european nationalism 1800-1900

European Nationalism

1800-1900

1789 Europe

1810 Map

1815 Map

Ideology

• Conservative/Reactionary

• Liberal/Radical

• Moderate

• Nationalism

• Socialism

• Feminism

Negotiators

• Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain• Czar Alexander I of Russia• Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria• Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand of France

Goals for Other Decision Makers

• Make sure France could not rise again to such power

• Put down revolution wherever it might appear

• Remove traces of French Revolution and Napoleon’s rule

Metternich

• Distrusted democracy and political change - Restore order and stability

• Dominated the congress, wanted to restore the balance of power

The Congress of Vienna

National borders

• Congress changed many borders

• Wanted to strengthen nations surrounding France

Process

• Countries that aided France lost territory

• Countries that fought France gained territory

New Countries

• Union of the Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands as the Kingdom of the Netherlands

• Austria and 38 German states in German Confederation

France’s loss

• Was not allowed to keep any conquered territory

• Boundaries back to 1792

• Forced to pay indemnity, or compensation for damages

Redrawing the Map

Metternich’s Influence

• His reactionary attitudes influenced politics and society.

• Wanting a return to absolute monarchy, he despised constitutions, voting rights, and freedom of religion and the press.

• Liberal ideas were suppressed in Austria, the German states, and northern Italy.

Restoring Monarchies

• Napoleon had eliminated royal control in many countries.

• Members of the old Bourbon royal family were returned to the thrones of Spain and Sicily.

• Monarchies were restored in Portugal and Sardinia.

Events/Ideas to Remember

• End of Napoleon/Napoleonic Europe• Congress of Vienna

– Metternich

• Conservatism vs. Liberalism• Balance of Power

– Key Countries: GB, Ottoman Empire, France, Piedmont-Sardinia . . . . and soon, Russia

1848 Revolutions

• A universal upheaval that, with the exceptions of Russia and England, affected the entire continent

• France—February 1848– Revolution provoked by the government’s refusal to

grant voting rights to people below the wealthier classes– Violence and rioting in the streets of Paris force the

abdication of Louis Philippe• A largely conservative Constituent Assembly elected by

universal male suffrage– Conflict between the government(liberals) and Parisian

radicals / socialists

Revolutions of 1848--France

• Working class men of the workshops attacked the Constituent Assembly, declared its dissolution, and established yet another provisional government

– Assembly quickly restored by the National Guard militia

– Workshops closed, class war ensues

• “June Days” of 1848

– Three days of violence and bloodshed consume Paris

• Emergence of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

1848 Revolutions Elsewhere

• Austrian Empire in 1848– Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, parts of Poland, Romania,

Yugoslavia, Italy• Vienna’ s authority and political leadership

• The March Days of 1848– Inspired by the February events in France, revolution swept

through the Austrian empire and through all Italy and Germany• Metternich forced to step down

– Austria grants Hungary autonomy as war rages in Italy and Germany prepared for unification

• Demands for liberal concessions and national freedom

1848 Revolutions Elsewhere

• The German States

– German liberals longed for a unified German state under a constitution

– 30+ states of the German Confederation were the primary obstacle to unification

• Two largest states were the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Prussia

• Establishment of the Zollverein set the tone for greater union

• Situation in Berlin

– Prussian liberals called for reform by petitioning King Frederick William IV in 1848

• Frederick agreed to grant Prussians a constitution and to merge Prussia into a German state

– Question of how democratic and socialist the new government should be

– Middle class conservatives able to convince Frederick (Money)

1848 Revolutions Elsewhere

• The National Assembly at Frankfurt

– Represented the liberal and nationalist aspirations of many Germans but, unlike the French National Assembly of 1789, had no real political authority, nor was it like many of the social revolutionaries occurring elsewhere on the continent

• Its members consisted mostly of professional people who feared the working classes as much as or more than they feared the political powers of kings and Prussian aristocrats

– Questions of territory

• What constitutes “Germany”?

• ‘Great Germans’ versus ‘Little Germans’

– Reliance on Austrian and Prussian armies

Crimean War Begins

• Key Events: 1853-54– Russia defeated Turkish fleet (fall 1853)– Russia occupies Ottoman territories of

Moldavia and Wallachia

Key Events

• Britain, France, Sardinia (Allies) declare war on Russia

• Austria neutral (but may enter war with Allies)

Peace• 1856: Treaty of Paris

– Allies: Victory

Treaty of Paris 1856

– Made Black Sea neutral territory• No more warships or forts allowed

– Reduced Russian influence in region– Russian claim to protectorship in Palestine was

rejected. Russia retreats from Holy Land.– Russia loses influence over Serbia

Characteristics of the Crimean War

• First well publicized war• Railroads and telegraph to aid war effort• Photographed• Battlefield nurses, ambulances

Florence Nightingale• Divine calling• Criticized Victorian ideal of

an educated, but helpless, woman

• Created a profession out of a un-respected occupation– Nurses were typically

cooks and even prostitutes who followed armies

– No training

Italian Unification

Risorgimento

• "Resurgence”• Political and social protest • Active between 1815 and Unification in 1860

Obstacles to Italian Unity• Historically, battleground for foreign and local

princes– France (1494 – Charles VII)– Austria (Peace of Utrecht 1713)– Napoleon (1799-1815)

• Frequent warfare emphasized local allegiances

• Age of Napoleon, romanticism create desire for national unity and security against foreigners

• But . . . Congress of Vienna– Gives Austria N. Italy– French prince given Napoli and Sicily

Secret Societies• Carbonari formed about 1820

– Patriotic and liberal– Key figures in early years of nationalism

• Young Italy: “One Italy, free and independent”– Organized by Mazzini

• Organization– Scattered cells – Initiation rituals – “Skulls”

Key Figures• Count Emilio Cavour: “the

brain of unification”

– Mazzini: the “soul”

• Garibaldi the "sword"

Giuseppe Mazzini: Writer and politician.

Believed revolution would lead to unification.

1830: member of Carbonari

1831: organized a new political society called Giovane Italia (Young Italy)

No King. Italy must be a democratic republic.

Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont

• “Buffer state”• Industrialization by

1830 • But . . .Political

instability• 1848 – 1st Italian War

for Independence – Loss to Austria

• Vittorio Emmanuel = King in 1850

• Liberal prime minister, Emilio Cavour

• S-P enters Crimean War to gain status

Count Emilio di Cavour•Hated the idea of a united Italy, but hated Austrian control more. •2nd Italian War for Independence - 1859: Cavour persuaded Napoleon III(Assassination attempt) to protect Sardinia “if” Austria were to attack - Nice and Savoy

- Austria does attack

- France declares war against Austria.

- Austrians surrender to France.  Napoleon allows Sardinia to annex Lombardy.

1859/1860: all northern states voted to join the Kingdom of Sardinia.

After 1860, France controls only Rome (at the request of the Pope).

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

• Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily

Giuseppe Garibaldi

1833: Joined Mazzini's “Young Italy”

Fought for Sardinian independence in 1854.

Fought in South America

Wanted independence for the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Accepted help from Cavour.

Garibaldi’s Red Shirts

• 1860: defeated the Bourbon king of Sicily

Garibaldi’s Gift to Italy

• “Dictator of Sicily”– Died in 1882– Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln: "Posterity will call you the

great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure.”

• Only Venetia and Rome remain independent

Map of the 19th Century Unification of Italy

Who Should Rule “Italy”?

With the revolutionary climate ofEurope, Italy should be a constitutional monarchy.

Vittorio Emmanuel is the strongest ruler within Italy.

Benefits for Italy of the Austro-Prussian War 1866

• 3rd Italian war for Independence• Austria loses control of Venetia• Venetia annexed to Italy

1870• Rome remained

independent. • When France loses

the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, France must withdraw troops (protecting the Pope in Rome)

• Rome is ceded to Italy.

The Right Leg in the Boot at Last!!Garibaldi: “If it won't go on Sire, try a little powder . . as in GUNpowder”

Problems Facing Italy

• Legacy of independent states• Regional differences

– North: cultural heritage, economic prospects, more cities, educated

– South: agricultural, rural, illiterate peasants

• Italy vs Catholic Church– Church governs Vatican– Non-cooperation with new leaders of Italy

German UnificationThe era of Bismarck

Flag of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck, a prince of Prussia, led the movement to unite all Germans.

Boundaries within Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815), featuring a strong (and large) Prussia. The Austrian Empire is also large.

Key People

• Kaiser Wilhelm I• Otto von Bismarck

– Iron Chancellor– “Blood and Iron”– Realpolitik

Zollverein

• 1830s: Trade union (Ended after unification)• Removed tariff barriers between German states• Austria purposefully excluded from beginning

– Bismarck continued penalties against Austria

Rivalry between Prussia and Austria

• Rivals for German leadership• Much in common:

– German language– Traditions, customs similar

– But . . . Some differences

– Prussia: mostly Protestant, militaristic, economically strong

– Austria: Catholic, weaker leadership, weakened economy from fighting wars

Bismarck as Chancellor

• Bismarck Rap• Appointed by King Wilhelm I in

1862– Not a Nationalist– First loyalty was to ruling

family• Enlarged the army to support

his plan– Support of Junkers,

industrialists, landowners

Bismarck’s Philosophy: Realpolitik

• Politics based on practical (realistic) needs, not moral issues.

• In other words, the ideals of the Enlightenment would be ignored.

• Instead, Bismarck felt that people needed a strong government.

• The government will use whatever economic or military methods necessary to increase its power.

How Bismarck created

Germany

OTTO VON BISMARCK used this phrase to describe the method by which a unified German

state would be created.

Compromise and discussion had failed.

Bismarck knew that Germany could be created only through war . . . and with a

strong leader.

"By blood and Iron"

Bismarck orchestrated the unification of Germany through three carefully

planned wars

DenmarkAustriaFrance

1. War with Denmark -- 1864

Bismarck formed an alliance with Austria in 1864. The purpose was to declare war with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. Realpolitik

Agreement: Prussia and Austria would take one province on victory.

They called it “liberation” because these provinces were mostly occupied by German speaking people.

Bismarck creates tension with Austria over S-H, which leads to war between Austria and Prussia in 1866

2. War with Austria -- 1866

• Bismarck knows Prussia can defeat Austria 1 on 1 – Give France Alsace/Lorraine

Give Italy Venetia Give Russia aid vs. the Poles Realpolitik• “7-Weeks War” - After victory, Prussia “allows”

Austria and 4 southern states to remain independent (assassination attempt)

• Lenient toward Austria – Bismarck did not want to completely alienate

Austria• But, Austria was permanently excluded from German

affairs. • Northern States join Prussia

3. Franco-Prussian War – 1870

• Victories by Prussia worry Napoleon– Resources are getting stretched too thin– Willing to let France go to war to reclaim his

authority– Bismarck - Keep France weak and isolate

– Spanish Succession

Ems Telegram

• Manipulated by Bismarck- Realpolitik– Wants France to declare war against Prussia– Telegram suggests that the French insulted the

Prussians (raises Prussian ire)– Also suggests the Prussians insulted the French

(assuring retaliation, leading to war)

“His Majesty the King (of Prussia) thereupon refused to receive the French envoy again and informed him through an adjutant that His Majesty has nothing further to say to the Ambassador.

Battle of Sedan• Southern States join Prussia• Napoleon III surrendered, captured• French losses over 5x that of Prussia

– Second Republic overthrown

Treaty of Frankfurt

• May 1871• France lost Alsace and

Lorraine and Strasburg  

• Napoleon III no match for Bismarck

Birth of the German Empire

• 1871: Southern states (except Austria) join the new German Empire

• Prussian king becomes Kaiser of Germany (Hall of Mirrors)

The German Empire• 1871• Birth of the Second Reich• Two House legislature

– Germany is an autocracy, ruled by Bismarck and the Emperor

Coronation of

Kaiser Wilhelm I

Quotes by Bismarck• “The less people know about how sausages and

laws are made, the better they'll sleep at night”• “The great questions of the day will not be settled by

means of speeches and majority decisions but by iron and blood.”

• “When you want to fool the world, tell the truth.”

• “When you say you agree to a thing in principle you mean that you have not the slightest intention of carrying it out in practice.”

• “If there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans”

Bismarck’s Policies

Against Socialists

• Bismarck feared socialists would undermine loyalty of workers – possible revolution

• Laws forbid socialist meetings, newspapers• Failed: workers unified in demands• Bismarck adapts

– Entice workers away from Socialism by passing laws to protect them

– Health insurance, pensions, accident insurance– Socialism never disappears

Kulturkampf

• The Center Party – anti-nationalists• Catholics must be loyal to state before church• State can supervise church education• State can approve appointment of priests• Jesuits expelled from Germany• Marriages must be performed by Civil – not

religious – ceremony• Too rigid

– Bismarck ends up making peace with The Church

Kaiser Wilhelm II• 1888: succeeds his

grandfather• 1890: asked Bismarck to

resign• “There is only one master

and that is I”• “Those who oppose me, I

shall crush”• Resisted democratic reform,

but continued social welfare programs

• Continued support of German military

• Imperialistic

Bismarck FiredHis legacy:

1891-1913 – coal output doubled1888-1910 – iron output tripled1914 – only G.B. produced more

finished goods

Eastern Europe (after 1850)

Hapsburg Empire

• Challenges– Conservative ruler in liberal age– Industrialization brings social problems, unrest,

socialism• Emigration to US begins about 1870

– Mostly Jews and Slavs (non German-speaking)

Hapsburgs: Ethnic Diversity

Multinational– Less than 25% speak German– 50% belong to Slavic groups– Hungarians, Italians want independence– “Peoples! What does that mean? I

know only subjects!” – Emperor Francis I (1830)

Hapsburgs: Franz Joseph

• Franz Joseph becomes emperor in 1848 (lasts until 1916)

• After defeats against France, and Sardinia in 1859, reform begins– Constitution with

legislature– Dominated by German

speaking Austrians– Hungary in rebellion

Compromise with Hungary

• 1866 - Francis Deak (moderate from Hungary) proposes the Dual Monarchy

• Austria and Hungary remain separate states– Each has constitution and parliament– Franz Joseph ruled both

• Resentment by Slavic groups (especially Czechs)• Nationalism leads to Slavic unity, political and

social unrest

The Balkans Powder Keg

– Many ethnic groups that want independence– Russia and Serbia– Britain and France want Ottoman land in the

Middle East and N. Africa– Stage is set for a war in the Balkans

•“If there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans” -- Bismarck

2nd Industrial Revolution

• http://www.public.asu.edu/~warrenve/IR2.html

Russian Expansion

Nicholas I• 1825-1855• Modernization

– Limited power of landowners

– Did not really change the system

– Feared angering the nobles– Rigid social structure

Alexander II

• Defeated in Crimean War– Reveals lack of

progress in Russia• Lack of railroads,

inefficient bureaucracy

Alexander II: Reforms• Reforms the result of liberal reaction after the war

• Emancipation of serfs

• Other Reform– Trial by jury– Eased censorship– Soldier term of service reduced from 25 years to 15– Encouraged industry

Revolutionary Currents

• Reform satisfied few Russians• Peasants: freedom, but no land• Liberals: want constitution, elected legislature• Radicals: want socialism

– Lived amongst peasants, preaching rebellion– Radicals turn to violence to get their message

heard– People’s Will: plot to assassinate the Tsar

• Tsar becomes more conservative• 1881: Assassination of Tsar Alexander II

Alexander III• Reactionary

– Revived harsh policies (Nicholas I)

– Increased secret police, censorship

– Exiled critics– Democracy is

nothing but “lies of hollow people”

Russification: One language, one church

Russian Industrialization• 1890s: Focus on development• Foreign capital• Loans from France built Trans-Siberian

Railroad• Increase in political

and social problems• Radicals saw industrial

workers as allies– Pamphlets preached

revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx

Nicholas II

• 1894-1917• Last Tsar• Ineffective

War between Russia and Japan

• 1904• Nicholas II: “Fight for Faith, the Czar, the

Fatherland”• Russia loses• Discontent erupts

– Workers strike (better hours, wages)– Starts chain of events that lead to the Russian

Revolutions of 1905, 1917

Russo-Japanese War

ImperialismOrigins & Causes

• Aggressive Policies began in 1870's

- Economic

- Industrial Europe needed colonies to act

as distributors

- Foreign Investment offered a high risk,

but high return

- Additional source for raw materials

Origins

• Political

- Strategic Colonies

- Protection and support of Missionaries

- France & England

- Spreading Nationalism

Origins

• Social and Cultural

- Population Growth

- People needed/wanted to move

- "Imperial Power Movement”

- The future of European Power would be

based on Imperial Holdings

- Charles Darwin

- Social Darwinism

- National Pride in spreading your culture

Africa

- Exploration began in the 1850's

- Sir Henry Stanley, Dr. David Livingston

- Looking for the headwaters of the Nile

- Europeans looked on Africa as a

Romantic, Mysterious Place

“Dr. Livingston I Presume?”

• Colonial Rivalries

• Africa in 1914

Berlin Conference

• Berlin Conference (1884-85)

- Workout the Partition of Africa

1. The Congo controlled by Belgium and an

International Assoc.

2. Open use of the Niger & Congo Rivers

3. European Powers could acquire land by-

- First occupying it and settling it

- Notifying the other nations of the claim

Boer War

• Boer War (1899-1903)

• Boer's (Dutch Immigrants) Settled South Africa

- Gold Discovered (1884)

- British battle with Rights to South Africa

- Britain Prevailed

- Union of South Africa

The Pacific Rim

• Pacific Rim

Capt. Alfred Mahan – The Influence of Sea Power Upon History

- Nations that controlled the seas

prevailed

Colonial Rivalries: Asia in 1914

Pacific Rim

• Asia

- Britain & France influence in Hong Kong

- Boxer Rebellion - 1900

- Rebellion in China against western influence in China

- An International Force ended the Rebellion

- The United States Open Door Policy

- Recognized China's Independence

- Allowed free trade access for all nations

- Russia attempt to colonies Manchuria

- Russo - Japanese War in 1904

Boxer Rebellion

Open Door Policy

The British Empire in 1914

Imperialism as aSource of Conflict

• "New Imperialism" sparked Competition for:

- Raw Materials

- World Market Share

- Capital

• Scramble For Africa

Fachoda Crisis - 1898

- Battle over the Sudan between France & England

- Over Headwaters of the Nile

- France considered a full scale war (Navy?)

- War avoided! For Now- 1896-1906 - Dreyfus

Affair- Theodor Herzl - Zionism

1st Moroccan Crisis - 1905-06

• Germany vs France, England, Italy, &

Russia

• Morocco occupied jointly by France

• Wilhelm II of Germany spoke for

Moroccan Independence

• Russia & Italy got involved because of

alliances with France

2nd Moroccan Crisis (1911) – rebellion in Fez

The Balkans in 1878

Balkan Crisis - 1908

• Imperialist Rivalry within Europe

- Austria-Hung. - some control over the Balkans

- This influence was opposed by Russia

(Natural Area of Russia)

- Wanted a Sea Port on the Mediterranean

(WARM WATER PORT!)

- Ottoman Empire was almost collapsed in 1908

- Austria & Russia came to an agreement

- Austria would annex Boznia & Herzegovina

- Russia would be given rights to the straits

Balkan Crisis - 1908

• GB Protested & Russia backed down

- Austria Annexed the Balkans anyway

- The Pan-Slavists protested violently

& asked Russia for Help

- Russo-Austrian war was about to start

- Russia backed down because

Germany was allied with Austria

- Warning! Rising Nationalism in the Balkans

Tensions & Conflicts: 1873-1914

• Russo-Japanese War (1905)

• Triple Entente (1907) Br, Fr, Rus

• The Bosnian/Balkan Crisis of 1908

• Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)

• The First Balkan War (1912)

• The Second Balkan War (1913)

The Balkan Wars: 1912-1913

Europe in 1914