chap006 detailed

Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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6 Motivation

Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

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Learning Goals What is motivation? What three beliefs help determine work effort,

according to expectancy theory? What two qualities make goals strong predictors of

task performance, according to goal setting theory? What does it mean to be equitably treated according

to equity theory, and how do employees respond to inequity?

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Learning Goals, Cont’d

What is psychological empowerment, and what four beliefs determine empowerment levels?

How does motivation affect job performance and organizational commitment?

What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation?

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What is Motivation? Motivation is defined as a set of energetic forces

that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence. Motivation is a critical consideration because job

performance often requires high levels of both ability and motivation.

Employees who are engaged completely invest themselves and their energies into their jobs.

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Motivation and EffortFi

gure

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Discussion Questions

What makes you decide to direct your effort to work assignments rather than taking a break or wasting time?

What makes you decide to be a “good citizen” by helping out a colleague or another student?

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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory describes the cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses.Employee behavior is directed toward pleasure

and away from pain or, more generally, toward certain outcomes and away from others.

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Expectancy TheoryFi

gure

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Expectancy Theory, Cont’d Expectancy represents the belief that exerting a high

level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task.Expectancy is a subjective probability, ranging from 0 to 1

that a specific amount of effort will result in a specific level of performance (abbreviated E → P).

Self-efficacy is defined as the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success.

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Sources of Self-EfficacyFi

gure

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Expectancy Theory, Cont’d Instrumentality represents the belief that successful

performance will result in some outcome(s). Instrumentality is a set of subjective probabilities, each ranging from 0 to 1 that successful performance will bring a set of outcomes (abbreviated P → O).

Valence reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance (abbreviated V). Can be positive, negative, or zero

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Expectancy Theory, Cont’d

What exactly makes some outcomes more “positively valenced” than others?

In general, outcomes are deemed more attractive when they help satisfy needs. Needs can be defined as cognitive groupings or

clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences.

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Commonly Studied Needs in OBTa

ble

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Expectancy Theory, Cont’d

Extrinsic motivation is motivation that is controlled by some contingency that depends on task performance.

Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is felt when task performance serves as its own reward.

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Extrinsic and Intrinsic OutcomesTa

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Expectancy Theory, Cont’d Total “motivational force” to perform a given action

can be described using the following formula:

Motivational Force = E P x Σ[(P O) x V]

The Σ symbol in the equation signifies that instrumentalities and valences are judged with various outcomes in mind.

Motivational force equals zero if any one of the three beliefs is zero.

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Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort.Assigning employees specific and difficult goals will

result in higher levels of performance.

What is a difficult goal?

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Goal Difficulty and Task PerformanceFi

gure

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Settings and Tasks Used in Goal Setting Research

Tabl

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Goal Setting Theory, Cont’d Why do specific and difficult goals have such

positive effects?Assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes

people’s own self-set goals — the internalized goals that people use to monitor their own task progress.

Goals trigger the creation of task strategies, defined as learning plans and problem-solving approaches used to achieve successful performance.

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Goal Setting Theory, Cont’d

Moderators on Task PerformanceFeedback consists of updates on employee

progress toward goal attainment. Task complexity reflects how complicated the

information and actions involved in a task are, as well as how much the task changes.

Goal commitment is defined as the degree to which a person accepts a goal and is determined to try to reach it.

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Goal Setting TheoryFi

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Strategies for Fostering Goal CommitmentTa

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Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Equity Theory

Equity theory acknowledges that motivation doesn’t just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people.Employees create a “mental ledger” of the

outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job duties.

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Equity Theory, Cont’d You compare your ratio of outcomes and inputs

to the ratio of some comparison other — some person who seems to provide an intuitive frame of reference for judging equity.

“Cognitive calculus”Ratio of outcomes to inputs is balanced between

you and your comparison other.

My OutcomesMy inputs

vs. Other’s OutcomesOther’s Inputs

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Some Outcomes and Inputs Considered by Equity Theory

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Equity Theory, Cont’d

“Cognitive calculus,” cont’dYour ratio of outcomes to inputs is less than your

comparison other’s ratio.Any imbalance in ratios triggers equity distress —an

internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios.

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Three Possible Outcomes of Equity Theory Comparisons

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Psychological Empowerment

Psychological empowerment reflects an energy rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to some larger purpose.Meaningfulness captures the value of a work goal or

purpose, relative to a person’s own ideals and passions. Self-determination reflects a sense of choice in the

initiation and continuation of work tasks.Competence captures a person’s belief in his or her

capability to perform work tasks successfully. Impact reflects the sense that a person’s actions “make a

difference”—that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose.

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Why Are Some Employees

More Motivated

than Others?

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How Important is Motivation? Strongest performance effect is self-efficacy /

competence; people who feel a sense of internal self-confidence tend to outperform those who doubt their capabilities.

Difficult goals are the second most powerful motivating force.

The motivational force created by high levels of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy is the next most powerful motivational variable for task performance.

Perceptions of equity have a somewhat weaker effect on task performance.

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Effects of Motivation on Performance and Commitment

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