wanderer may be injured or killed.
Economical Impacts
Except the harm that marine debris does to marine life and to our health, it can harm three
major economical components, tourism, fishing and navigation. So, every year tones
of money are being lost due to manmade waste as well as to costly ships maintenance.
Tourism
Beachgoers can be extremely annoyed by marine debris, which can result in loss in
tourism. In severe cases though, beaches can be completely closed due to manmade
waste. The clean up of the beaches and coastlines from the marine debris can be
expensive and lead to ever more loss in tourism's money. The Los Angeles County's
Department of Public Works and the Flood Control District spends $18 million each year
on street sweeping, catch basin cleanouts, cleanup programs, litter prevention and
education efforts, making its attempt in order to keep the beaches clean and prevent the
draining of trash to the ocean (L.A. County Boards of Supervisors Staff Report, 2007).
Fishing
When jellyfish or fishes become bycatch in lost fishing gear like nets, commercial fishing
20
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
21/32
companies lose money, because the result of this type of bycatch is available loss in the
standing stock of available seafood. Moreover, it this catch helps fish to have negative
impacts on their reproductive ability, leading in a decrease the long-term sustainability of
the stock. The Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission made a prediction that the blue
crab ghost fishery leads to a loss of up to 4 to 10 million crabs a year in Louisiana alone,
for instance (Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 2006). Small fisheries can go completely
out of business cause of the high cost of replacing fishing gear and vessels, which were
entangled or damaged by marine debris.
Navigation
Repairing boats that have been damaged by marine debris is time consuming and
expensive. That happens because floating marine debris is a navigational hazard that
entangles propellers and clogs cooling water intake valves.
21
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
22/32
Prevent the Destruction of Marine Life
As difficult as it seems, there are plenty ways to prevent the destruction of marine
ecosystems. Maybe we humans are actually the big threat to marine life but there are
always ways to undo this threat and instead become the protectors of aqua environments.
The cleanup of beaches and coastlines should be our usual every day work. We have to
participate in local area cleanups. We have to reduce the amount of waste we produce. A
clever way to protect the aqua environment is chose reusable items over disposable ones.
Last but not least, we should recycle as must as we can. The lack of recycle is a factor of
why the plastic debris is everywhere in ocean. In fact only 5 percent of plastics are
recycled world-wide. Bottles, cans, ink cartridges, batteries and many other items should
be recycled in order to reduce the marine debris.
Assuming we have understood why we should not litter beaches, coastlines and oceans
and we have started to recycle, produce less amount of waste etc, we can educate other
people about the problem of marine debris. This way more people will become aware of
the serious danger that plastic possess over the marine environments.
Here's a quick bulletin view of what we should do in order to protect the marine life:
Participate in local area cleanups
Produce less amount of waste
Chose reusable items over disposable ones
Recycle
22
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
23/32
Educate other people about the problem of marine debris
Activism
Groups such as Green Peace or 5 Gyres are active in educating about marine debris. The
organization 5 Gyres for instance, aims at reducing plastic pollution from oceans and was
one of the two organizations that recently researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Heal Member who is another nonprofit organization is focusing on the protection of
California's Santa Monica Bay, by sponsoring Beach Cleanup programs. Green Peace is
also involved in many activism activities about marine debris education. It has involved in
many researches about human trash and its effects on marine ecosystems. For example
Green Peace has conducted a research about Texass trash vortex. There, an estimated
six kilos of plastic for every kilo of natural plankton, along with other slow degrading
garbage, swirls slowly around like a clock, choked with dead fish, marine mammals, and
birds who get snared. Green Peace. Some plastics in the gyre will not break down in the
lifetimes of the grandchildren of the people who threw them away Green Peace indicates.
International Law about Marine Debris
Due to the dangerousness of human waste many governments have laws in order to
prevent its spreading. Ocean dumping specifically is controlled by international law
consisting: The 1972 London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter which is also common known as: The London
Convection. "The LC '72" is an United Nations agreement to control ocean dumping. It
23
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
24/32
covers the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, and
platforms. It does not cover though discharges from land-based waste like pipes and
outfalls. The London Convention entered into force in 1975 and as of 2013, 87 parties are
included in The LC '72.
Except The London Convection there is another convection designed to protect the seas
from ships debris, including oil and exhaust pollution and is considered one of the most
important international marine environmental conventions. This other convection is the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by
the Protocol of 1978, known and as MARPOL 73/78.
European Law for Marine Debris
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic or
OSPAR Convention is the current international treaty controlling marine pollution in the
north-east Atlantic Ocean and it combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention on
dumping waste at sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine
pollution. Besides OSPAR Convection there is also the Barcelona Convection which
protects Mediterranean Sea as well as the 2000 Water Framework Directive which is a
European Union directive committing European Union member states to free inland and
coastal waters from human influence.
24
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
25/32
United States Law for Marine Debris
The United States Congress passed the Ocean Dumping Act in 1972 which was gave the
authority to the United States Environmental Protection Agency regulate the dumping of
the sewer's sludge, industrial and radioactive waste and biohazardous materials into the
United States territorial waters. In 1988, sixteen years from the first Ocean Dumping Act,
there was a change in order to include clinical wastes. Furthermore it is illegal to dispose
any type of plastic in the U.S.A. water environments. In 2007, San Francisco was the first
city in the United States to ban petroleum-based plastic bags in large markets and
pharmacies.
Other Types of Law for Marine Debris
Certainly there are types of law for human waste around the world. Law of the sea,
property law and admiralty law consist when abandoned property is found on oceans. If
someone found this abandoned property then he will be reward by the salvage law. All
these laws are conducted because ships tend to lose their cargo which in most cases is
marine debris, something that can kill marine life. For instance in the United Kingdom,
shipwrecked goods should be reported to a Receiver of Wreck and then the goods may
return to their rightful owner.
25
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
26/32
Methodology
The method that was used for this research was the qualitative. Mainly the data was
gathered via online research and in some cases from books. Articles, citations was read
and videos on various platforms was watched but the most cross-checked information was
used in this research paper was mainly from online sources.
Journalists and researchers have to stay away from the facts and do not take place.
Though, if they do take place in some articles or research papers, they should provide the
reader or the audience with details and a great amount of elements, just to defend their
belief. Nevertheless, in a research paper, the author aims to persuade and explain his
thesis to the readers.
26
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
27/32
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
28/32
Bibliography
Alan Weisman (2007). The World Without Us. St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books. pp. 112
128. ISBN 0-312-34729-4.
Algalita Marine Research Foundation (2006). "Plastics and Marine Debris".
Cecil Adams (16 July 1999). "Should you cut up six-pack rings so they don't choke sea
birds?". The Straight Dope.
Charles Moore (November 2003). "Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics,
everywhere.". Natural History.
C.J. Moore, S.L. Moore, M.K. Leecaster, and S.B. Weisberg, A Comparison of Plastic and
Plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre, Marine Pollution Bulletin.
EUR-Lex - 32000L0060 - EN. 2013. EUR-Lex - 32000L0060 - EN. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000L0060:EN:HTML.
[Accessed 26 June 2013].
"Facts about marine debris". US NOAA.
Faris, J. and Hart, K., Seas of Debris: A Summary of the Third International Conference on
Marine Debris, N.C. Sea Grant College Program and NOAA, 1994, title page.
Gary Strieker (28 July 1998). "Pollution invades small Pacific island". CNN. Text "They
mostly appear in the pacific islands. "
Gregory, M.R., Ryan, P.G. 1997. Pelagic plastics and other seaborne persistent synthetic
debris: a review of Southern Hemisphere perspectives.. In Coe, J.M., Rogers, D.B. (Eds.),
Marine Debris- Sources, Impacts, Solutions. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp.49-66.
28
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVwuPSLx2Xchttp://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990716.htmlhttp://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990716.htmlhttp://www.naturalhistorymag.com/1103/1103_feature.htmlhttp://www.naturalhistorymag.com/1103/1103_feature.htmlhttp://marinedebris.noaa.gov/marinedebris101/md101facts.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/TECH/science/9807/28/toxic.seabirds/http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990716.htmlhttp://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990716.htmlhttp://www.naturalhistorymag.com/1103/1103_feature.htmlhttp://www.naturalhistorymag.com/1103/1103_feature.htmlhttp://marinedebris.noaa.gov/marinedebris101/md101facts.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/TECH/science/9807/28/toxic.seabirds/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVwuPSLx2Xc -
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
29/32
"'Ghost fishing' killing seabirds". BBC News. 28 June 2007.
Kenneth R. Weiss (2 August 2006). "Plague of Plastic Chokes the Seas". Los Angeles
Times.
"Marine Litter: An analytical overview" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme.
2005.
Sheavly, S. B.; Register, K. M. (2007). "Marine Debris & Plastics: Environmental Concerns,
Sources, Impacts and Solutions". Journal of Polymers and the Environment15 (4): 301
305.
Walker, T.R., Grant, J., Archambault, M-C. (2006) "Accumulation of marine debris on an
intertidal beach in an urban park (Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia)" Water Quality Research
Journal of Canada, 41 (3): 256262.
Walker, T. R.; Reid, K.; Arnould, J. P. Y.; Croxall, J. P. (1997), "Marine debris surveys at
Bird Island, South Georgia 19901995", Marine Pollution Bulletin 34 (1): 6165
29
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/6248366.stmhttp://www.pulitzer.org/archives/7135http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/6248366.stmhttp://www.pulitzer.org/archives/7135 -
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
30/32
Online Resources
Amaral K. Plastics in Our Oceans. Woods Hole Oceanographic institution. [Online]
Available from: http://www.whoi.edu/science/B/people/kamaral/plasticsarticle.html.
[Accessed: 18 June 2013].
Aquarius Systems. Trash Hunters. [Online] Available from: http://www.aquarius-
systems.com/Pages/54/trash_hunters.aspx. [Accessed: 21 June 2013].As A Scientist! DOE Office of Sciense. (2001). Decomposition of Plastic. [Online] Available
from: http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00560.htm. [Accessed: 20
June 2013].
BBC NEWS. (2007) Can you keep ship-wrecked goods?. [Online] Available from:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/6287047.stm. [Accessed: 27 June 2013].
BBC NEWS. (2007) Scavengers take washed-up goods. [Online] Available from:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/devon/6287457.stm. [Accessed: 24 June
2013].
Clean Water Action. The Problem of Marine Plastic Pollution. [Online] Available from:
http://www.cleanwater.org/feature/problem-of-marine-plastic-pollution. [Accessed:18 June
2013].
Ganon M. (2012) Plastic trash invades arctic seafloor. CBS NEWS. [Online] Available
from: http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57540392/plastic-trash-invades-arctic-
seafloor. [Accessed: 24 June 2013].
Greenpeace. The Trash Vortex. [Online] Available from:
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/pollution/trash-vortex/.
30
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
31/32
[Accessed: 25 June 2013].
Harris. W. How long does it take for plastics to biodegrade?. How Stuff Works. [Online]
Available from: http://www.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/how-long-
does-it-take-for-plastics-to-biodegrade.htm. [Accessed: 18 June 2013].
IMO, London Convention and Protocol. [Online] Available from:
http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/SpecialProgrammesAndInitiatives/Pages/Londo
n-Convention-and-Protocol.aspx. [Accessed: 26 June 2013].
Marine Debris Program. Plastic Marine Debris: What we know. [Online]
Available from: http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/plastic.html. [Accessed: 18 June 2013].
MARINE PROTECTION, RESEARCH, AND SANCTUARIES ACT OF 1972. (2000).
MARINE PROTECTION, RESEARCH, AND SANCTUARIES ACT OF 1972. [Online]
Available from: http://www.epw.senate.gov/mprsa72.pdf. [Accessed: 27 June 2013].
Mother Nature Network. (2009) Boy discovers microbe that eats plastic. [Online] Available
from: http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/research-innovations/blogs/boy-discovers-microbe-
that-eats-plastic. [Accessed: 19 June 2013].
OCEAN PLASTIC. See Turtles. [Online] Available from:
http://www.seeturtles.org/1128/ocean-plastic.html. [Accessed: 29 June 2013]
Plastic Debris Rivers to Sea. Project.Land-based discharges of human-made debris
comprise the largest source of marine debris in oceans world-wide (nearly 80%). [Online]
Available from: http://www.plasticdebris.org/. [Accessed: 19 June 2013].
Plastic Oceans. Environmental Impact. [Online] Available from:
http://www.plasticoceans.net/the-facts/environmental-impact/. [Accessed: 18 June 2013].
SEA TURTLE Restoration Project. (2010) Plastic Bag Ban Will Help Save Californias
Endangered Sea Turtles. [Online] Available from: http://www.seaturtles.org/article.php?
31
-
7/28/2019 How Plastic Affects Marine Life C. Akrivos Research Paper
32/32
id=1751. [Accessed: 24 June 2013].
SeaWeb. Ocean and Human Health. [Online] Available from:
http://www.seaweb.org/markets/health.php. [Accessed: 18 June 2013].
UNEP. Marine Litter. [Online] Available from:
http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/. [Accessed: 21 June 2013].
Walton. M. (2003)How sneakers, toys and hockey gear help ocean science. CNN Edition.
[ONLINE] Available from:
http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/science/05/28/coolsc.oceansecrets/. [Accessed: 20
June 2013].
Wayback Machine. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). [Online]
Available from:
http://web.archive.org/web/20080331060116/http://www.imo.org/Conventions/mainframe.a
sp?topic_id=258&doc_id=678. [Accessed: 26 June 2013].
Wayback Machine. OSPAR Commission. [Online] Available from:
http://web.archive.org/web/20080212075312/http://www.ospar.org/eng/html/welcome.html.
[Accessed: 26 June 2013].
top related