(文化研究) 質性研究之紮根理論-洪銓修 老師
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Symbolic Interactionism and Grounded Theory in Ethnographic Research
象徵互動論與據證理論在俗民誌研究的運象徵互動論與據證理論在俗民誌研究的運用用
主講人:洪銓修 教授 雲林科技大學 應用外語系
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Speech Outline
Quantitative-Qualitative Dichotomy Ethnographic Research Symbolic Interactionism Grounded Theory Constant Comparative Method in Grounded Theory Examples
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Quantitative-Qualitative Dichotomy
Quantitative Inquiry Qualitative Inquiry Positivist tradition Hard data Pre-determined and given Control and hypothesis- testing Regularities and frequencies Variables Deductive and structured
Interpretative tradition Soft data Open-ended and responsive Discovery and hypothesis- generation Uniqueness and particularity Themes and motifs Inductive and grounded
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Qualitative Research
• What is qualitative research?• It does not rely on numbers or statistical
inferences as the primary means of answering questions.
• It is not concerned with making generalizations.
• Collecting and analytic procedures are usually cyclic.
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Qualitative Research
The importance of rationale :• A qualitative study requires much more
exposition of the rationale it is based on than a quantitative one.
• A researcher must be aware of the distinction between a study using qualitative methodology and one that is qualitative in essence.
• Care must be taken of both rationale of research paradigm and rationale concerning the subject matter.
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Data Analysis
Data analysis: coding, categorization, description, and interpretation• Coding: generating concepts (labeling)• Categorization—a process of generating
classification of concepts• Description—to present the concepts and
categories in a narrative way, sometimesusing direct quotes to enhance
authenticity.• Interpretation (see next page)
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Qualitative Research
Interpretation :• A process of theoretical sampling that will lead
to construction of a theory, going beyond theliteral, manifest meaning of the text to asomewhat speculative reading of the text.
• Theoretical sampling must be grounded: basedon concepts that have proven theoreticalrelevance. Concepts repeatedly present ornotably absent should be considered significantand possibly relevant to the evolving theory.
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Construction of Theory
• Theory uses concepts.• The concepts are related by means of
statements of relationships.• A theory is not merely the main idea or
the summarizing statement of all the data collected. It must have MEANING,
a meaningful organization of the concepts.
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The Question of Generalizability
• Results of a qualitative research must be
contextualized.• Efforts should be made to specify the
conditions under which our phenomena
exist, the action/interaction that pertains
to them, and the associated outcomes or
consequences (Strauss and Corbin,1990).
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“Ethnographic Research”—Definitions
Ethnographic research is:
• work of describing and explaining a given culture at a particular point in time (Janesick, 1991).
• definition of cultural knowledge (Spradley, 1980).
• detailed investigation of patterns of social interaction (Gumperz, 1981).
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“Ethnographic Research”—Definitions (cont’d)
Ethnographic research is:
• essentially descriptive, a form of story telling (Walker, 1981).
• the testing and development of theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967).
• one social research method, drawing on a wide range of sources of information (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983).
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“Ethnographic Research”—Characteristics
Ethnographic research :
• looks at relationships within a system or culture.• explores native viewpoints of behavior in the
natural settings.• focuses on understanding rather than prediction.• demands the researcher to develop a model of
what occurred in the social settings. • requires the researcher to become the research
instrument.
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“Symbolic Interactionism” in Ethnographic Research
Symbolic Interactionism (Blumer, 1937) is:
• a major social psychological perspective and
approach .• a reaction against behaviorist explanations of
human behavior.• a theory which seeks to explain human behavior
in terms of meanings.
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“Symbolic Interactionism” —Three Premises
Blumer (1969) set out three premises :
Premise 1: “Human beings act toward things on the
basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things.”
Premise 2: “Meanings of things are derived from
the social interaction that one has with one’s fellows.”
Premise 3: “Meanings are modified through an
interpretive process used by one dealing with the
things he/she encounters.”
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“Symbolic Interactionism” —An Ongoing and Dynamic Process
Individuals Define things Interpretation Modify
uses and give ‘meanings’ and judgment meanings and
perspectives perspectives
social interaction
through symbols
Figure 1. Dynamic process of Symbolic Interaction
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“Grounded Theory” in Ethnographic Research
Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) is :
• a qualitative research method adopted to develop
an inductively derived theory from the collected
field data” (Strauss and Corbin, 1990:24).
• a detailed grounding by systematically analyzing
data, using constant comparison as it is coded until
a theory results (Glaser, 1978).
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“Grounded Theory”—Characteristics
Grounded Theory:• processes work from data to theory .
■ Data is conceptualized into categories and
integrated into a theory.
■ Three coding procedures—open, axial, and
selective— are used.
■ Data is used to illustrate the evolving theory.
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“Grounded Theory”—Four Criteria
1. Fit- the categories of the theory must fit the data.
2. Workability- a theory should be able to predict
what will happen and interpret what is happening.
3. Relevancy- the theory must allow core problems
and processes to emerge.
4. Modifiability-the theory must allow for emergent
data that qualify and modify the theory.
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“Constant Comparative Method” in Grounded Theory
Constant Comparative Method:• together with theoretical sampling constitute the
core of the grounded theory approach.
■ The goal of the method is to discern conceptual
similarities, to refine the discriminative power
of categories, and to discover patterns.
■ The cycle of comparison on ‘old” and ‘new”
material can be repeated several times.
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“Constant Comparative Method” —Four Stages
Glaser and Strauss (1967) explained four stages of
the constant comparison method.
Stage 1: “Comparing incidents applicable to each
category”
Stage 2: “Integrating categories and their properties”
Stage 3: “Delimiting the theory”
Stage 4: “Writing theory”
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Major Categories for Classroom Observation
• Space: the physical place or places
• Actor: the people involved
• Activity: a set of related acts people do
• Object: the physical things that are presented
• Act: single actions that people do
• Event: a set of related activities that people carry out
• Time: the sequencing that takes place over time
• Goal: the things people are trying to accomplish
• Feeling: the emotions felt and expressed
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A Useful Guidelines for Directing Observations
• What appears to be the significant issues that are being discussed?• What non-verbal communication is taking place?• Who is talking and who is listening?• Where does the event take place?• When does the event take place?• How long does the event take?• How is time used in the event?• How are the individual elements of the event connected?• How are change and stability managed?• What rules govern the social organization of, and behaviour in, the
event?• Why is this event occurring, and occurring in the way that it is?
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Field Note
• Date: Thursday, April 23, 1998
• Teacher participant: T-1 OB-1
• Time of Class: 5:30 PM
• Location: Institution: A
• Name of Class: Basic English Pronunciation
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Example of Field Note of Classroom Observation
Classroom Activities Researcher’s Comments
--Did role-play—students were asked to
write script and act them out.
--Students were busy with their
discussion and did it very intensively.
--Some of the students used English
and some used Chinese to discuss the
material.
--The teacher walked around the groups
to provide help.
--Students volunteered to role-play.
( Amazingly different from the
traditional English class)
--The teacher then corrected students‘
errors.
/* The teacher frequently used
reinforcement, including: “Very
good” “I'm glad you said that”
/* The teacher elicited questions
based on student's responses.
/* So far, I had been impressed by the
teacher's use of techniques to
involve every student. I found
that there was almost no gap
between the teacher and the
students.
/* The teacher's control of timing was
perfect. The students seemed to pretty much engaged in answering
questions and discussions.
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Demographic Information Sheet for Teacher Informant
• Code (Teacher Participant) :• Gender : ____• Accumulated teaching experience in this institution :
___(yrs)• Accumulated teaching experience in EFL/ESL : (yrs)• Please indicate your participation in academic conferences
and seminars. • Time participated • Names/ Titles of conferences/ seminars :
• Please describe classroom/instructional evaluation in your institution
• Please describe your academic research.• Conference paper
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Ways of Categorizing Questions
• Descriptive questions• Experience questions• Behaviour questions• Knowledge questions• Construct-forming questions• Contrast questions(asking respondents to contrast one thing with another)• Feeling questions• Sensory questions• Background questions• Demographic questions
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Interview Questions for Teachers
• Would you describe and explain your philosophy in teaching English as a foreign language?
• How much do you know about the educational goal of your department?
• Describe and explain the courses you are teaching at this institution.
• Please describe you typical day at school? How do you plan your day?
• Please describe your typical class? How do you plan your class?
• Could you tell me about incidents, occasions, or situations you found teaching English rewarding?
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Procedures That Can Be Followed When Phenomenological Analyzing Interview Data 3-1
• Transcription
• Bracketing and phenomenological reduction
• Listening to the interview for a sense of the whole
• Delineating units of general meaning
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Procedures That Can Be Followed When Phenomenological Analyzing Interview Data 3-2
• Delineating units of meaning relevant to the research question
• Training independent judges to verify the units of relevant meaning
• Eliminating redundancies
• Clustering units of relevant meaning
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Procedures That Can Be Followed When Phenomenological Analyzing Interview Data 3-3
• Determining themes from clusters of meaning • Writing a summary of each individual interview• Return to the participant with the summary and themes,
conducting a second interview • Modifying themes and summary
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Example of Coding and Labeling I
Teacher Participants’ Philosophy in Teaching English
Response
A. Help students who really need help
B. Look at problems that cause students’ learning difficulties
C. Use many different approaches to teach
English
A. Create situations in which students wish to express themselves
B. Provide tools for students with which they can express themselves
C. Employ Communicative language teaching methodology
D. Use Task-based teaching approach
Make language learning enjoyable
Teacher participant
I
II
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Example of Coding and Labeling II
Teacher Participants’ Philosophy in Teaching English Response
A. When learning new words and new sentences.
B. When it is convenient for me to have access to
professional field.
C. When I am able to communicate with foreigners.
D. Being able to travel abroad.
E. When I am able to find a job with good English after
graduation.
F. When my English ability is getting better.
G. When I can understand ICRT.
H. When I understand the target language culture.
I. When I make more friends.
J. I feel superior than others, when I have a good
command of English.
Students participant
I, V, XI
I
I, II, IV, VII, VIII, X, XI, XIV
I, VIII
I
III
III
III, VI, XII
III
IV
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Data SourcesTriangulation
Classroom Observations
InterviewsReflective Journals
Figure 1 : Triangulation (cont.)
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34Figure 2 David Hawkins’Elements of Teaching
(subject matter) I(teacher)
THOU (learners)
CONTEXT
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Enhance Learners’Writing proficiency
Promote Learners’Creativity
Process Approach Model Writing
Instructional Goals Teaching Approach
Conceptual Framework for Teaching
Figure 3 Example of “Constant Comparative Method”
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External Factors
School policyEnjoyable, relaxed learning environment
Encourage English only environmentEncourage volunteers
Instruction
StudentTeacher
Response Feedback
Figure 4. Conceptual Model of Classroom
ExpertiseSchemas
Teaching experienceLesson plan
Teaching enthusiasm
Language competenceSchemas
Learning enthusiasmInternet
Preview and review
Interaction
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37Figure 5. Conceptual Map of A Classroom
Technology
Goal
Belief
Knowledge
Evaluation
Goal
Belief
Knowledge
Evaluation
‧Teachers ‧Students
‧Interaction ‧Interaction
Further learning
Resource
Output (feedback)
Change & Remediation
Input (Knowledge) Performance
Further study
Application
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38 Figure 6. A conceptual map of the influence of cooperative learning
on EFL low-achievers
Get spontaneous help from high achiever
through asking questions
Build self-esteem
Lower inhibition
Arouse motivation
Cooperative Learning
Low Achievement
Comprehensible input
Achievement improvement
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39Figure 7. The Conceptual Map of the Interaction between Teacher’s talk
and Student’s talk as a questioning strategy in Classroom
Teacher’s Instructional Strategy
Teacher’s Goal
Students’ Learning
Evaluation
Teaching Efficiency
Teacher’s Talk
Students’ Talk
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Figure 8. The conceptual map of teacher participant III’s interactive thought and decision
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Figure 9. The conceptual map of teacher participant II’s interactive thoughts and decision
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Figure 10. The conceptual map of teacher participant I’s interactive thoughts and decision
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1. Underdeveloped ability 1. Underdeveloped ability 2. Vague conception in reference2. Vague conception in reference
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ConclusionConclusion
feedbackfeedback1. 1. An expert reader’s mental map2.2. A summary table3.3. A scoring table4.4. Feedback for reading comprehension test
scaffoldingscaffolding1. 1. Guiding instruction2. 2. Trial section3.3. The feedback tool4.4. Independent application
1. Development of referential identification 1. Development of referential identification and resolutionand resolution2. Better awareness of reference2. Better awareness of reference
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Development of a ModelDevelopment of a Model
Teacher’s Mediation
Recurring Viewings The Friends
Student-Centered
Activities
Motivation Enhancement
LearnerAutonomy
Figure 11. A cyclical approach to the sitcom-based instruction in a spoken English practice class
A cyclical approach to learning activities A cyclical approach to learning activities
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Figure 12. Teachers’ Perspectives of EFL Classroom Interaction -Teaching Empowerment
Innovative Classroom
Teachers’ and Students’Classroom Behaviors
Teaching Effectiveness
Teachers’ Interactive
Thoughts and Decisions
Teaching
Empowerment
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ConclusionConclusion
Preservice Teachers’ BeliefPreservice Teachers’ Belief
Critical Reflection
Past LearningExperiences
Teacher TrainingProgram
English Remedial
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Belief construction/Reconstruction
Belief construction/Reconstruction
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The Golden Rules for Ethnographers
• Try not to study your own group
• Be sure to have an outside reader of your field notes and interview transcripts
• Try not to design a study to prove something
• Time in the field equals time in analysis
• Always develop a model of what occurred in the study
• Always look for negative evidence or points of tension and conflict
• Remember the trade-offs in ethnographic work
• Try to keep an ethnographic journal.
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THANK YOU!