(文化研究) 質性研究之紮根理論-洪銓修 老師

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Symbolic Interactionism and Grounded Theory in Ethnographic Research

象徵互動論與據證理論在俗民誌研究的運象徵互動論與據證理論在俗民誌研究的運用用

主講人：洪銓修 教授 雲林科技大學 應用外語系

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Speech Outline

Quantitative-Qualitative Dichotomy Ethnographic Research Symbolic Interactionism Grounded Theory Constant Comparative Method in Grounded Theory Examples

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Quantitative-Qualitative Dichotomy

Quantitative Inquiry Qualitative Inquiry Positivist tradition Hard data Pre-determined and given Control and hypothesis- testing Regularities and frequencies Variables Deductive and structured

Interpretative tradition Soft data Open-ended and responsive Discovery and hypothesis- generation Uniqueness and particularity Themes and motifs Inductive and grounded

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Qualitative Research

• What is qualitative research?• It does not rely on numbers or statistical

inferences as the primary means of answering questions.

• It is not concerned with making generalizations.

• Collecting and analytic procedures are usually cyclic.

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Qualitative Research

The importance of rationale ：• A qualitative study requires much more

exposition of the rationale it is based on than a quantitative one.

• A researcher must be aware of the distinction between a study using qualitative methodology and one that is qualitative in essence.

• Care must be taken of both rationale of research paradigm and rationale concerning the subject matter.

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Data Analysis

Data analysis: coding, categorization, description, and interpretation• Coding: generating concepts (labeling)• Categorization—a process of generating

classification of concepts• Description—to present the concepts and

categories in a narrative way, sometimesusing direct quotes to enhance

authenticity.• Interpretation (see next page)

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Qualitative Research

Interpretation ：• A process of theoretical sampling that will lead

to construction of a theory, going beyond theliteral, manifest meaning of the text to asomewhat speculative reading of the text.

• Theoretical sampling must be grounded: basedon concepts that have proven theoreticalrelevance. Concepts repeatedly present ornotably absent should be considered significantand possibly relevant to the evolving theory.

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Construction of Theory

• Theory uses concepts.• The concepts are related by means of

statements of relationships.• A theory is not merely the main idea or

the summarizing statement of all the data collected. It must have MEANING,

a meaningful organization of the concepts.

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The Question of Generalizability

• Results of a qualitative research must be

contextualized.• Efforts should be made to specify the

conditions under which our phenomena

exist, the action/interaction that pertains

to them, and the associated outcomes or

consequences (Strauss and Corbin,1990).

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“Ethnographic Research”—Definitions

Ethnographic research is:

• work of describing and explaining a given culture at a particular point in time (Janesick, 1991).

• definition of cultural knowledge (Spradley, 1980).

• detailed investigation of patterns of social interaction (Gumperz, 1981).

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“Ethnographic Research”—Definitions (cont’d)

Ethnographic research is:

• essentially descriptive, a form of story telling (Walker, 1981).

• the testing and development of theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967).

• one social research method, drawing on a wide range of sources of information (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983).

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“Ethnographic Research”—Characteristics

Ethnographic research :

• looks at relationships within a system or culture.• explores native viewpoints of behavior in the

natural settings.• focuses on understanding rather than prediction.• demands the researcher to develop a model of

what occurred in the social settings. • requires the researcher to become the research

instrument.

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“Symbolic Interactionism” in Ethnographic Research

Symbolic Interactionism (Blumer, 1937) is:

• a major social psychological perspective and

approach .• a reaction against behaviorist explanations of

human behavior.• a theory which seeks to explain human behavior

in terms of meanings.

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“Symbolic Interactionism” —Three Premises

Blumer (1969) set out three premises :

Premise 1: “Human beings act toward things on the

basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things.”

Premise 2: “Meanings of things are derived from

the social interaction that one has with one’s fellows.”

Premise 3: “Meanings are modified through an

interpretive process used by one dealing with the

things he/she encounters.”

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“Symbolic Interactionism” —An Ongoing and Dynamic Process

Individuals Define things Interpretation Modify

uses and give ‘meanings’ and judgment meanings and

perspectives perspectives

social interaction

through symbols

Figure 1. Dynamic process of Symbolic Interaction

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“Grounded Theory” in Ethnographic Research

Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) is :

• a qualitative research method adopted to develop

an inductively derived theory from the collected

field data” (Strauss and Corbin, 1990:24).

• a detailed grounding by systematically analyzing

data, using constant comparison as it is coded until

a theory results (Glaser, 1978).

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“Grounded Theory”—Characteristics

Grounded Theory:• processes work from data to theory .

￭ Data is conceptualized into categories and

integrated into a theory.

￭ Three coding procedures—open, axial, and

selective— are used.

￭ Data is used to illustrate the evolving theory.

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“Grounded Theory”—Four Criteria

1. Fit- the categories of the theory must fit the data.

2. Workability- a theory should be able to predict

what will happen and interpret what is happening.

3. Relevancy- the theory must allow core problems

and processes to emerge.

4. Modifiability-the theory must allow for emergent

data that qualify and modify the theory.

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“Constant Comparative Method” in Grounded Theory

Constant Comparative Method:• together with theoretical sampling constitute the

core of the grounded theory approach.

￭ The goal of the method is to discern conceptual

similarities, to refine the discriminative power

of categories, and to discover patterns.

￭ The cycle of comparison on ‘old” and ‘new”

material can be repeated several times.

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“Constant Comparative Method” —Four Stages

Glaser and Strauss (1967) explained four stages of

the constant comparison method.

Stage 1: “Comparing incidents applicable to each

category”

Stage 2: “Integrating categories and their properties”

Stage 3: “Delimiting the theory”

Stage 4: “Writing theory”

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Major Categories for Classroom Observation

• Space: the physical place or places

• Actor: the people involved

• Activity: a set of related acts people do

• Object: the physical things that are presented

• Act: single actions that people do

• Event: a set of related activities that people carry out

• Time: the sequencing that takes place over time

• Goal: the things people are trying to accomplish

• Feeling: the emotions felt and expressed

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A Useful Guidelines for Directing Observations

• What appears to be the significant issues that are being discussed?• What non-verbal communication is taking place?• Who is talking and who is listening?• Where does the event take place?• When does the event take place?• How long does the event take?• How is time used in the event?• How are the individual elements of the event connected?• How are change and stability managed?• What rules govern the social organization of, and behaviour in, the

event?• Why is this event occurring, and occurring in the way that it is?

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Field Note

• Date: Thursday, April 23, 1998

• Teacher participant: T-1 OB-1

• Time of Class: 5:30 PM

• Location: Institution: A

• Name of Class: Basic English Pronunciation

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Example of Field Note of Classroom Observation

Classroom Activities Researcher’s Comments

--Did role-play—students were asked to

write script and act them out.

--Students were busy with their

discussion and did it very intensively.

--Some of the students used English

and some used Chinese to discuss the

material.

--The teacher walked around the groups

to provide help.

--Students volunteered to role-play.

( Amazingly different from the

traditional English class)

--The teacher then corrected students‘

errors.

/* The teacher frequently used

reinforcement, including: “Very

good” “I'm glad you said that”

/* The teacher elicited questions

based on student's responses.

/* So far, I had been impressed by the

teacher's use of techniques to

involve every student. I found

that there was almost no gap

between the teacher and the

students.

/* The teacher's control of timing was

perfect. The students seemed to pretty much engaged in answering

questions and discussions.

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Demographic Information Sheet for Teacher Informant

• Code (Teacher Participant) ：• Gender ： ____• Accumulated teaching experience in this institution ：

___(yrs)• Accumulated teaching experience in EFL/ESL ： (yrs)• Please indicate your participation in academic conferences

and seminars. • Time participated • Names/ Titles of conferences/ seminars ：

• Please describe classroom/instructional evaluation in your institution

• Please describe your academic research.• Conference paper

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Ways of Categorizing Questions

• Descriptive questions• Experience questions• Behaviour questions• Knowledge questions• Construct-forming questions• Contrast questions(asking respondents to contrast one thing with another)• Feeling questions• Sensory questions• Background questions• Demographic questions

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Interview Questions for Teachers

• Would you describe and explain your philosophy in teaching English as a foreign language?

• How much do you know about the educational goal of your department?

• Describe and explain the courses you are teaching at this institution.

• Please describe you typical day at school? How do you plan your day?

• Please describe your typical class? How do you plan your class?

• Could you tell me about incidents, occasions, or situations you found teaching English rewarding?

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Procedures That Can Be Followed When Phenomenological Analyzing Interview Data 3-1

• Transcription

• Bracketing and phenomenological reduction

• Listening to the interview for a sense of the whole

• Delineating units of general meaning

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Procedures That Can Be Followed When Phenomenological Analyzing Interview Data 3-2

• Delineating units of meaning relevant to the research question

• Training independent judges to verify the units of relevant meaning

• Eliminating redundancies

• Clustering units of relevant meaning

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Procedures That Can Be Followed When Phenomenological Analyzing Interview Data 3-3

• Determining themes from clusters of meaning • Writing a summary of each individual interview• Return to the participant with the summary and themes,

conducting a second interview • Modifying themes and summary

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Example of Coding and Labeling I

Teacher Participants’ Philosophy in Teaching English

Response

A. Help students who really need help

B. Look at problems that cause students’ learning difficulties

C. Use many different approaches to teach

English

A. Create situations in which students wish to express themselves

B. Provide tools for students with which they can express themselves

C. Employ Communicative language teaching methodology

D. Use Task-based teaching approach

Make language learning enjoyable

Teacher participant

I

II

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Example of Coding and Labeling II

Teacher Participants’ Philosophy in Teaching English Response

A. When learning new words and new sentences.

B. When it is convenient for me to have access to

professional field.

C. When I am able to communicate with foreigners.

D. Being able to travel abroad.

E. When I am able to find a job with good English after

graduation.

F. When my English ability is getting better.

G. When I can understand ICRT.

H. When I understand the target language culture.

I. When I make more friends.

J. I feel superior than others, when I have a good

command of English.

Students participant

I, V, XI

I

I, II, IV, VII, VIII, X, XI, XIV

I, VIII

I

III

III

III, VI, XII

III

IV

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Data SourcesTriangulation

Classroom Observations

InterviewsReflective Journals

Figure 1 ： Triangulation (cont.)

34Figure 2 David Hawkins’Elements of Teaching

(subject matter) I(teacher)

THOU (learners)

CONTEXT

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Enhance Learners’Writing proficiency

Promote Learners’Creativity

Process Approach Model Writing

Instructional Goals Teaching Approach

Conceptual Framework for Teaching

Figure 3 Example of “Constant Comparative Method”

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External Factors

School policyEnjoyable, relaxed learning environment

Encourage English only environmentEncourage volunteers

Instruction

StudentTeacher

Response Feedback

Figure 4. Conceptual Model of Classroom

ExpertiseSchemas

Teaching experienceLesson plan

Teaching enthusiasm

Language competenceSchemas

Learning enthusiasmInternet

Preview and review

Interaction

37Figure 5. Conceptual Map of A Classroom

Technology

Goal

Belief

Knowledge

Evaluation

Goal

Belief

Knowledge

Evaluation

‧Teachers ‧Students

‧Interaction ‧Interaction

Further learning

Resource

Output (feedback)

Change & Remediation

Input (Knowledge) Performance

Further study

Application

38 Figure 6. A conceptual map of the influence of cooperative learning

on EFL low-achievers

Get spontaneous help from high achiever

through asking questions

Build self-esteem

Lower inhibition

Arouse motivation

Cooperative Learning

Low Achievement

Comprehensible input

Achievement improvement

39Figure 7. The Conceptual Map of the Interaction between Teacher’s talk

and Student’s talk as a questioning strategy in Classroom

Teacher’s Instructional Strategy

Teacher’s Goal

Students’ Learning

Evaluation

Teaching Efficiency

Teacher’s Talk

Students’ Talk

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Figure 8. The conceptual map of teacher participant III’s interactive thought and decision

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Figure 9. The conceptual map of teacher participant II’s interactive thoughts and decision

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Figure 10. The conceptual map of teacher participant I’s interactive thoughts and decision

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1. Underdeveloped ability 1. Underdeveloped ability 2. Vague conception in reference2. Vague conception in reference

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ConclusionConclusion

feedbackfeedback1. 1. An expert reader’s mental map2.2. A summary table3.3. A scoring table4.4. Feedback for reading comprehension test

scaffoldingscaffolding1. 1. Guiding instruction2. 2. Trial section3.3. The feedback tool4.4. Independent application

1. Development of referential identification 1. Development of referential identification and resolutionand resolution2. Better awareness of reference2. Better awareness of reference

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Development of a ModelDevelopment of a Model

Teacher’s Mediation

Recurring Viewings The Friends

Student-Centered

Activities

Motivation Enhancement

LearnerAutonomy

Figure 11. A cyclical approach to the sitcom-based instruction in a spoken English practice class

A cyclical approach to learning activities A cyclical approach to learning activities

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Figure 12. Teachers’ Perspectives of EFL Classroom Interaction -Teaching Empowerment

Innovative Classroom

Teachers’ and Students’Classroom Behaviors

Teaching Effectiveness

Teachers’ Interactive

Thoughts and Decisions

Teaching

Empowerment

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ConclusionConclusion

Preservice Teachers’ BeliefPreservice Teachers’ Belief

Critical Reflection

Past LearningExperiences

Teacher TrainingProgram

English Remedial

Teaching Practice

Belief construction/Reconstruction

Belief construction/Reconstruction

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The Golden Rules for Ethnographers

• Try not to study your own group

• Be sure to have an outside reader of your field notes and interview transcripts

• Try not to design a study to prove something

• Time in the field equals time in analysis

• Always develop a model of what occurred in the study

• Always look for negative evidence or points of tension and conflict

• Remember the trade-offs in ethnographic work

• Try to keep an ethnographic journal.

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THANK YOU!