© 2007 mcgraw-hill higher education. all rights reserved. fundamental object- control skills of...

Fundamental Object-Control Skills of Childhood

Chapter 13

Objectives

• Describe overarm throwing development and list factors known to influence overarm throwing performance

• Describe developmental aspects of both one and two-handed catching and list factors known to influence catching performance

• Describe developmental aspects of ball striking both with (bats, racquets) and without (kicking, punting, ball bouncing) external implements

When the child is able to ambulate freely, the hands are free to use in a new fundamental skill ~ object-control

Overarm Throwing

• One of the most complex fundamental movements

• Can be divided into 3 phases– Preparatory phase

• All movements directed away from the intended line of projection

– Execution phase• All movements performed in the direction of the

throw– Follow-through

• All movements following the release of the projectile

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• Monica Wild (1938)– Four developmental stages of throwing

• See Table 13-1

– Set standards for developmental throwing stages

– Studied age and gender characteristics of throwing in 32 boys and girls

• Ages 2-12 years old

– Trends• Movement progresses from an anterior-

posterior plane to a horizontal plane• The base of support changes from a

stationary to a shifting position

• Langendorfer (1980)

In Step 2, note howthe ball is brought upbeside the head withupward humerus flexionand exaggerated elbowflexion

Notice the lack of a preparatory backswing in Step 1

Option 1 is a circularoverhead preparatoryMovement with elbow extended

Option 2 is a preparatoryphase using a lateral swing backward

Step 3

By the 2nd grade, boys use Step 4

Option 3 uses asimple vertical lift of the throwing arm

Step 3

• Roberton (1978) presents longitudinal evidence for developmental stages within the humerus, forearm, and trunk components for the overarm throw

• “Development within component parts may proceed at different rates in the same individual or at different rates in different individuals.”

Roberton, 1977, p.55

• Seefeldt, Reuschlein, and Vogel (1972)– Noted large gender differences in throwing

development– Noted the age at which 60% of boys exhibit a

Stage 5 throwing pattern– Noted the lag in development for girls

• Throwing motion is posterior-anterior in direction• Feet do not move• Little trunk rotation• Force for projecting the ball comes from hip flexion,

shoulder protraction, and elbow extension

Stage 1

• More rotation of the body• Performer may step forward (ipsilateral or contralateral

pattern)• Arm brought forward in transverse plane• Form resembles a sling

Stage 2

• Note the ipsilateral arm-leg action• Ball is placed into throwing position above the shoulder by a

vertical and posterior motion of the arm at the time that the ipsilateral leg is moving forward

• Little or no rotation of the spine and hips• Follow-through includes flexion at the hips and some trunk

rotation

Stage 3

• Movement is contralateral• Little or no rotation of the hips and spine during wind-up

– Motion of trunk and arms resembles stages 1 and 3

• Stride forward with contralateral leg provides a wide base of support and stability

Stage 4

• Mature movement pattern

Stage 5

Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level

Developmental Performance Trends for Overarm Throwing

• Study techniques for performance– Throw for distance– Throw for accuracy– Measurement of throwing velocity

• Annual improvement regardless of study technique

• Boys and men outperform girls and women at all ages

Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance

• Instruction• Knowledge• Instructional cues• Ball size• Angle of ball release

• Instruction• Does instruction facilitate development or

is improvement due to the year-to-year improvement of the fundamental skill?– Instruction significantly affects changes in

throwing technique, but not greater horizontal ball velocities

• Velocity should not be used as the sole index in the evaluation of the over-arm throw

• Instruction– An “increased range of motion instruction”

program can increase the stride length component of the overarm throw

• Stride length• Arm retraction• Side facing• Trunk rotation• Preparatory leg recoil• Arm patterns• Stride opposition

• A training program designed to improve throwing pattern can be effective in improving girls’ foot action and pelvic-spine rotation, but not arm action, throwing distance, or ball velocity

• Knowledge– Awkward throwers possess significantly less

declarative knowledge than more talented throwers

– Awkward throwers lack knowledge in• Ball size• Stepping forward with the opposite foot• Throwing low• Ability to recognize correct form from a

side view• Knowledge of throwing influences

performance

• Instructional cues– Identification of critical cues facilitates

throwing performance

• Critical cues– “Take a long step toward the target with the

opposite foot of your throwing arm”– “Take your arm straight down, then stretch it

way back to make an ‘L’ with the arm”– “Watch the target and release the ball when

you see your fingers”

• Ball size– When ball diameter is scaled up, a

transitional point is reached where the performer resorts to a less mature throwing pattern in the backswing and forearm components

– As diameter increases, there is a transition from one-handed grasping to two-handed grasping

– Ball size and hand width are important in throwing performance

• Angle of ball release– In those using an “arm-dominated” throwing

pattern, the ball is released too early resulting in an upward trajectory (49o)

• May be linked to poor grasp, ball weight, and ball size

– A more mature throwing pattern observed at a 15o angle of release

– Older children release the ball at an angle between 25-28o

• Working with small children– Control for ball weight and size– With help child with more mature ball release

• Does improvement in technique affect performance?

Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm Throwing

• The greatest gender differences for all fundamental skills is found with throwing

• Success in distance throwing of boys is associated with– Heredity

• Arm muscle mass– Sociocultural factors

• Male adult in the home

• Success in distance throwing for girls is associated with….– Greater body weight– More body fat– Large joint diameter– Greater arm and leg mass

…..compared to smaller and weaker female counterparts

• By age 9, girls throw only 49% as far as boys due to differences in– Grip strength– Height– Upper-body strength

• The best predictors of throwing development in girls are – Participation in sport– Presence of an older brother in the household

• TV watching is negatively correlated with throwing performance

• The best predictors of throwing development in boys are– Father’s sport involvement– Father-son skill play

• Can gender differences in throwing be accounted for by factors involving human evolution?

• Perhaps

• Throwing behaviors were more prevalent among men in our early history– Defense– Hunting

Catching

• The action of bringing an airborne object under control by using the hands and arms

Developmental Aspects: Two-handed Catching

• First attempt to stop a rolling object is to sit on floor with legs spread apart– Legs trap ball– Hands trap ball

• First attempt at an airborne object is passive– Tosser throws ball so the child can use the

outstretched arms and body to catch

2-year-old 5-year-old 15-year-old

•Focuses on the tosser, not the ball

•Maintains a static position

•Reacts too late

•Can anticipate some of the ball’s changing flight pattern

•Can focus on thrower, ball, and own hands

• Movements are correct, but are carried out in slow motion

•Can predict the ball’s flight

•Carries out preparatory sequences to catch the ball

•Movements are smooth

(Kay, 1970)

• This 6-year old child is showing fear in reaction to a thrown ball

• Seefeldt speculates that fear of a projectile is learned from earlier failures

Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching

• Arms are directly in front with elbows extended; palms facing upward and inward

• Arms and hands attempt to secure the ball by holding it against the chest

Stage 1

• Elbows are slightly flexed• Arms encircle the ball against the chest• Arm action initiated before ball contact

Stage 2

• Child prepares to receive ball with arms flexed and extended

• Substage 1: child uses chest as first contact point• Substage 2: child attempts to catch ball with hands

Stage 3

• Child prepares to receive the ball by flexing the elbows and presenting the arms ahead of the frontal plane

• Ball is caught with the hands aloneStage 4

• Many children encounter difficulty when they are required to move toward the object

• Mature catcher “gives” with the catch

Stage 5

Developmental Aspects: One-handed Catching

• Little scientific evidence exists regarding a child’s ability to catch with one hand– Boys typically outperform girls– Ball location is a factor

• Young children can orient hands in all directions for a catch, but lack experience in finger closure

– One-handed catching is less successful than two-handed

Factors That Influence Catching Performance

• Ball size• Ball and background color• Ball velocity• Trajectory angel• Vision and viewing time• Instruction• Knowledge and experience• Catching on the run• Catching with a glove

• Ball size– Product oriented evaluation: Larger balls

improve young children’s catching performance

• Not concerned with level of maturation in catching technique

– Process oriented evaluation: Smaller balls are more conducive to successful catching (Isaacs, 1980)

• More mature catch

• Ball and background color– Blue and yellow balls are caught successfully

more often then white balls– Blue balls against white background elicit the

highest success– For both boys and girls, using preferred color

of ball results in greater catching success

• Child can obtain more information concerning ball’s flight

• Ball velocity– Important in predicting direction of

projectile– Catching performance decreases as

ball velocity increases (25 ft/s to 33 ft/s)

• Trajectory angle– Angle of projection does not significantly

affect a child's catching ability– On average, 44o projection angle elicits

success in catching– Unskilled children are more successful when

ball is projected at 34o angle

• Vision and viewing time– A slowly moving ball through space is

preferred when working with inexperienced catchers

• Beach ball• Whiffle ball• Sponge ball

• Instruction– Only one study has examined catching

instruction on one-handed catching– 8-year-old child trained over 7 days

• Catching ability improved to the level of a child 2 years older

• Knowledge and experience– Knowledge of catching can influence

performance– Procedural knowledge is higher in

nondisabled children; higher in ambulatory disabled vs. nonambulatory disabled peers

– Declarative knowledge does not differ significantly among the various groups

• Knowledge and experience

• “…declarative and procedural knowledge do not develop at the same rate …… catching experience may foster the acquisition of procedural knowledge, even though a deficit in declarative knowledge may be evident.”

• Catching on the run– It is easier to catch a ball when directed

toward the child– Teachers/coaches should use caution when

paring up inexperienced and experienced catchers

• Catching with a glove– A glove can alter the nature of errors typically

observed in bare-handed catching– Reduces the precision of limb-hand positioning– Alters the temporal grasping component of the

hand closure– Glove catching is easier as ball moves toward a

larger target and is caught over a larger surface area

– Hand strength is important• To squeeze glove

Striking

• A fundamental movement in which a designated body part or some implement is used to project an object– Bare hand against volleyball– Baseball ball– Tennis racquet

Developmental Aspects of One-and Two-handed Striking

• The initial patterns in striking are similar to those observed in throwing– Child faces the object to be struck– May or may not take a forward step with

homolateral leg

• Striking movements occur in anterior-posterior plane

• Inexperienced striker– No steps taken or step

taken with homolateral leg

– Up-down striking motion– Little backswing– No rotation of trunk or

hip– Rigid arm; little wrist

• Experienced striker– Forward step with

opposite foot taken– Full backswing– Swings implement

horizontally– Trunk and hip rotation– Coordinated wrist

• Motion is posterior-anterior in direction• Elbows are fully flexed• Feet remain stationary

Stage 1

• Feet are stationary or right or left foot may receive the weight

• Unitary rotation of hip and trunk• Bat moves in transverse plane

Stage 2

• Shift of weight to the front-supporting foot in an ipsilateral pattern

• Trunk rotation-derotation is decreased• Bat is swung in an oblique-vertical plane

Stage 3

• Mature striking pattern Stage 4

Stationary Ball Bouncing

• At advanced levels, a person bounces or dribbles a ball using the hand to push the ball repeatedly downward

• Inexperienced performers use one or two hands to strike the ball

• Striking is one of the developmental stages of dribbling

• The inexperienced dribbler slaps at the ball

• The mature dribbler fully extends the arm• Retracts the arm when contact is made• Hand maintains contact with the ball• Ball is pushed, not slapped

Kicking

• Another form of striking• The foot is used to give impetus to the

ball• Place kicking involves kicking a ball

from the ground or a tee

• Preparatory phase• Force production• Follow-through phase

Kicking

• Performer is usually near the ball• Thigh of kicking leg moves forward• Knee extension occurs after contact

Stage 1

Kicking

• Hyperextension at hip and flexion at knee• Kicking leg moves forward with knee flexed• Arm-leg opposition occurs during kick• Force of kick usually not sufficient to move the body

forward

Stage 2

Kicking

• One or more steps taken on approach• Kicking foot stays nears surface as it

approaches ball• Knee begins to extend prior to contact• Arm-leg opposition

Stage 3

Kicking

• Mature kicking pattern• Running start• Last step taken involves a leap step onto the support foot

Stage 4

Punting

• Punting involves striking an airborne ball with the foot

• A difficult kicking skill

Punting

• Ball may be held in both hands as the punting foot lifts forward and upward to push the ball

• Ball may be tossed up; ball may be bounced• Flexion at the hip and knee from stationary start

Stage 1

Punting

• Stationary start• Ball held in both hands and dropped or tossed forward• Nonsupport leg is flexed• Kicking force is more upward

Stage 2

Punting

• Forward motion • Ball released forward and downward direction• Knee flexed at 90 0

• Follow-through will carry punter forward

Stage 3

Punting

• Rapid approach with culminating leap• Ball contacted at or below knee height• Momentum of swinging leg carries the punter off the

ground

Stage 4

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