american art & architecture transparencies strategies and ...the goal of american art and...

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Cover image: Merced River, Yosemite Valley by Albert Bierstadt. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the

sons of William Paton, 1909. (09.214.1) Photograph © 1998 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

iii

CONTENTSIntroduction vi

About the Materials vi

Incorporating Art Into the History Classroom vii

General Guidelines vii

Helping Students Look at Art viii

TEACHING STRATEGIES AND STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1 Serpent MoundTeaching Strategy 1

Student Activity 2

2 Cliff PalaceTeaching Strategy 3

Student Activity 4

3 Brewster ChairTeaching Strategy 5

Student Activity 6

4 Quilled Buckskin RobeTeaching Strategy 7

Student Activity 8

5 Independence HallTeaching Strategy 9

Student Activity 10

6 Penn’s Treaty with the IndiansTeaching Strategy 11

Student Activity 12

7 Mission San Xavier del BacTeaching Strategy 13

Student Activity 14

8 The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776Teaching Strategy 15

Student Activity 16

9 University of Virginia, CharlottesvilleTeaching Strategy 17

Student Activity 18

10 The Great Blue HeronTeaching Strategy 19

Student Activity 20

11 The Buffalo Chase, Mouth of the YellowstoneTeaching Strategy 21

Student Activity 22

12 Shaker Retiring RoomTeaching Strategy 23

Student Activity 24

iv

13 Baltimore Album QuiltTeaching Strategy 25

Student Activity 26

14 Washington Crossing the DelawareTeaching Strategy 27

Student Activity 28

15 A Rainy Day in CampTeaching Strategy 29

Student Activity 30

16 Merced River, Yosemite ValleyTeaching Strategy 31

Student Activity 32

17 Chief JosephTeaching Strategy 33

Student Activity 34

18 Smoking RoomTeaching Strategy 35

Student Activity 36

19 Let Us PreyTeaching Strategy 37

Student Activity 38

20 In the GardenTeaching Strategy 39

Student Activity 40

21 Favrile Glass VaseTeaching Strategy 41

Student Activity 42

22 Guaranty BuildingTeaching Strategy 43

Student Activity 44

23 The StampedeTeaching Strategy 45

Student Activity 46

24 Cliff DwellersTeaching Strategy 47

Student Activity 48

25 I Want You for the U.S. ArmyTeaching Strategy 49

Student Activity 50

26 Allies Day, May 1917Teaching Strategy 51

Student Activity 52

27 Yellow Cactus FlowersTeaching Strategy 53

Student Activity 54

28 Empire State BuildingTeaching Strategy 55

Student Activity 56

v

29 Fallingwater (Kaufmann House)Teaching Strategy 57

Student Activity 58

30 Migrant MotherTeaching Strategy 59

Student Activity 60

31 John Brown Going to His HangingTeaching Strategy 61

Student Activity 62

32 The Red StairwayTeaching Strategy 63

Student Activity 64

33 Finny FishTeaching Strategy 65

Student Activity 66

34 MapTeaching Strategy 67

Student Activity 68

35 Royal Tide IITeaching Strategy 69

Student Activity 70

36 Day of the FairTeaching Strategy 71

Student Activity 72

37 ForwardTeaching Strategy 73

Student Activity 74

38 Vietnam Veterans MemorialTeaching Strategy 75

Student Activity 76

39 Still Life with Red Car 1986Teaching Strategy 77

Student Activity 78

40 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and MuseumTeaching Strategy 79

Student Activity 80

The Language of Art 81

Chronology of Selected Periods, Styles, and Artists 85

vi AMERICAN ART & ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTIONIt has been said that “art is a mirror.” This is cer-

tainly true when applied to the history of the

United States. American art reflects the ideas, the

spirit, and the hopes of our ancestors. It defines

who we as Americans are, where we have been, and

where we are headed.

America’s political, economic, and social changes

have influenced many writers, thinkers, and artists

over the centuries. Artists, in particular, have

reacted to and been part of the changes in visual

ways, which help us to “see” our rich multicultural

heritage. American painting, sculpture, crafts, and

architecture show how men and women lived and

thought as our nation grew and developed. It is

through artists’ works that you can see a visual

record of ourselves.

As a teacher, you present history in ways that

make the past come alive for your students. One

way to do this is through art and architecture. When

students read a textbook about the history and

geography of the United States, they “hear” the

story of their past. And while the written word is an

effective medium for introducing this information

to students, it should not be the only medium.

Without “seeing” their past, students miss learning

how artists bring their unique perspectives to the

rich fabric of history. Woven together, narrative and

art provide the broad perspective necessary for stu-

dents to learn about the United States and to see

what their nation is all about.

The transparencies in this package reflect the

exciting story of the United States. Spanning more

than two centuries, they are artists’ records of such

phenomenal events as the American Revolution,

the Civil War, and the Great Depression. They

illustrate aspects of history and culture unique to

America, such as the dignity of the Native

Americans, the rugged lifestyle of the pioneers, and

the diversity of our population. The transparencies

also portray emotions that are not unique to

Americans—emotions of hope, despair, greed, and

selflessness. As you use the transparencies, keep in

mind that they reflect not only the ethnic back-

ground of the artist and a particular artistic or

architectural style and subject, but that each

transparency is also a mirror of a particular

moment in our history. They enable you to show

your students—in an illuminating way—what the

United States was and is.

ABOUT THE MATERIALSThe goal of American Art and Architecture is to give

students an understanding of how art and architec-

ture act as tools when learning about history. The

40 transparencies are designed to enrich and extend

your American history textbook. Because you and

your students may or may not have a background

in art history or architecture, or know the tech-

niques used to analyze the visual elements in a pic-

ture or design elements in a structure, each

transparency is accompanied by Teaching Strategies

and a Student Activity worksheet. These will help

you help your students use art as a historical tool.

The Teaching Strategies for each transparency

begin with a learning objective and a teacher-guided

activity. Several discussion questions follow—each

labeled according to one of the five artistic charac-

teristics, which are described on page viii in

“Helping Students Look at Art.” The Teaching

Strategies also list the answers to the questions

found on the Student Activity worksheets. A special

feature, “Events of the Period,” helps you link the

art or architecture to its proper historical era.

The Student Activity sheets begin with a para-

graph that provides background information about

the artwork or structure and the artist or architect,

and sets the work in its historical context. This

paragraph can be used to introduce the illustration

on the transparency to the class, either through a

formal lecture presentation or as a device to initiate

class discussion.

Also on each activity sheet are a series of ques-

tions entitled “Observing for Detail.” These ques-

tions require students to carefully focus on the

subject matter, basic elements, composition, and

expressive content of the artwork or structure. Each

worksheet concludes with an “Enriching Your

Knowledge” section, which lists student extension

activities based on the transparency and the appro-

priate historical period. These extenders have been

AMERICAN ART & ARCHITECTURE vii

INCORPORATING ART INTO THE HISTORY CLASSROOM

carefully selected to provide for different student

learning modalities as well as a variety of teaching

styles. You will find the student activities include

research projects, class and homework assignments,

and written and oral reports.

A useful classroom tool both for students and

teachers is the glossary at the back of this guide.

Entitled “The Language of Art,” the glossary

includes important terms used in the student activ-

ity worksheets. The terms are printed in bold type

the first time they are used. You should introduce

the vocabulary for each lesson and then review the

definitions at the appropriate time. You may want

to reproduce the glossary for each student.

GENERAL GUIDELINES The transparencies

may be used as unit and chapter introductory activ-

ities in order to give students access to the people,

ideas, and events they will be studying. Also, by

having students focus on the art early in the unit,

they may take a closer look at the illustrations in

their textbook. The end result may be that students

learn to look into and around the central features

of the illustrations, thereby setting them in time

and seeing how they reflect the political and social

developments of our nation.

After students read the unit or chapter overview

in their textbook, show the selected transparencies

and ask students to describe what they see and if it

provides clues to what they will study. You may

need to prompt students with such questions as:

• What is happening in the painting or

illustration?

• Who are the people?

• What are they wearing?

• Where are they?

• Who and/or what is in the background?

• Why are there no people in the painting or

illustration?

• What is the architecture like?

• Can students place it in time?

• What are some of the unique characteristics

of the architecture?

• Do students like the art or architecture?

• What meaning does it seem to have for the

students?

• Does the art relate to our own experiences

today?

• What other ideas or opinions do students

have about the art or architecture?

More specific questions for each transparency are

listed in the Teaching Strategies pages of this guide.

Next, have students read the paragraphs on the

Student Activity worksheet to learn facts about the

artwork or structure illustrated in the transparency

and to discuss it in relation to the historical theme

or period. Then assign the “Observing for Detail”

questions. These may be answered orally as part of

a general class discussion, or you may have stu-

dents write out the answers as a homework assign-

ment. Whenever possible, relate the transparency

to the narrative and illustrations in the units of

your textbook.

Display the transparencies again at the end of the

unit to provide an opportunity for the class to sum-

marize concepts learned in the textbook. Equally

important, students will learn that what they see in

a picture is greatly enhanced by what they know

about the historical period under study. You may

also wish to go over the “Observing for Detail”

questions again or ask for selected presentations of

the “Enriching Your Knowledge” activities.

HELPING STUDENTS LOOK AT ART Art is a

form of communication. Artists draw, sculpt, paint,

and build in order to express their thoughts and

ideas. However, their work would be incomplete if

we, the viewers, were not part of the communica-

tion process—looking at and “receiving” the

artist’s message.

There is no specific way to look at paintings,

posters, cartoons, photographs, folk art, sculpture, or

architecture. Yet works of art, like anything else pro-

duced by people, have a purpose, function, physical

characteristics, and an aesthetic appeal that gives

them meaning. Discussing these transparencies

requires dealing with any or all of these elements.

Looking at and reacting to art requires us to think

about the five following “characteristics” of

viii AMERICAN ART & ARCHITECTURE

individual works. These characteristics are repeated

throughout the Teaching Strategies pages of this

guide.

1 Personal Reaction—what the viewer

thinks or feels about the work of art or the

architecture after looking carefully at it.

2 Subject Matter—what the work of art rep-

resents. Subject matter consists of people,

objects, or the meaning associated with

either or both of them.

3 Visual Elements—the shapes, forms, lines,

textures, and colors used in the art or archi-

tecture.

4 Expressive Content—the theme or mood

of the work or what the work is about.

Expressive content also includes what the

art means to you, the viewer.

5 Composition—how the elements of the

work are organized into a unified whole to

achieve balance, rhythm, contrast, unity,

and emphasis.

As you use these transparencies throughout the

year, you will find that students begin to see more

in art and architecture. They may even begin to

demonstrate an intuitive understanding of style

and content that will enhance their enjoyment in

looking at art and architecture. The important

thing to remember is that people respond in differ-

ent ways to art, and your students will have differ-

ent interpretations of what they are viewing. By

looking at, thinking about, and discussing art,

students will understand that there are different

approaches to looking at history, too, and that art

and architecture are ways to acquire the perspective

by which they can develop a better understanding

of history.

TRANSPARENCY

1Serpent Mound (c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 1)

Adena People or Fort Ancient Indians

AMERICAN ART & ARCHITECTURE 1

TEACHING STRATEGIESObjective

Students will view art as a connection among

cultures.

Introductory ActivityPlace Transparency 1 on the overhead projector.

Ask the class what they think it is and who made it.

Explain that it is part of a great Native American

artistic tradition—the building of effigy mounds.

Effigy mounds represent an image, usually of a ani-

mal. They are not burial sites and have no artifacts

buried within. There were many Native American

cultures that erected earthen mounds, but it is the

mystery of the effigy mounds that truly captures

our imagination. The mounds probably have reli-

gious or astronomical significance but can be

viewed as pure art, a visual communication from

another culture.

Serpent Mound is one example of an effigy

mound, but there are earthen likenesses of lynxes,

panthers, bison, water birds, eagles, lizards, and

turtles, among others. The scale of these animals is

tremendous. In northeastern Iowa, there are 26 ani-

mal effigy figures, including Great Bear Mound,

which measures 70 feet across at the shoulders and

reaches 137 feet in length. Serpent Mound is one-

fourth of a mile long, with a body width of 20 feet.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION What is your reaction to the

Serpent Mound as art? As history? Does it make

you curious about the builders? Why do you

think they built it?

VISUAL ELEMENTS What shapes do you see? (The

tail end is coiled into a circle, the body is curved, the

head is a triangle, and an egg shape is near the head.)

SUBJECT MATTER Experts and visitors to the

mound agree that the main body is a serpent or

snake, but there are a variety of opinions as to

what the egg-shaped object represents. What do

you think it might be? (Some researchers believe:

(1) the snake is swallowing an egg, a symbol of

rebirth; (2) the snake is striking at a frog and, as the

frog leaps away, it ejects an egg; (3) the egg-shaped

object represents the heart of the reptile; (4) the egg-

shaped object is a conventionalized head and eye; (5)

in conjunction with an astronomical correlation, it rep-

resents the moon going into eclipse.)

Answers to Activity, p. 21. Some students may view the serpent as menac-

ing because it appears to be striking or swallow-

ing something, or because they have been

conditioned to view snakes as menacing. Some

might think the mood is tranquil because of the

deep, undulating, or wavy, curves of the snake’s

main body or because the serpent is located in

a peaceful, natural setting.

2. Answers might include Mount Rushmore, topi-

aries, and stylized gardens.

3. Most students should sense a feel of movement

in the snake. The coiled tail is unfurling, the

body curves as if in movement, and the head

appears to be striking.

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POLITICS• 750–500 B.C. Greeks establish a number of

new city-states as colonies.

• 509 B.C. Traditional date of the founding

of the republic of Rome.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 447–432 B.C. The Parthenon is built in Athens,

Greece.

• 221 B.C. The Great Wall of China is built.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 775 B.C. Greeks develop a phonetic alpha-

bet, written from left to right.

• 387 B.C. Plato opens the Academy in

Greece.

EVENTS OF THE PERIOD—c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 1

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TRANSPARENCY

1Serpent Mound (c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 1)


Name Date Class

2 AMERICAN ART & ARCHITECTURE

Observing for Detail1. Does this depiction of the serpent impress you as menacing or tranquil? Why?

2. Name pieces of art from modern eras that are integrally tied to nature in both construction and

viewing.

3. Do you sense a feeling of movement in the snake? Why or why not?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. CRITICAL THINKING Think of an example of public art near where you live or that you are

familiar with, such as a mural, sculpture, statue, or some graffiti. In a discussion panel, speculate

how that piece of art might be interpreted by anthropologists and archaeologists a thousand years

from now.

5. Research various studies that believe the Serpent Mound may have been laid out in alignment with

various astronomical observations, and then prepare a report for the class.

Serpent Mound is a flawlessly modeled

serpent that was created along a bluff over-

looking Brush Creek in southwestern Ohio. It is

one-fourth of a mile long. This mound triggers

more questions than answers. Archaeologists

have even found it difficult to pinpoint the exact

dating of the effigy mound. It was not a burial

site and contains no artifacts to help determine

when it was made. For years it was thought that

the Adena people formed the mound. More

recent radiocarbon samples of wood charcoal

indicate a later people, the Fort Ancient Indians,

as the artists. Some experts dispute this later

date.

Who built it? When did they build it? Just as

intriguing are the questions, Why was it built?

What does it mean? Theories and speculations

abound, but the mound builders’ intent remains

a mystery. The builders carefully planned their

work by first outlining the shape with small

stones and lumps of clay. Then they piled count-

less baskets of yellow clay over the outline,

burying their markers and forming the four-to

five-foot-high slithering mound that still amazes

and captivates people to this day. There may

not be consensus on many of the questions

surrounding Serpent Mound, but everyone does

agree that it is pure art.

About the Mound

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TRANSPARENCY

2Cliff Palace (c. 1100)

Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi) Cliff Dwelling



Students will appreciate an early civilization as a

complex community.

Introductory ActivityShow students a map, pointing out the Four

Corners area where Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and

New Mexico meet. Explain that scattered over this

area in the A.D. 1000s and 1100s were hundreds of

villages and large towns. The hub of this urban

network lay in Chaco Canyon. Several thousand

people may have lived in “downtown” Chaco.

Today a haunting emptiness pervades these sites.

Research has revealed more than 400 miles of

remarkably straight roads leading to outlying towns

in the San Juan Basin, but some even stretch to the

highlands beyond. The people farmed, but trade

also played a role. Evidence of imported copper

bells, macaw skeletons, and Mesoamerican architec-

tural details are not unusual to find.

A drought gripped the Chaco Canyon from 1130

to 1180. Large populations had depleted their

environment—game became scarce through over-

hunting, most of the trees were cut down for build-

ing and other needs, and the soil was overworked

from farming. The drought made the conditions in

the environment even worse. Political, religious, and

social organizations began to fail. Trade ceased. The

problems of Chaco’s towns and villages became

those of a city in decline. Show Transparency 2 and

explain that the building of Cliff Palace in Mesa

Verde began around this time (1100), and the site

was inhabited until around 1275.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Would you like or dislike

living on a cliff such as this? Why?

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Have the builders of Cliff

Palace created a mood? (Many students may notice

that the dwellings appear as an extension of the envi-

ronment. Some may think the builders elicited a feeling

of safety and harmony, whereas others may view the

placement of the structure as precarious and difficult.)

SUBJECT MATTER Try to visualize the structure

intact and filled with people going about their

daily business. Does it remind you of an apart-

ment building or complex? (Answers will vary.

Show Transparency 24, Cliff Dwellers by George

Bellows, for further discussion of possible similarities

and differences with modern urban life.)

Answers to Activity, p. 41. It is believed the doors were small to keep out

cold air in the winter. During cold weather, the

doors were covered with sandstone slabs about

an inch thick. Other reasons might include that

the inhabitants were of smaller stature than

modern people, or the smaller doors provided

protection from enemies.

2. Cliff Palace is built of sandstone, the same as

the cliff. The color of the structure is so harmo-

nious with its surroundings that it blends into

the cliff, making it almost invisible.

3. Answers will vary. Some students may find it

overwhelming, confining, scary, peaceful, or

enjoyable, to name a few.

POLITICS• 1096 The Crusades begin.

• 1147 Moscow is founded as a defense

post for Russia.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1116 Chinese sew pages to make

stitched books.

• 1180 The windmill is invented.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• c. 1200 Landscape painting is at its height in

China.

• 1150 The Gothic style of architecture and

art begins in Europe.

EVENTS OF THE PERIOD—c. 1100–1200


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TRANSPARENCY

2Cliff Palace (c. 1100)

Name Date Class

Observing for Detail1. Doorways in cliff dwellings are small and were probably built that way deliberately. What would

have been the advantages of building small doorways?

2. Name reasons why Cliff Palace appears harmonious with its environment.

3. Choose three words that exemplify how you would feel living in Cliff Palace.

Enriching Your Knowledge4. CRITICAL THINKING Compare and contrast the locations and styles of Cliff Palace and Pueblo

Bonito in Chaco Canyon.

5. Research and write a paper about why it is believed some Ancestral Puebloans built their dwellings

on cliffs.

6. Research and present information and photographs of Ancestral Puebloan pottery to the class.


Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde in Colorado is

the largest cliff dwelling in North

America. It once contained approximately 200

rooms and 23 kivas, or ceremonial rooms. It is

believed that 100 to 150 people lived here. The

main building materials used in the construction

of Cliff Palace were sandstone and mud mortar.

The Ancestral Puebloan people used hard

riverbed stones as hammers to chip the sand-

stone. Fitted into the mortar are tiny pieces of

stone, called chinking, that were used to fill in

gaps and add structural stability to the walls.

The towerlike structure, one of the tallest

sections of Cliff Palace, has two doorways. The

keyhole-shaped opening at the top and the

rectangular opening at the bottom of the tower

are both doors. Towers are often connected to

the kivas (the circular areas) by tunnels. The

shorter wall to the left of the tower has two

small openings near the top. These openings

were used to ventilate the rooms. The small

holes beneath the doorway in this wall were

sockets for beams that supported the roofs of

the ground floor rooms.

About the Architecture


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TRANSPARENCY

3Brewster Chair (1640)

Plymouth Colony


Students will appreciate the importance of well-

crafted furniture in colonial homes.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to name some household items

that are considered status symbols today. Students

might consider big screen TVs, stereo systems, a

wide assortment of video equipment, swimming

pools, and hot tubs as modern status symbols.

Place Transparency 3 on the overhead projector

and explain that in the New England colonies,

chairs were symbols of status and authority. Often

there were no chairs in the home or, at best, there

was one chair for the man of the family or special

guests. Stools and long benches called forms were

most commonly used for seating.

The tradition of chairs as symbols of status

can be traced back to the thrones of royalty. The

tradition endured in colonial America where most

well-to-do households recorded one great chair

among their other important household items.

Discussion Questions PERSONAL REACTION Do you think this chair looks

throne-like? Why or why not? Imagine sitting in

this chair. Would it make you feel important?

VISUAL ELEMENTS What kinds of lines are used for

the basic skeleton of the chair? (Students should

notice that the lines and angles of the basic chair shape

are severely straight.) How did the craftsman soften

the straight lines? (The gentle curves of the turnings

soften the severity of the straight lines.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Has the crafter evoked a

mood of comfort with the design of this chair?

(Most students will agree that this chair’s design

conveys status, not comfort. There are no elements that

would adapt to the human form. Chairs evolved to

reflect the human shape in the late 1600s and during

the 1700s. Examples of this change would be curved

arms that extend over and down to accommodate the

hand, and curved backs and seats.)

Answers to Activity, p. 61. Students may first notice the linear construc-

tion, the spindles, or the richness of the wood.

2. Some students may consider it both simple and

ornate due to the simple skeleton of the chair

combined with the more ornate spindles.

3. Answers will vary, but students should be able

to explain why the chair does or does not make

them think of the Pilgrims. Some may com-

ment that the chair is very ornate and resem-

bles a throne, which may remind them more of

English royalty than the Pilgrims. The early

colonial pieces, including this chair, were based

on the Jacobean style the colonists recalled

from their lives in England. The style, however,

is associated so closely with the first colonies

that it is also called Pilgrim furniture.

POLITICS• 1640 Portugal obtains independence from Spain.

• 1643 China’s Ming Dynasty falls to the Manchus.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1620 Dutch engineer Cornelius Drebbel

invents the submarine.

• 1642 The principles of hydraulics are intro-

duced by Blaise Pascal.

• 1643 The mercury barometer is invented by

Evangelista Torricelli.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1642 The opera The Coronation of Poppea, com-

posed by Monteverdi, opens in Venice, Italy.

• 1643 René Descartes, a French philosopher,

publishes Discourse on Method.

EVENTS OF THE PERIOD—c. 1640

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TRANSPARENCY

3Brewster Chair (1640)

Plymouth Colony

Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What is the first thing you notice when you look at this chair?

2. Would you describe the chair as simple or ornate? Why?

3. When you look at this chair, does the design make you think of the Pilgrims? Why or why not?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. William Brewster was an elder (religious leader) and influential person in Plymouth Colony.

Research and write a paper about his life, particularly his involvement as one of the original

members of the Separatist congregation in England, his move to Holland, and finally to America.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Everything crafted in the colonies was made by hand, so every article was

unique. Discuss how different our society would be today if all of our household items, such as our

furniture, eating utensils, dishes, pans, rugs, and decorative items, were handcrafted.

Making chairs and chests represented one

of the first traditions of craftsmanship in

Plymouth Colony, which was settled in what is

today Massachusetts. Chairs were among the

most important items in the colonial home, and

a chair like the one shown in this transparency

reflected status and importance.

The earliest style of furniture in Plymouth

Colony, dating from the middle of the 1600s, is

called Jacobean or Pilgrim furniture. It is charac-

terized by turnings used for the legs and spin-

dles, and tends to be heavy and substantial. This

chair, called a Brewster chair or turned great chair,

is an example of Jacobean style. William Brewster,

who immigrated to America in 1620 on the

Mayflower, owned the original Brewster chair.

The turned great chair was the handiwork of a

crafter called a turner. A turner worked mainly

with a lathe to produce rounded parts. This

example, which is not the original Brewster chair

but dates from the same period, is considered

exceptional because it has tiers of spindles both

above and below the seat. The turner placed

square lengths of wood (ash was used for this

chair) on a spinning lathe and, using a variety of

chisels, contoured the ring, ball, and urn shapes.

The spindles were then joined, creating this

sturdy armchair.

About the Chair

TRANSPARENCY

4Quilled Buckskin Robe (c. 1750)

Iroquois



Students will understand how art—especially to

Native Americans—is a way of showing humanity’s

relationship to nature.

Introductory ActivityPoint out the Great Lakes region, particularly

New York, on a physical map of the United States.

Ask students to describe the natural surroundings

that most likely existed in this region in the mid-

1700s. They should note forests, fields, hilly ter-

rain, and much wildlife. Point out that the Iroquois,

especially the Seneca nation, utilized their natural

surroundings in ways that do not come quickly to

mind. Ask students what possible artistic uses a

porcupine or trees could have. After they have

given their responses, place Transparency 4 on the

overhead projector and ask the following questions.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Does the robe’s symbolism

have any meaning for you? Why or why not?

What is your opinion of this piece?

SUBJECT MATTER What do you see on the robe?

(Students should see figures with linked hands forming

a square on the periphery. An inner square contains

eight circles of abstract design with representational fig-

ures of humans. Another inner square contains mytho-

logical underwater panthers surrounded by a circle.)

What do you suppose the round symbols are?

(They may stand for serpents, which were the compan-

ions and guardians of the underwater panthers, or

lightning, water, or the center of the earth.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS What shapes do you see in the

work? (squares and circles) What colors has the

artist used? (red and yellow)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How has the artist arranged

the visual elements of color, shapes, and space to

create a mood? (The elements are arranged in symmet-

rical patterns to convey an important spiritual story.)

COMPOSITION Does the artist give the work a cen-

tral focus? (yes) What is it? (the underwater pan-

thers) How has the artist used elements to lead

your eye around the work? (through the repetitive

use of linked hands and the concentric series of circles)

Answers to Activity, p. 81. Students should note the repetitive use of the

colors red and yellow, the arrangement of

squares and circles, and the abstract geometric

patterns within the circles. They are arranged

in such a way that if you divide the robe either

horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, the robe

will still have almost perfect symmetry.

2. Answers will vary, but students may suggest

they are performing a ritual dance or cere-

mony. Actually, the figures represent a typical

wampum sign—a symbol of safe passage for

the bearer. In the context of this robe, the

wampum sign symbolized protection for the

wearer from the dangers of the underworld.

3. Answers will vary, but students may note that

the various circular shapes with wavy lines and

hornlike projections symbolize serpents. Other

patterns in these circular objects possibly stand

for water and lightning.

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POLITICS• 1751 China invades Tibet.

• 1754 The French and Indian War begins.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1754 Joseph Black, a Scottish chemist, discovers

carbonation.

• 1755 The University of Moscow is founded.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1750 The first playhouse opens in New York.

• 1751 The minuet becomes Europe’s fashionable

dance.


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TRANSPARENCY

4Quilled Buckskin Robe (c. 1750)

Iroquois

Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Look at the way in which colors, lines, and objects are arranged. How are they repeated to make

certain symmetrical patterns?

2. What do you think the figures with linked hands might be doing?

3. The central figures are mythical underwater panthers that, along with the Thunderbird, were

supernatural beings of Great Lakes nations. What part of the design do you think represents the

panthers’ world?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Using symbolism, draw a design that illustrates a favorite event in your life.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Imagine you are an explorer who meets the Seneca for the first time.

Based on what you see in this portion of a buckskin robe, describe what their clothing is like.

The Iroquois League—a powerful union of

five Native American nations—inhabited the

Eastern Woodlands in what today is New York

State. One of the League’s members was the

Seneca, an agricultural nation whose people

used materials from their surroundings to create

items of necessity and to express themselves

artistically. Because porcupines were plentiful,

the Seneca used the animals’ quills to decorate

deerhide robes and other items.

Quilling was a time-consuming and intricate

art, and it was probably the most honored

method used for decorating clothing. After tak-

ing the quills from porcupines, the quills were

flattened and then wrapped around or woven

into the buckskin. Although white was their nat-

ural color, quills were dyed red from wild plum

or dogwood trees or dyed yellow from the inner

bark of alder trees.

This robe—a large piece—is decorated with

symbols held sacred by the Iroquois. The Seneca

believed in the existence of strange creatures

with enormous mystical powers. Here, the crea-

ture takes the form of the underwater panther

that hovered at the center of the universe and

guarded the sacred pools of enchantment.

Because the panthers are similar to ones revered

by Midwestern nations, experts believe the robe

originated around the Great Lakes and came to

the Seneca through trade.

About the Artifact

TRANSPARENCY

5Independence Hall (South Façade)

Andrew Hamilton (1676–1741)



Students will view a historical museum building

in relation to its vital past.

Introductory ActivityWrite the heading “Delays” on the board. Then

list the following items under the heading: insuffi-

cient money, lack of labor, conflicts about the site,

conflicts about the design, and building obstruc-

tions. Ask the students for ideas of what the list

might refer to. Most students will probably think

of a current building construction project, or high-

way construction or repair. Place Transparency 5 on

the overhead projector and explain that the con-

struction of Independence Hall was impeded by

the very same dilemmas many current construction

projects endure. The foundation was started in

1731, but by the time the Assembly first met there

in October of 1736, the windows were still

unglazed, plastering had not been done, and even

some of the masonry was incomplete. Andrew

Hamilton, the architect, died in 1741, the same

year the roof and second-floor rooms were com-

pleted. He never saw the tower and steeple.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION When you look at this build-

ing, do you see it as a center of revolution or as a

symbol of the “establishment”? (Answers will vary

but should provide a lively discussion of students’ percep-

tions of historical monuments, ideas, and characters.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS What details in the tower and

steeple do you notice? (Some details of note are the

door, window over the door, clock, balustrades, and

carved faces in keystones of the uppermost brick story.)

SUBJECT MATTER Of what other types of buildings

does Independence Hall remind you? (Many stu-

dents may be reminded of a church, school, museum,

or courthouse.)

Answers to Activity, p. 101. Answers will vary. Some answers may directly

relate to the architecture, such as describing it

as symmetrical or classical in style. Some

answers may be impressions, such as stately,

proud, formal, or important.

2. The tower evolves from the weight of a solid

large base to the open arches of the cupola. The

loftiness is achieved by the slight setbacks of

the upper two brick stories and the further set-

backs and increasing openness of the light

wood steeple.

3. Public buildings today are often made of glass,

steel, bricks, and concrete.

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POLITICS• 1760 George III becomes king of Great Britain,

Ireland, and the 1.6 million colonists liv-

ing in America.

• 1763 The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the

Seven Years War in Europe.

• 1766 Catherine the Great of Russia declares

freedom of worship.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1760 Benjamin Franklin invents the first bifocal

lenses for eyeglasses.

• 1761 A Russian poet-scientist, Mikhail

Lomonosov, discovers the atmosphere of

Venus.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1762 The Sorbonne Library opens in Paris.

• 1764 The oldest continuously published news-

paper in America, The Connecticut Courant,

begins in Hartford, Connecticut.

• 1767 Thomas Godfrey’s The Prince of Parthia was

presented at Philadelphia’s Southwark

Theater, the first American drama to be

performed on stage.


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TRANSPARENCY

5Independence Hall (South Façade)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What words would you use to describe this building? Why?

2. Notice the transition from the solidity of the lower tower to the loftiness of the steeple. What

elements help to achieve this transition gracefully?

3. What materials are more likely to be used to construct a public building today?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Write a biographical paper about Andrew Hamilton, emphasizing his many accomplishments and

his role as the architect of Independence Hall.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Locate a photograph of the north side of Independence Hall. Compare

and contrast the similarities and differences of the north and south sides.

Independence Hall, located in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, was the site of a hotbed of polit-

ical activity during the formation of our country.

The Second Continental Congress, the appoint-

ment of George Washington as commander in

chief of the Continental army, the signing of the

Declaration of Independence, and the adoption

of our Constitution all took place here. The

building is an American icon, but its design is

of English origin. The style of architecture of

Independence Hall is known as Georgian, in

reference to the four British monarchs named

George who reigned from about 1714 to 1830.

Andrew Hamilton, a prominent attorney, was

the gentleman-architect of Independence Hall,

but he never saw the building completed.

Construction of the building, then known as

the State House, began in 1731 but was plagued

with delays. The main structure was completed

and decorated by 1745. The tower on the south

side was attached five years later to serve as an

entrance hall and stairway. Topping the tower is

a wooden steeple rising to an octagonal belfry,

which in turn is topped by a cupola and spire.

The steeple was finished in 1753, but it deterio-

rated and was removed in 1781. It was not

replaced until 1828. Most of the exterior detail is

concentrated in the tower and steeple.


TRANSPARENCY

6Penn’s Treaty with the

Indians (c. 1770)

Benjamin West (1738–1820)



Students will analyze West’s portrayal of William

Penn’s relationship with Native Americans as a his-

torical document.

Introductory ActivityWrite the word “prejudice” on the board. Have

students give examples of groups—historical and/or

contemporary—that have suffered from prejudice.

Point out that Native Americans experienced mis-

treatment and prejudice from the Europeans who

landed on the shores of the Americas. Another

group that was ostracized for their beliefs were the

Quakers. Benjamin West, born a Quaker, painted

this portrait depicting William Penn, another

Quaker, signing a treaty with the Native Americans

of Pennsylvania. Before showing the transparency,

ask students how they believe the art will portray

both the Quakers and the Native Americans.

Students may answer that since West was a Quaker,

he may show both groups in a kind light.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION What are your feelings

toward the art? Do you like it? Why or why not?

SUBJECT MATTER What is going on in the painting?

(William Penn is offering gifts to Native Americans.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How would you describe West’s

use of light in this painting? (It is used effectively to

highlight the central focus of the painting.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Is there an emotional “feel-

ing” to the work? What is it? (Answers will vary,

but students should explain their responses.)

COMPOSITION How does the artist’s handling of

the background help focus your attention on the

action of the meeting? (The background is not

sharply focused and lacks any dramatic use of light.

The focus and color, and the artist’s use of light, lend

drama to the figures in the foreground.)

Answers to Activity, p. 121. Answers will vary. Point out that although a

meeting did take place between the colonists

and the Delaware nation, this work is a “stu-

dio” painting done in the idealized Neoclassical

style of the day. Although depicting a contem-

porary event with the characters dressed in con-

temporary clothing, the participants most

certainly did not arrange themselves in such

formal and carefully arranged poses as this.

2. The most important part of the composition is

in the middle foreground of the painting, in

which gifts are being presented to the Native

Americans. The artist has drawn the viewer’s

attention there by the use of light, which pro-

vides a “spotlight” on the scene.

3. Their features are more European than Native

American, and they are posed in the Classical

style. The boy behind the mother in the right

foreground has hair styled in the Roman fash-

ion. The boy to the left of the mother is shown

in clothing similar to a Roman toga, while his

outstretched arm is a typical Classical pose.

POLITICS• The “Boston Massacre,” a brawl between

civilians and British troops, takes place.

• The future Louis XVI, King of France, marries

Marie Antoinette.

• Catherine the Great rules Russia.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• Scottish explorer James Bruce discovers the

source of the Blue Nile.

• In Great Britain, the development of textile

machines and steam power lead to the Industrial

Revolution.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• Gainsborough paints Blue Boy.

• The first public restaurant opens in Paris.

EVENTS OF 1770

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6Penn’s Treaty with the

Indians (c. 1770)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Do you think this is an accurate portrayal of the meeting between Penn and the Native Americans?

Why or why not?

2. Which part of the composition seems to be the most important? How does the artist draw your

attention to it?

3. What is unusual about West’s portrayal of the Native Americans?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Research this meeting and then compare it to the event as portrayed in West’s painting. Report

your findings to the class.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Examine other paintings by Benjamin West to see if he treats other his-

torical events in a similar way as he painted Penn’s Treaty with the Indians.

6. Write a paragraph for or against the following statement: “Artists have a responsibility to portray

historical events as they really happened.”

Born to a Quaker family in Pennsylvania,

Benjamin West studied art in Italy and

eventually became court painter to England’s

George III. The most famous artist of his day,

West played an important role in the develop-

ment of three artistic styles: Neoclassicism,

Realism, and Romanticism. He executed an

enormous number of historical paintings. The

one shown here depicts the signing of a treaty

between Native Americans and William Penn,

leader of the Pennsylvania colony.

At a time when most historical paintings

involved classical subject matter or contempo-

rary events shown in the Classical Style, this

painting was unusual. It portrays a contempo-

rary scene with its subjects dressed in contempo-

rary clothes. However, the subjects are painted

in typical Classical poses.

About the Painting

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TRANSPARENCY

7Mission San Xavier del Bac

Tucson, Arizona (1784–1797)


TEACHING STRATEGIES Objective

Students will be able to identify architecture

unique to Spanish missions.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to visualize a Spanish mission in

their minds, and have them list adjectives they

think describe the mission. Most students will

probably visualize the small, simple adobe struc-

tures shown most often in television Westerns.

Although there were missions such as these—San

Francisco de Asís at Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico,

for example—there also were many large, elaborate

churches like San Carlos Borromeo del Rio

Carmelo in Carmel, California, and San José y San

Miguel de Aguayo in San Antonio, Texas. A num-

ber of missions in North America were far more

ambitious and sophisticated than anything con-

structed in the English colonies. Students should

understand that a mission, however, consisted of

more than a church, whether elaborate or not.

Most missions also had a school, workshops, and

housing for the Native Americans living in them.


and ask the following questions.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION What do you feel when you

look at this mission? (Students may suggest a dra-

matic feeling when viewing the ornamentation, size,

and flowing lines of the mission.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How would you describe this

church? (Answers will vary, but students should see

the two asymmetrical towers, a partial view of the cen-

tral dome, the carved façade over the main doorway,

the desert setting, and the white stucco finish of the

church. The cruciform plan with its nave, apse, and

transept, as well as the wall surrounding the mission,

are not visible on the transparency, which focuses on

the two towers and the façade.)

COMPOSITION How does the ornamental façade

relate to the two towers? (It provides a central and

unifying force that ties all elements of the building

together.)

Answers to Activity, p. 141. Answers will vary, but its stark beauty and

impressive size might impress students.

2. asymmetrical, or unbalanced; One side differs

from the other without destroying the overall

harmony.

3. It is carved out of stone and is a more durable

material than stucco, allowing for a more

impressive façade than might otherwise be

possible.

POLITICS• 1780 Peruvians rebel against Spanish rule.

• 1782 Rama I founds a new dynasty in Siam.

• 1783 Great Britain recognizes the United

States’s independence.

• 1784 With the Treaty of Constantinople,

Turkey agrees to Russian annexation of

the Crimea.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1781 The planet Uranus is discovered by

William Herschel.

• 1781 The construction of the Trans-Siberian

highway begins.

• 1782 James Watt invents a rotary steam engine.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1776 Adam Smith writes The Wealth of Nations,

a book on capitalism.

• 1780 Serfdom is abolished in Bohemia and

Hungary.

• 1783 Beethoven’s first works are published.

• 1783 A famine sweeps Japan.


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TRANSPARENCY

7Mission San Xavier del Bac


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Do you like the style of this church? Describe your feelings about it.

2. Are the two towers of the church symmetrical or asymmetrical? Explain.

3. Why do you suppose the ornamental façade on the front of the church is made from a different

material than is the rest of the structure?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Look at Transparency 5, Independence Hall, again. Describe the differences in style between this

church and that building.

5. Research the topic of the Spanish Baroque style of architecture and present a report about it to

your class.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Write diary accounts of life at a Spanish mission from the viewpoints of a

Native American, a priest, and a Spanish soldier.

In the 1500s, the Spanish began building a net-

work of missions in the Americas that eventu-

ally stretched from South America to North

America. By the 1700s, sophisticated and elabo-

rate Spanish missions dotted the landscape of

what today are California, Arizona, New Mexico,

and Texas. Although some churches were simple

adobe structures, others were constructed in the

Spanish Baroque style popular in Europe at the

time. The Baroque churches are characterized by

rich colors and elaborate ornamentation.

The most ambitious of all Spanish missions in

North America was San Xavier del Bac in Tucson,

Arizona. The church was built in the form of a

cross, using brick and stucco. The nave, transept,

and apse each are covered with small brick

domes, while another larger dome covers the

point of intersection of the cross. Two ornate tow-

ers stand beside the “lower” portion of the cross,

with elaborate religious stone carvings covering

the façade between the towers. The mission is an

impressive sight rising out of the flat desert floor.


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TRANSPARENCY

8The Declaration of Independence,

July 4, 1776 (1786–1797)

John Trumbull (1756–1843)



Students will examine Trumbull’s painting in

relation to historical accuracy.

Introductory ActivityWrite the words “political connections” on the

board. Ask students to define these words and spec-

ulate on whether they think political connections

are a somewhat contemporary phenomenon. Most

students probably realize that political connections

are as old as civilization itself. John Trumbull used

his political connections to gain support for his

project of a series of history paintings depicting the

American Revolution. Knowing that Trumbull was

acquainted with the political leaders of our new

nation, how do students think he would portray

those leaders in The Declaration of Independence?



Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION What is your opinion of this

work? Do you like it? Why or why not?

SUBJECT MATTER What is going on in the painting?

(The Framers are signing the Declaration of

Independence.) Why does it seem to be important?

(Students should note that the structure of the composi-

tion and the facial expressions of the subjects give the

painting and the event a solemn and formal look.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How does the artist give depth to

his painting? (He uses the perspective of the room and

the contrasting use of light and shadow, both of which

were techniques developed by Italian artists of the

Renaissance. Trumbull also used a relative scale effec-

tively to give a sense of recession to the composition.)

COMPOSITION Does the artist give the painting a

central focus? (yes) Where do you think the artist

wants you to look first? (at the activity surrounding

the table)

Answers to Activity, p. 161. This may be difficult for students and answers

will vary, but they might recognize Benjamin

Franklin. The figure seated at the desk is John

Hancock, and the five figures standing before

him are the members of the committee who

drafted the document.

2. The artist draws the viewer’s attention to this

by his use of light, which illuminates the table,

the Declaration itself, and the activity surround-

ing it. Also, the eyes of the people in the paint-

ing are focused on the action at the table.

3. He uses light to draw attention to the docu-

ment, with much of the rest of the painting

unfocused and in shadow.

4. Answers will vary, but students might suggest

that the important figures are those standing at

the table, the seated figure, and those who are

closer to the central focus of the painting.

POLITICS• 1789 A Parisian mob storms the Bastille.

• 1790 Mutiny on the H.M.S. Bounty leads to the

first British colony on the Pitcairn Islands.

• 1791 Enslaved Africans revolt in Santo Domingo.

• 1791 The Bill of Rights is ratified.

• 1792 Denmark is the first nation to abolish the

slave trade.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1789 The first steam-driven cotton factory

opens in Manchester.

• 1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1791 Thomas Paine writes The Rights of Man,

Part I.

• 1793 Jacques-Louis David paints The Dead

Marat.


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TRANSPARENCY

8The Declaration of Independence,

July 4, 1776 (1786–1797)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What people in the painting can you identify?

2. What has the artist done to draw your attention to the Declaration of Independence itself?

3. How does the artist make use of light and shadow to create a solemn mood?

4. How has Trumbull indicated the most important figures in the painting?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Research to find out the titles of Trumbull’s paintings for the Capitol Rotunda. List them along

with a brief description of their subject matter.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Research the signing of the Declaration of Independence to discover the

specific historical inaccuracies of this painting. Report what you find to the class.

After 1750, artists in the British colonies

began recording the “desire for independ-

ence” on canvas. They hoped to create a national

art that would portray the major people and

events of the day. These “history painters”

found their inspiration in the leaders of the

American Revolution and in the Framers of the

Declaration of Independence.

No painter was in a better position to become

the artist of the American Revolution than John

Trumbull. An acquaintance of Thomas Jefferson,

John Adams, and George Washington, Trumbull

took part in the colonial struggle as one of

Washington’s aides. After the Revolution,

Congress paid him $32,000 for a series of paint-

ings dramatizing major events of the war to

adorn the Capitol Rotunda. Historians criticized

one of these paintings, The Declaration of

Independence, July 4, 1776, because some of the

men portrayed were not present at the signing of

the Declaration. And some men, who were there,

were left out of the painting.

About the Painting

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TRANSPARENCY

9University of Virginia,

Charlottesville (1817–1826)

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)



Students will appreciate one of the many talents

of Thomas Jefferson.

Introductory ActivityAsk students if they know the meaning of the

term “Renaissance man (or person).” Explain that

it means a person truly skilled at many different

professions. Thomas Jefferson can be classified as

a Renaissance man, as he was skilled in many fields

besides that of politics. As an architect, Jefferson

drew inspiration from the work of the great

sixteenth-century Italian architect Andrea Palladio,

whose buildings utilized the domes and symmetry

of the Classical style. Jefferson’s home, Monticello

(1770–1775), was modeled after Palladio’s Villa

Rotonda in Vicenza, Italy. Jefferson’s design for

the State Capitol of Virginia (1785–1789) was

modeled after a Roman temple in France. Place

Transparency 9 on the overhead projector and ask

the following questions.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION How would you feel to be a

student at this university? Does the Classical

design make you think of study and knowledge?

SUBJECT MATTER How does Jefferson’s design for

the university fit its function? (The entire complex

is designed as an integrated whole, tying together its

separate university departments into an academic vil-

lage. It was Jefferson’s belief that a university should be

designed to fit the specialized needs of its teachers and

students.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Has Jefferson created a mood

in his design? Explain. (Answers will vary, but stu-

dents should explain their responses.)

COMPOSITION Where do you think Jefferson wants

you to look first? (The Rotunda draws the eye

toward it.) On what did your eye focus first?

(Answers will vary.)

Answers to Activity, p. 181. the dome of the Rotunda, the columns, and the

colonnade mentioned in the description

2. Answers will vary, but students may respond

that it can work for a relatively small student

body. It may, however, be impractical as a

design for a major urban university with a very

large student body. Encourage students to find

contemporary examples of large and small uni-

versities or colleges.

3. Answers will vary, but students should provide

reasons for their opinions.

POLITICS• 1818 The Zulu Empire is founded in South

Africa.

• 1819 The East India Company establishes a

British settlement in Singapore.

• 1819 The United States buys Florida from

Spain.

• 1821 Peru, Guatemala, Panama, and Santo

Domingo proclaim independence from

Spain.

• 1822 Turks invade Greece.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1816 The stethoscope is invented by R.T.

Laënnec.

• 1817 Construction of the Erie Canal between

Buffalo and Albany begins.

• 1818 The Savannah becomes the first steamship

to cross the Atlantic, taking 26 days.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1819 A maximum 12-hour working day for

juveniles is set in Great Britain.

• 1822 The streets of Boston, Massachusetts, are

lit by gas.

• 1824 Beethoven, completely deaf, writes his

Symphony No. 9 in D Major, Opus 127,

in Vienna.


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9University of Virginia,

Charlottesville (1817–1826)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What elements of the Classical style do you see in Jefferson’s design?

2. Do you think the design is practical? Why or why not?

3. Is the design of the university attractive to you? Why or why not?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Work with other members of your class to research the subject of the Classical Revival in American

architecture. Present your report in class.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Visit a nearby university campus or find pictures of present-day

campuses to see what style of architecture they use. Compare and contrast your findings with

Jefferson’s university design.

6. Research other examples of Jeffersonian architecture. These include Monticello and the State

Capitol of Virginia.

Thomas Jefferson is best known as the third

president of the United States and a gover-

nor of Virginia. He also was a writer, naturalist,

farmer, inventor, classical scholar, and architect,

however. He contributed greatly to a movement

in American architecture known as the Classical

Revival, which looked to the ancient Romans

and Greeks for its inspiration.

Jefferson was a product of the Age of Reason,

a time that valued the city-state of Athens for its

role in the development of democratic ideas and

a spirit of inquiry. It is no coincidence, then, that

Jefferson’s greatest designs utilize the domes and

symmetry of the Classical style. His design for

the University of Virginia at Charlottesville was

somewhat farsighted for an academic community

of 125 students. The campus is laid out in a sym-

metrical U-shape. Ten buildings—university

departments—are linked together by a continu-

ous colonnade. The centerpiece is the great

Rotunda. Many consider this to be the most

beautiful university in the United States.


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10The Great Blue Heron (1821)

John James Audubon (1785–1851)



Students will compare the artistic merit of

Audubon’s paintings to scientific accuracy.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to see into the future; that is, ask

them how they think their city will change in, say,

100 years. What would students like to have a pic-

ture or some other visual record of before it

changes? Point out that many artists have left a

record of their world before the advance of “civi-

lization” changed it forever. Audubon was such an

artist, painting birds and habitats that are now

extinct. Although he was not a scientist per se, his

keen eye for observation, as well as his great atten-

tion to detail, gives his work scientific accuracy. He

even imitated the textures of his subjects by using

pastels, watercolor, ink, egg white, and oil. Place




work? Do you like it? Why or why not? (Answers

will vary, but students should provide reasons for their

responses.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS What details has Audubon

painted to make you feel that you are next to the

bird? (He shows the bird at ground level in its natural

habitat; the feathers and anatomy of the bird are care-

fully detailed.) What colors are used in the paint-

ing? (blue, black, rust, gray, tan)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT If you were to apply “back-

ground” music to the painting, what type of

songs would you choose? (Answers will vary, but

students should provide reasons for their responses.)

COMPOSITION Do you feel the art is balanced?

Why or why not? (Compositional balance is achieved

by positioning the bird between two clumps of water

plants.)

Answers to Activity, p. 201. His careful attention to detail includes the use

of line and color to mimic the textures of the

bird’s feathers and other parts of its body. Also

shown are the rippling effect of wind on still

water and the structure of rocks on which the

heron is standing.



3. Students will probably see that the artist has

created a sense of movement through the

curved line of the heron’s body, with its wings

slightly raised and its head pointed downward

and poised above the water as if to feed. The

graceful curves of the marsh plants blowing

with the wind also give the painting a graceful

rhythm.

POLITICS• James Monroe begins his second term as

president of the United States.

• Símon Bolívar defeats the Spanish army and

ensures independence for Venezuela.

• Missouri enters the Union as a slave state

as a result of the Missouri Compromise in 1820.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• T.J. Seebeck discovers thermoelectricity.

• Egyptian hieroglyphics are deciphered using the

Rosetta Stone.

• Sir Charles Wheatstone demonstrates sound

reproduction.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• The population of the United States is almost

10 million; France, 30 million; Great Britain,

21 million.

• James Mill writes Elements of Political Economy.

EVENTS OF 1821

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10The Great Blue Heron (1821)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What textures has Audubon tried to imitate in this painting?

2. How does this painting appeal to you?

3. How does Audubon create a feeling of movement or rhythm in the painting?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. CRITICAL THINKING Compare and contrast this painting to a photograph of a Great Blue

Heron. Write a paragraph explaining the similarities or differences you note between the two

depictions.

5. Research other naturalists who were also good artists. Report your findings to the class.

6. Look carefully at this painting and write a scientific description of the bird as if you were a naturalist

seeing it for the first time.

In the early 1800s, the land west of the

Mississippi River was a place of mystery and

adventure, at least to most citizens of the fledg-

ling nation. For scientists and naturalists, there

was a great deal to be studied and recorded in

the untouched West. John James Audubon was

one of those who combined both a scientific

record and an artistic achievement in his paint-

ings. Intensely interested in collecting specimens

of wildlife, he devoted his life to the study of

birds.

Audubon’s masterpiece is a four-volume work,

The Birds of America, containing more than 430

hand-colored plates made from his original

watercolors. He drew the birds from eye level,

showing them in actual size and in natural poses.

His assistants would later paint in the back-

grounds, which depicted the birds in their natu-

ral surroundings. The Great Blue Heron is one of

the finest examples of Audubon’s work. In this

painting, however, the artist purposely distorted

the pose of the bird to fill the space on his paper.

About the Painting

TRANSPARENCY

11The Buffalo Chase,

Mouth of the Yellowstone (1832)

George Catlin (1796–1872)


TEACHING STRATEGIES Objective

Students will analyze one aspect of Plains

Indians’ culture before the slaughter of the buffalo.

Introductory ActivityPlace Transparency 11 on the overhead projector

and point out that when Catlin painted The Buffalo

Chase in 1832, more than 15 million buffalo roamed

the Great Plains. Railroad workers and hunters

killed increasing numbers during the 1860s, and

when a method was found to treat the hides to

make robes, the slaughter became nearly complete.

By 1885 about 1,000 buffalo remained on the face of

the earth. Without the food, clothing, shelter, and

fuel supplied by the buffalo, the nomadic lifestyle of

the Plains Indians could not continue. Catlin’s

works—more than 500 paintings of 50 different

Native American nations—are still used by scholars

as valuable visual evidence of Native American cul-

ture before the advance of settlers.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you feel the artist has

done a good job? (Answers will vary. Point out that

Catlin was a self-taught artist.)

SUBJECT MATTER What is happening in this paint-

ing? (It is essentially a scene of Native Americans

hunting buffalo. Students should note the geography of

the area, the size of the buffalo herd, the details of the

buffalo hunt, and the clothes, weapons, and equipment

of the Native Americans. Students also may speculate

about the dangers of hunting buffalo and the hunt’s

relationship to the culture of these Native Americans.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Are the colors that were used

realistic? (Yes, they provide a view of the greens and

tans of the rolling prairie.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Has Catlin’s “positioning” of

you, the viewer, created a certain mood? How?

(Yes. By providing a wide perspective, Catlin has

enabled the viewer to feel the excitement of the hunt.)

COMPOSITION How does the use of empty space

affect your viewpoint? (It allows the viewer to “feel”

the vast openness and isolation of the prairie.)

Answers to Activity, p. 221. Catlin uses a soft green, hues of brown, and

curved lines that convey a sense of the vast

panorama of where the treeless prairie gives

way to the foothills of the Tetons. The composi-

tion emphasizes the enormity of a landscape

against which the Native Americans, and the

buffalo they are hunting, are comparatively

small in size. There is a strong feeling of action

as the artist portrays the horses and their riders

in full gallop, curving across the canvas.

2. Students should notice the clothing of the

Native Americans, the weapons they have, and

the horses without saddles.

3. Students might be able to infer something

about the climate by the rolling grasslands and

the absence of many trees.

4. The work is relatively unsophisticated. It is

executed with an almost sketchy quality.

POLITICS• The Viceroy of Egypt defeats the Turks in Syria.

• Andrew Jackson begins his second term as

president of the United States.

• Britain occupies the Falkland Islands.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• Horse-drawn trolleys are used in New York.

• The first French railroad line begins to carry

passengers.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• Washington Irving writes The Alhambra, a series

of stories about the Moors and Spaniards.

• Zurich University is founded.

• Ando Hiroshige publishes his series Fifty-Three

Stages of the Tokaido.

EVENTS OF 1832

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11The Buffalo Chase,

Mouth of the Yellowstone (1832)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. How does Catlin use color, line, and composition to achieve a feeling of action and a sense of vast

beauty in this scene?

2. What details in this painting give you clues about how Native Americans hunted buffalo?

3. What can you conclude about the geography of this region from your study of the painting?

4. What clues in the painting suggest that George Catlin had little formal art training?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Compare this painting to Benjamin West’s depiction of William Penn’s

meeting with Native Americans in Transparency 6. Which painting seems to be more realistic?

Which tells you more about the lifestyle of Native Americans? Explain your answers.

6. George Catlin is an example of an artist who painted outdoors at the scene of action. These artists

are known as “plein-air” (open-air) painters. Research other American plein-air artists of the West.

Prepare a list of their names with a brief description of their work.

George Catlin devoted a large part of his

life to studying, painting, and writing

about Native Americans, among whom he spent

eight years. He was the first artist to see much of

the Far West and eventually produced nearly six

hundred paintings depicting it. His book, Letters

and Notes of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions

of the North American Indians, published in 1841,

became a standard resource for those who had

never seen a Native American.

The Buffalo Chase represents Catlin’s best work,

demonstrating his eye for the dramatic moment.

Working directly on the spot, he sketched rap-

idly and achieved a freshness and feeling of

movement, which are evident in the portrayal

of Native Americans hunting buffalo near the

mouth of the Yellowstone River. Catlin’s individ-

ual portraits and pictures of Native American

life and customs are full of detail, demonstrating

his respect for the subject of his life’s work.

About the Painting

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12Shaker Retiring Room (1840)

New Lebanon, New York



Students will examine how the convictions of a

society can affect the form of their art.


and tell students that it represents a Shaker retiring

room. A retiring room was used for sleeping and a

period of rest before evening prayer. Everything

shown here is typical to a Shaker room.

Characteristics of note are: the built-in cupboard,

which is both inconspicuous and functional; the

gleaming white plaster walls; the narrow pegboard

that goes around the walls of the room and was

used to hang chairs and candleholders; and the

wood stove placed near the middle of the room.

Point out the ladder-back chair near the wood

stove. The Shakers were probably the first in the

country to produce rocking chairs on a regular

basis. Also note the chair to the left in front of the

writing desk. It is a swivel chair, which is thought

to be the invention of the Shakers of Enfield,

Connecticut. As a matter of principle, the Shakers

never patented their inventions.

Discussion QuestionsSUBJECT MATTER A Shaker saying states, “Beauty

rests on utility.” In other words, an object’s

beauty lies in how well it performs its function.

Look at the items in this room. Does this saying

apply to them? (Yes, each item is crafted for a specific

function without superfluous elements or design.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How is color used in this room?

(Bright colors were not used in Shaker rooms from this

period. In fact, one of the laws stated that bedsteads

should be painted green, and comforters should be of a

modest color, not checked, striped, or flowered.

Warmth and contrast in the rooms were achieved

through the beautiful natural grains of a variety of

woods.) Shaker furniture is said to depend on

profile, proportion, and lightness. How is “light-

ness” achieved in this room? (The furniture is small

in size and set in an expansive space. The simple lines

and shapes promote a visual delicacy or lightness.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Would you feel peaceful in

this room? Why or why not?

COMPOSITION What breaks up the linear appear-

ance of the furniture and the room as a whole?

(the pegboard that surrounds the room; the placement

of the rocking chair and the wood stove in the center)

Answers to Activity, p. 241. The stove is placed in the middle of the room

to maximize heating efficiency.

2. Answers will vary, but some adjectives the stu-

dents may use are simple, airy, light, calm, bor-

ing, austere, plain, orderly, or peaceful.

3. In furniture design, functionalism was the pri-

mary concern of Shaker craftsmanship.

4. Answers will vary.

POLITICS• 1838 The Boers defeat the Zulus at the Battle of

Blood River.

• 1839 The first Opium War breaks out between

China and Britain.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1839 Charles Goodyear discovers the process of

vulcanization, making possible the com-

mercial use of rubber.

• 1841 Scottish surgeon James Braid discovers

hypnosis.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1839 The first baseball game is played in

Cooperstown, New York.

• 1841 The first university degrees are granted to

women in America.


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12Shaker Retiring Room (1840)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Why do you think the stove is placed in the middle of the room?

2. What words would you use to describe this room?

3. With what does it appear the designers of this room were most concerned?

4. Does this room look masculine or feminine to you? Explain your answer.

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Around this same time (c. 1840–1850), a style of American landscape

painting called Luminism was popular. Two artists practicing Luminism were Fitz Hugh Lane and

Martin Johnson Heade. Find photos of some of their paintings, choose a favorite, and write a paper

comparing the mood of the painting you chose with that of this room.

6. The Shakers embraced innovation because laborsaving devices freed the soul, leaving more time for

prayer. Research and report to the class details of some of the Shakers’ inventions.

The Shakers offer a good example of how the

convictions of a society can affect the form of

its art. This room, representative of a room from

the Shaker community in New Lebanon, New

York, embodies the purity, simplicity, and practi-

cality that was characteristic of Shaker life. The

Shaker style of furniture evolved at the same

time as more ornate styles, and it was not very

popular outside of the Shaker community until

the 1900s. Today any discussion of American art

now includes a section on Shaker design.

The period between 1820 and 1850 was the

Shakers’ golden age of design and exquisite

workmanship. Unlike some of the furniture of

the colonial period, which was typically a mas-

sive piece in a small space, this furniture seems

tiny and delicate in an expansive space due, in

part, to the white plaster walls and thin wooden

stripping of the furniture. Notice that each piece

in the room has a function and, although there

are no other decorations, beauty is achieved

through the pure design of the objects.

About the Furniture

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13Baltimore Album Quilt (1850)

Sarah Anne Whittington Lankford, Mary Evans,and possibly others



Students will become familiar with a form of tex-

tile art.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to write a paragraph about what

they think of when you mention the words “quilts”

and “quilting bees.” Forewarn them that there are

misconceptions about each. A common misconcep-

tion is that quilts were crafted anonymously, when,

in fact, outstanding quilt designers were well

known in their communities and most often signed

and dated their works. Another misconception is

that all quilts were collective efforts, constructed in

a haphazard manner by many women at a quilting

bee. For most quilts, the quilt artist planned the

entire work with great thought, at times orchestrat-

ing the placement of hundreds of tiny pieces of fab-

ric. The quilting bee was convened only after the

top was finished and stretched on a frame, ready to

be stitched to the backing.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like this quilt? Have

you seen other styles of quilts you like better?

SUBJECT MATTER What images do you see in the

quilt? (There are vases of flowers, wreaths, cornu-

copias, bowls of fruit, birds, and patriotic images.)

What do you think the patriotic images repre-

sent? (The students should recognize the images as a

public building and a memorial. They probably will

not realize that the building is a depiction of the U.S.

Capitol, which had recently been completed by Charles

Bulfinch. The other image is a war memorial.)

COMPOSITION Does the quilt have a central focus?

(Yes, the central focus is the large circular design in the

top center of the quilt.) Is the design balanced? (Yes,

the squares and the border balance the design.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Considering the subject, do the

colors used seem appropriate to you? (Answers

will vary, but students should provide reasons for their

responses.)

Answers to Activity, p. 261. The predominant shapes are circles and

squares.

2. There are seventeen design squares. The large

circular design in the top center is actually

made up of four separate squares.

3. Answers will vary depending on the square the

student chooses. Prompt the students by telling

them that each shape and color will be a sepa-

rate piece of fabric, except when the fabric has a

pattern such as dots. For example, the cornu-

copia shape on the right side, second square

from the bottom, is formed with sixteen pieces

of fabric.

4. The same pattern that makes up the border

encircles the larger four-square design.

POLITICS• 1850 Zachary Taylor dies; Millard Fillmore

becomes president.

• 1850 The Taiping Rebellion occurs in China.

• 1851 Cuba declares its independence.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1849 Armand Fizeau measures the speed of

light.

• 1849 David Livingstone crosses the Kalihari and

discovers Lake Ngami.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1850 Nathaniel Hawthorne writes The Scarlet

Letter.

• 1851 Herman Melville writes Moby Dick.


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13Baltimore Album Quilt (1850)

Sarah Anne Whittington Lankford, Mary Evans,and possibly others

Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What are the two predominant shapes you see?

2. How many design squares are in this quilt?

3. Choose one square and estimate how many pieces of fabric were used to make the design.

4. Where inside the quilt do you see the same pattern that was used for the border?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Try making a small appliqué piece. Begin by deciding on a design. Cut material into shapes to form

your design. Then stitch the pieces with a needle and thread to a square piece of fabric.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Research issues of the 1850s and write a short play consisting of the dia-

logue among the women as they stitched this quilt at the quilting bee.

7. Prepare a report to the class about another form of textile art.

Quilts are made of three main pieces—

the top, bottom, and filling in between—

sewn together to make a padded blanket. From

this humble formula, there are no limits to the

creativity and range of artistic expression embod-

ied in quilts. Quilting, one of the textile arts,

takes many different forms. One form, the

Baltimore album quilt, is an example of an

expertly crafted textile art. The Baltimore album

quilt was a collaborative effort of a group of

women. Cloth squares, sometimes with more

than 40 unique blocks, were made by individuals

who were often friends or relatives. The com-

pleted squares were then arranged in a grid to

create a pleasing pattern and stitched together.

This style of quilt is called appliqué, which

means the shapes are cut out of whole cloth and

sewn onto a background fabric. Unlike many

quilts that used scraps of leftover material, fabric

was purchased specifically for the Baltimore

album quilt. The quilts were considered special

and often made to give as a gift.

About the Quilt

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14Washington Crossing the

Delaware (1851)

Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (1816–1868)



Students will evaluate how history paintings por-

tray American heroes.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to picture the Civil War, World War

I, World War II, or Vietnam as recorded by artists,

and have them list adjectives that describe these

wars. Most likely they will visualize hardship,

death, or despair. The American Revolution also

had its share of “realistic” paintings, such as those

portraying Valley Forge. Many painters tried to por-

tray the American Revolution as a grand moral bat-

tle, however, and Leutze was no exception. While

graphically depicting the Patriots crossing the

Delaware River in the bitter predawn cold, Leutze

also shows the heroism and grand stature of

George Washington, an image that still exists.

Leutze was born in Germany and maintained a

studio there until he settled permanently in the

United States in 1859. Interestingly, Washington,

in Leutze’s most famous painting, is on his way to

capture the Hessians (Germans) at Trenton.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like the painting?

Why or why not?

SUBJECT MATTER What is happening in the paint-

ing? (Washington and his troops are crossing the

Delaware River at night to surprise the Hessians.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Does the artist’s use of color cre-

ate a warm or cool feeling? (The artist’s use of color

evokes a cool feeling that is consistent with the

weather.) What textures has the artist recreated in

the painting? (the textures of ice, fabric, moisture,

wood, among others)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How has Leutze made the

painting “serious”? (The expressions and stance of

the men portray determination.)

COMPOSITION What is the central focus of the

painting? (The position of General Washington, high-

lighted by a background of light, creates a central focus

and indicates his importance.) Is color or composi-

tion more important in expressing the event?

(Both are used effectively by Leutze to achieve a sense

of determination, movement, and drama.)

Answers to Activity, p. 281. The diagonal lines create a feeling of movement

seen in the angle of the oars as the men push

ice away from the boat, and in the flag, which

generates a feeling of drama as its folds blow.

2. Answers may vary, but the figures of

Washington and the two men behind him cre-

ate a dominant and unifying triangle.

3. It portrays an event that did take place,

although it almost certainly did not look as dra-

matic as the painting suggests. The details of

clothing and equipment are consistent with our

knowledge of the time, but the crossing most

likely was made under cover of darkness, and

soldiers most likely would not have stood in

the boats.

POLITICS• 1853 The Crimean War begins.

• 1854 Commodore Matthew Perry negotiates

the first American-Japanese treaty.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1853 Samuel Colt revolutionizes the manufac-

ture of small arms.

• 1854 Heinrich Goebel invents the first form of

the electric lightbulb.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe writes Uncle Tom’s

Cabin.

• 1854 Alfred, Lord Tennyson, pens “The Charge

of the Light Brigade.”


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14Washington Crossing the

Delaware (1851)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What kind of action is generated by the artist’s use of diagonal lines in the painting?

2. What geometric shapes do you see in the work?

3. Does the painting seem to be an accurate portrayal of the event? Give reasons to support your

answer.

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Develop a television script from an “eyewitness account” of this event. Use details from the paint-

ing and conduct research to uncover additional facts.

5. Look through your textbook for other examples of history paintings. Then suggest topics from cur-

rent events that would make good subjects for modern history paintings.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Research the military strategy surrounding this event and consider

whether you think it is a strategy you would have followed if you were in command. Present the

reasons for your actions to the class.

At a time when great events and heroes in

American history could not be recorded on

film or video, the government frequently com-

missioned artists to record an event on canvas.

Artists themselves often chose historical events

for their subject matter. This style of painting is

called history painting. Perhaps one of the best-

known paintings of this type is the monumental

canvas (12′5″x 21′3″) of George Washington

crossing the Delaware River. In the dead of win-

ter during the American Revolution, Washington

crossed the ice-clogged river to attack the

Hessians, who had captured Trenton. The attack

was successful, and Washington returned across

the Delaware with 900 prisoners.

In Washington Crossing the Delaware, German-

born artist Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze presents

this historic event in great detail. It was enor-

mously popular with the public because it

seemed to make history immediate and heroic.

It also strengthened the mythology of

Washington and his role in the founding of our

nation. The painting quickly found its place in

the folklore of American history.

About the Painting

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15A Rainy Day in Camp (c. 1864)

Winslow Homer (1836–1910)



Students will appraise the noncombat roles of war.

Introductory ActivityAsk students for words describing their image of

war. Probably very few will mention boredom,

monotony, or inactivity. Winslow Homer, however,

portrayed this aspect of war in many of his Civil

War drawings. (You may want students to compare

Homer’s rendition of war to Leutze’s Washington

Crossing the Delaware [Transparency 14] in relation

to movement, use of light and form, and “hero sta-

tus” of the men portrayed.) While some of

Homer’s works were done on the spot, many were

painted from memory in his New York City studio.

This is remarkable when you consider the detail

included in his paintings.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Does this painting have any

meaning for you? What is it?

SUBJECT MATTER What details do you see in this

scene? (Students should see the horses and mules used

for transportation, the supply wagons, the small tents

used by the troops, the wash hanging out to dry, the

barrels used for provisions, the fire used for cooking

and keeping warm, and the clothing worn by the sol-

diers in the scene. Encourage the students to look for

additional details, such as indications of the weather.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Does the artist’s use of color cre-

ate a warm or cool feeling? How? (Homer uses

color effectively to create a somber or cool view.) How

has Homer shown dimension? (The seemingly end-

less rows of horses, wagons, and tents convey depth.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What sounds can you “hear”

when looking at the art? (Answers will vary.)

COMPOSITION Is the painting balanced? How? (The

men grouped around the fire are the central focus, but

the long line of horses and mules on the right and the

group of barrels in the left foreground balance them.)

Answers to Activity, p. 301. Answers should include that Homer creates a

scene of cold, wet weather that students will

probably sense.

2. Answers will vary but should include com-

ments on the everyday boredom and routine of

army life. Students also should notice the lack

of glamour and the absence of any romanti-

cized view of war.

3. Homer’s painting has much of the immediacy

of a photograph in its recording of a scene com-

mon to all soldiers in all wars. These Union

soldiers are the “grunts” of the Civil War, and

the artist has provided a record of how they

lived when they were not fighting. They could

just as well be the GIs of World War I or II,

Korea, or Vietnam.

POLITICS• 1863 Civil war erupts in Afghanistan.

• 1863 The French capture Mexico City—

Archduke Maximilian of Austria is pro-

claimed emperor.

• 1863 The Battle of Gettysburg is fought in the

American Civil War.

• 1864 The Cheyenne and Arapaho are massacred

at Sand Creek, Colorado.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1863 The Martin brothers in France develop

the open-hearth steel furnace.

• 1864 Louis Pasteur invents pasteurization.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1861 32 million people live in the United

States; 76 million in Russia.

• 1861 Charles Dickens writes Great Expectations.

• 1864 Tolstoy writes War and Peace.


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15A Rainy Day in Camp (c. 1864)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. How does Homer’s use of color, light, and composition make you feel a part of the scene?

2. After looking at this painting, what do you think camp life was like during the Civil War?

3. How has Winslow Homer been able to “tell” a soldier’s story here in a way that we can understand

today?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Imagine you are one of the soldiers in this scene. Write a letter home to your parents, wife, or

friend describing your life in the army.

5. Develop a presentation on daily life in the Union and Confederate armies during the Civil War.

6. Research the roles of women and/or African Americans in the Civil War. Write a report on your

findings, including their roles in both the North and the South.

7. CRITICAL THINKING Find several Mathew Brady photographs of Civil War scenes and com-

pare them to Homer’s art in relation to detail and accuracy.

In 1857 Winslow Homer began drawing illus-

trations for Ballou’s Pictorial in Boston and

New York’s Harper’s Weekly. Many of Homer’s

scenes show landscapes and seascapes. His genre

paintings were so popular, however, that

Homer soon became the nation’s leading maga-

zine illustrator. When the Civil War erupted, he

went out into the field as a wartime artist for

Harper’s Weekly. Few of his scenes, however, por-

tray actual fighting. Homer’s interest remained

with the everyday life of the soldier in camp,

where time was spent in boredom and leisure

activities rather than in battlefield heroics.

A Rainy Day in Camp is one of these scenes. It

shows Yankee soldiers cooking over a campfire

with their horses and wagons behind them. It is

a straightforward representation of a common

scene of camp life, and Homer treats it without

sentimentality or strong dramatic effects.

Paintings like this one were popular with civil-

ians back home, in addition to giving us an

important record of the Civil War.

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16Merced River,

Yosemite Valley (1866)

Albert Bierstadt (1830–1902)



Students will evaluate an example of American

landscape painting.

Introductory ActivityWithout letting students look, ask them to

describe the scene outside the window, or have

them describe a well-known scenic area of your

city. Can students list more than a few details of

something that has become “common” to them?

Often, we overlook our natural surroundings in

favor of human accomplishments.

Albert Bierstadt, who painted Merced River, was

on an expedition to improve the existing wagon

trail from Wyoming to the Pacific. He could very

well have viewed the mountains, rivers, and valleys

as impediments to human progress. Instead, he was

mesmerized by their beauty and continued to paint

the American West for the rest of his life.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like this painting?

Why or why not?

SUBJECT MATTER Do you think this is a realistic

portrayal of the landscape, or is it an ideal repre-

sentation of nature? (Students should recognize that

the scene looks more idealized than realistic, which is

characteristic of the Romantic style.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Do you see mostly vertical or

horizontal lines in the painting? (Students should

observe the strong horizontal lines formed by the base

of the mountains. The pine trees in the foreground and

the three rugged mountains form strong vertical lines.)

What textures has the artist painted? (Answers

could include smooth, glassy water; jagged rocks and

cliffs; and pine needles, among others.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Has the artist created a mood

in this work? How would the mood change if no

people were in the painting? (Perhaps the feeling of

majesty would change to isolation or loneliness.)

COMPOSITION How has Bierstadt balanced the

painting? (The mountains dominate the composition,

but they are partially balanced by the strong foreground

and the lake, which form a plane across the painting.)

Answers to Activity, p. 321. He did this because the painting is an epic

landscape in the style of the Romantic move-

ment. The Romantic painters interpreted

nature as a dramatic, emotional landscape into

which civilization did not intrude. Humans

were insignificant compared to the overwhelm-

ing majesty of nature. Giving the human fig-

ures a larger scale in the composition would

diminish the painting’s reverence for nature.


reasons for their responses.

3. He has created a very dramatic effect by

emphasizing the monumental quality of the

mountains. The theatrical effect is heightened

by his use of reddish-brown tones throughout

the landscape, with areas of light and shadow.

In contrast, the sky is filled with shades of gray,

blue, and white.

4. He used perspective and relative scale to

achieve a sense of depth in the composition.

POLITICS• 1865 Abraham Lincoln is assassinated.

• 1868 The Meiji dynasty of Japan is restored

after Shogun Kekei abdicates.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1865 The trans-Atlantic cable is completed.

• 1866 Alfred Nobel invents dynamite.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1866 Degas begins to paint his ballet scenes.

• 1868 Louisa May Alcott writes Little Women.


TRANSPARENCY

16Merced River,

Yosemite Valley (1866)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Why do you think Bierstadt has chosen to show the Native Americans in the painting as almost

insignificant in size compared to his treatment of the river, valley, and mountains?

2. What is your emotional reaction to this painting?

3. How has the artist used color and form to heighten the dramatic effect of his subject matter?

4. Although this scene was painted on a flat surface, the artist has given us the illusion of depth of

space. What has he done to achieve this?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Research the discovery of the Yosemite Valley by Native Americans, by Spaniards, and by settlers.

Present your findings to the class in an oral report.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Imagine you are standing in the painting. Describe the sounds you might

hear as you view this scene before you.

AGerman immigrant, Albert Bierstadt fell in

love with the American frontier in 1858

when he took part in a government surveying

expedition. It took him on an extended journey

from Wyoming to the California coast and the

Pacific Ocean. At sites along the way, and espe-

cially in the Rocky Mountains and California’s

Sierra Nevadas, he made sketches of the vast

landscapes surrounding him. Later, using the

German Romantic style of painting, he would

transform his sketches into oil, emphasizing

emotion and idealism rather than reality.

Bierstadt’s paintings are known for their

panoramic views as well as for their emotional

appeal. His sweeping, tranquil images reinforced

the belief that the American West was a place of

great natural beauty. In Merced River, Bierstadt

chose as his subject a lovely and quiet scene in

the Yosemite Valley of California, a place seen

by few at the time except the Native Americans

shown encamped along the bank. It was scenes

such as this that earned Bierstadt, during his life-

time, the honor of being named the popular

painter of the American frontier.

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17Chief Joseph (not dated)

Edward S. Curtis (1868–1952)



Students will understand why Native Americans

felt helpless and defeated during the 1870s.

Introductory ActivityDiscuss with students what the Native Americans

must have felt as their lifestyles and cultures were

destroyed by settlers. Chief Joseph and the Nez

Percé nation in Oregon fought and outmaneuvered

the army for four months in 1877. After leading his

starving people over 1,000 miles of rough territory

in the Northwest, he finally was forced to surren-

der in October 1877. Although the government

promised that the Nez Percé could return to the

Northwest, the nation was sent to a barren part of

Oklahoma. Finally, years later, a few members of

the Nez Percé returned to the Colville reservation

in northern Washington.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you think Curtis has cap-

tured the dignity of his subject? The photograph

suggests a dignified, proud, and strong personality.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Do you think the photograph

would have a different effect if it were in color?

(Color would not be as dramatic as black and white. It

might detract the viewer’s attention from the central

focus, which is the chief himself, proud and dignified.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How has Curtis achieved an

emotional feeling to this work? (through the use of

light and shadow to enhance the dramatic intensity of

the subject and create a powerful portrait)

COMPOSITION How does the background in the

photograph symbolize Native American affairs at

the time? (It is empty, dark space.)

Answers to Activity, p. 341. Answers may include proud, dignified, strong,

experienced, confident, intelligent, mystical.

2. The elaborate jewelry, such as the earrings of

metal or abalone shell and the multiple neck-

laces, are typical of the Nez Percé nation.

Jewelry was commonly worn by male members.

The braid wraps, quite likely made from otter

fur trimmed with ermine, are possibly a special

adornment worn for the camera.

3. Approximate symmetry, although it has a good

deal of formal balance, has some slight differ-

ences that can make a work more interesting to

the viewer. If you look carefully at the photo-

graph of Chief Joseph and draw an imaginary

vertical line down the center of the picture, you

should be able to see that the two halves are

not mirror images of each other. Note the vest,

hair, braids, beaded necklaces, earrings, and

even the shape of the mouth, nose, and eyes to

see some slight differences.

4. Answers will vary. However, careful observa-

tion indicates a culture with a sophisticated

level of art, revealed in the earrings and multi-

ple beaded necklaces worn by Chief Joseph.

There also is an indication of cultural adapta-

tion because of Chief Joseph’s commercial

clothing, such as the vest and shirt.

POLITICS• 1878 Greece declares war on Turkey.

• 1879 Zulus massacre British soldiers in

Isandhlwana.

• 1880 Chile wars against Bolivia and Peru.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1878 David Hughes invents the microphone.

• 1880 The first practical electric lights are made

by Edison and Swan, independently.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1879 Ibsen writes A Doll’s House.

• 1880 Rodin sculpts The Thinker.

• 1880 Gilbert and Sullivan compose The Pirates

of Penzance.


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17Chief Joseph (not dated)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. After looking at this photograph, list five adjectives that you think describe Chief Joseph’s

character.

2. Note the jewelry and clothing worn by the subject. What do you suppose they are for?

3. The composition of this photograph is an example of approximate symmetry. What do you think

that means, and how is it illustrated here?

4. What can you tell about Native American culture by looking at this photograph?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Write a monologue describing what Chief Joseph might have been thinking as his picture was

taken.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Working in groups of five, have each member research the clothing and

jewelry of five different Native American nations. Compare and contrast your findings with what

Chief Joseph is wearing.

Edward S. Curtis was convinced that the

Native American culture had much to teach

Anglo Americans of his day. Through the patron-

age of J.P. Morgan and Edward S. Harriman, the

Seattle photographer was able to spend 30 years

photographing Native Americans. His life’s

profession was published as a monumental 20-

volume work, North American Indian (1907–30),

and in his Indian Days of Long Ago (1914).

Curtis’s photograph of Chief Joseph, leader of

the Nez Percé, is one of the great portraits in the

history of photography. In 1877 Chief Joseph

and his starving people had surrendered to the

U.S. Army. Through Curtis’s skillful use of com-

position and lighting, the gold-tinted image

emphasizes the dignity and strength of Native

Americans, who had nearly been exterminated

by the time this photograph was taken.

About the Photograph

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18Smoking Room (1876)

From the John D. Rockefeller House, New York



Students will observe a visual representation of

the Gilded Age.

Introductory ActivityAsk students for examples of current “displays of

wealth.” In other words, how do the wealthy let

others know they are wealthy? Then ask students

how the wealthy in earlier times might have dis-

played their riches. Point out that during the late

1800s, just as today, rich furnishings were a badge

of wealth. Sometimes, however, the wealthy tried

to cram as much “style” as possible into one room.



Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Would you feel comfortable

in a room such as this? Why or why not?

(Answers will vary, but students should provide rea-

sons for their responses.)

SUBJECT MATTER What different styles can you

identify in the room? (Students may be able to rec-

ognize an overall Victorian style; Near Eastern style is

seen in the inlaid furniture and woodwork, brass

objects, and the fire screen; some woodwork is covered

with polychromed ornamentation adapted from

Moorish models; and the floor is covered with a Persian

rug.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Has the designer made one color

or style stand out more than another? How so?

(The dominant colors are brown and gold. The style is

Victorian, but Moorish influences dominate.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How has the designer

arranged the visual elements of shape, color, and

light to create a feeling of “richness”? (He has

crowded the room with furniture and ornamentation,

which are tied together by a large, elaborate Persian

rug.)

COMPOSITION Is there a central focus to this room?

Why or why not? (The room is so cluttered that it is

difficult to find a central focus. Students might suggest

the fireplace with its elaborate wood mantel and mirror.)

Answers to Activity, p. 361. Answers will vary, but students should provide


2. Other rooms, typically, included a library, par-

lor or sitting room, sewing room, kitchens, bed-

rooms, and bathrooms.

3. There is little to indicate its purpose to those of

us living in the early 2000s. The ornamental

box on the table to the left might be a cigar

box. The room, although elaborate by our stan-

dards, was designed as a cozy, smaller room

where the male guests could retire to smoke

and talk after dinner.

4. Answers will vary but could include elaborate,

cluttered, overstuffed, Victorian, beautiful,

carved, and so on.

POLITICS• 1875 Kwang Hsu becomes emperor of China.

• 1876 Ethiopians defeat Egyptian forces at Gura.

• 1877 Porfirio Díaz becomes President of

Mexico.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents the

telephone.

• 1877 Edison invents the phonograph.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1875 Mark Twain writes The Adventures of Tom

Sawyer.

• 1876 Renoir paints Le Moulin de la Galette.


TRANSPARENCY

18Smoking Room (1876)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Does the style of this room appeal to you? Why or why not?

2. The wealthy and middle class during this period of American history often had specialized rooms

in their homes. What other rooms do you think Rockefeller’s house had?

3. What evidence do you see in this room that indicates its purpose?

4. What adjectives would you use to describe this room?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Imagine that you are a historian who is writing a history of daily life in

the Gilded Age, the period in American history represented by the style of this room. Examine the

Smoking Room and write several paragraphs speculating about how you think the rich lived at this

time.

In the second half of the 1800s, the rich often

displayed their wealth in the form of opulent

furnishings. Rooms often were cluttered with

many different styles and lavish designs mixed

together. At the great Centennial Exhibition in

Philadelphia, one of the most popular displays

was a series of “designed” rooms. Interior deco-

rators mixed Japanese, Moorish, Indian, and

even colonial styles in their sample rooms.

Divans, floor cushions, brass ornaments, deco-

rated screens, and elaborate inlaid tables

attracted the attention of the visitors in 1876.

The most opulent display was a smoking

room designed for a wealthy client. John D.

Rockefeller, founder of the Standard Oil

Company and one of the richest men in

America, later purchased the room. A Persian

rug cushioned the elaborately carved chairs,

tables, and cabinets. Priceless vases and gilded

candelabra caught one’s eye. Framing the fur-

nishings were intricate, inlaid moldings.

Although only the wealthy could afford this kind

of custom work, much of the manufactured fur-

niture at the exhibition was similarly designed.

About the Furnishings

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19Let Us Prey

Thomas Nast (1840–1902)



Students will analyze a political cartoon for its

meaning.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to describe American government.

The word “corrupt” may come to mind. Point out

that corruption in government is not a new or an

unusual phenomenon. During the Gilded Age,

widespread corruption was not only common, it

was almost expected. Therefore, the scandals of the

Tweed Ring were not in themselves cause for Nast’s

famous cartoons. It was the extent of Tweed’s cor-

ruption that drew him into the public eye. For

example, when the New York County Courthouse

was under construction, the cost for three tables

and 40 chairs came to $179,729. Although the

entire building was made only of marble and iron,

the plastering bill amounted to $2,870,464. Before

the building had been completed, $1,294,684 was

spent on repairs. Display Transparency 19 on the

overhead projector and ask the following questions.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Could you understand the

meaning of this cartoon if it did not have a cap-

tion? (Answers will vary, but Nast has provided

enough easily recognizable symbolism for the viewer to

understand the meaning of the cartoon.)

SUBJECT MATTER Why do you suppose Nast chose

the symbol of the vulture to represent Tweed and

his associates? (Because the vulture feeds on the flesh

of dead animals, it is therefore the perfect imagery for

the greed and corruption of the political “boss” who

feeds on the public. It is symbolism that is still used

today by political cartoonists commenting on political

corruption.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS What do the skeletons in the

foreground represent? (The skeletons stand for the

previous victims of Tweed’s corrupt political machine.)

COMPOSITION Is the cartoon balanced? (No, the

composition is unbalanced because all of the figures

and elements are on the left side of the picture.)

Answers to Activity, p. 381. Students should note such things as the bones

of the victims and the vultures with human

faces, waiting for the right moment to strike

again.

2. It uses a play on words as it substitutes the

word “prey,” meaning to attack a helpless vic-

tim, for “pray.”

3. It sets an ominous tone for the cartoon’s mes-

sage of dark and dishonest political activities. It

also acts as the symbol for the reformist activi-

ties of those working to expose and prosecute

Tweed and his cronies, who are waiting for the

latest investigation to “blow over” so they can

renew their activities.

POLITICS• 1884 Grover Cleveland is elected president.

• 1885 The Mahdi takes Khartoum; the British

evacuate the Sudan.

• 1886 The first Indian national congress meets.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1884 Sir Charles Parsons invents the first practi-

cal steam turbine engine.

• 1885 Sir Francis Galton proves the individual-

ity of fingerprints.

• 1885 Karl Benz builds a single-cylinder engine

for a motor car.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1885 Golf is introduced to America by John M.

Fox of Philadelphia.

• 1886 Robert Louis Stevenson writes Dr. Jekyll

and Mr. Hyde.

• 1886 Seurat paints Sunday Afternoon on the

Grande Jatte.


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19Let Us Prey


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Pictorial symbols—using images to stand for ideas—are key elements in a political cartoon. What

symbols has Nast used to get his message across to the viewer?

2. What is the connection between the caption, or title, and the cartoon?

3. How has Nast used the images of lightning and the storm to emphasize the message of the cartoon?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Prepare a bulletin-board display of political cartoons from current newspapers and magazines.

Write a paragraph describing the message the cartoonist is trying to get across.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Choose a current event and draw your own political cartoon about it.

Ask other students for caption suggestions.

6. Research other cartoons drawn by Thomas Nast. Organize your findings into a class presentation.

The most notorious big-city political “boss” of

the later 1800s was William Marcy Tweed,

whose Democratic machine ruled New York

City from 1869 to 1871. By controlling political

nominations and city jobs through a corrupt sys-

tem of patronage, “Boss” Tweed and other big-

city politicians of the Gilded Age made

themselves rich. During its short term in office,

for example, the Tweed Ring gained control of

the New York City’s finances and managed to

steal anywhere from $30 million to $200

million.

A series of devastating political cartoons by

Thomas Nast, and hard-hitting editorials in the

New York Times and Harper’s Weekly, helped to

throw Tweed out. Let Us Prey, published in

Harper’s Weekly on September 23, 1887, is one of

the best of Nast’s series portraying Tweed as a

rich, fat vulture. Nast continued his attacks even

after he was offered $500,000 by Tweed to stop

the incriminating caricatures. Let Us Prey,

through its simple and direct message, proves

that political cartoons can communicate as pow-

erfully to their viewers as other art forms.

About the Cartoon

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20In the Garden (1893)

Mary Cassatt (1844–1926)



Students will analyze a painting done in the

Impressionist style.

Introductory ActivityIntroduce the term expatriate to students as some-

one who voluntarily lives abroad. Many American

artists—even those in the 1700s—lived and studied

outside the United States. Mary Cassatt spent most

of her life abroad, studying in Spain, Italy, and

France.

Edgar Degas, Cassatt’s friend and mentor, was

instrumental in making Cassatt the only American

officially included in the Impressionist movement.

Ironically, Cassatt became progressively blind over

a period of years, eventually dying a bitter recluse.

Display Transparency 20 on the overhead projector


Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like this style of

painting? Why or why not? (Answers will vary, but


VISUAL ELEMENTS How has Cassatt used color, line,

and composition in her pastel drawing? (Cassatt

used bold strokes of blue, white, yellow, orange, red,

black, and green. All these provide a surface of color

bathed in bright light, creating forms that also are

carefully defined by line.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How do the facial expres-

sions of the mother and child strike you? Would

the feeling of the painting change for you if the

subjects were smiling broadly? (Answers will vary,

but students should provide reasons for their

responses.)

COMPOSITION Does the artist give the painting a

central focus? (Although there is a suggestion of gar-

den in the background, the focus is on the mother and

child.)

Answers to Activity, p. 401. She uses light to illuminate and define the form

of an object. The figures of the mother and

child are brightly colored with a marvelous sur-

face glow.

2. They fill the picture and are carefully defined

by line. A strong surface light draws the

viewer’s attention to them. The garden merely

provides a backdrop to the figures.

3. Answers will vary, but students should see that

the subject matter and the artist’s use of light

and bright colors create a happy, tender, inti-

mate scene.



POLITICS• 1894 The French set up a protectorate over the

Ivory Coast (Côte d’Ivoire), West Africa.

• 1894 Korea and Japan declare war on China.

• 1894 Nicholas II becomes tsar of Russia.

• 1895 The British South Africa Company terri-

tory becomes Rhodesia.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1893 Henry Ford builds his first car.

• 1895 William Röentgen discovers X-rays.

• 1895 Marconi invents radio telegraphy.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1895 The first professional football game is

played at Latrobe, Pennsylvania.

• 1895 H.G. Wells writes The Time Machine.


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20In the Garden (1893)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. How has Cassatt used light in her painting?

2. What technique does Cassatt use to give importance to the mother and child in the composition?

3. What do you think is the mood of this work?

4. Do you like this painting? Why or why not?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Impressionism was a force in the music as well as the art of France in the

late 1800s. Research musical impressionism and share your findings with the class. Play some exam-

ples of the music to accompany your presentation.

6. Find another Impressionist’s work and compare it with Cassatt’s painting, observing the use of

color and light and the visual elements of shape, line, and texture.

Mary Cassatt was one of several important

American painters who worked abroad in

the latter 1800s. She painted in Paris at a time

when women were not admitted to the famous

French art school, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.

Instead, she took private lessons and taught her-

self by studying old masters in museums.

Eventually, she became the only American

painter of her time who was associated with

the group of French artists known as the

Impressionists, and she exhibited her work

regularly with them.

Cassatt had a superb sense of composition, and

her work shows the varying intensities of light

and color characteristic of the Impressionist

style. Her subject matter was drawn from genre

scenes of the life she knew as the daughter of

wealthy and cultured parents. Cassatt is best

known for her oil paintings and pastels of moth-

ers and children. In the Garden captures the ten-

derness of her theme, emphasizing sensation

rather than concrete form. Her work is successful

because she was able to avoid making these

paintings overly sentimental.

About the Painting

TRANSPARENCY

21Favrile Glass Vase by Tiffany Glass

and Decorating Co. (1892–1902)

Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933)



Students will be introduced to glassware as a

decorative art.

Introductory ActivityAsk students what comes to mind when you

mention the word “Tiffany.” Many will think of

Tiffany lamps or jewelry. Some may not think of a

product at all, but will equate the word with some-

thing that is expensive. Ironically, Louis Comfort

Tiffany, a true American entrepreneur, created not

only expensive items of quality and technical inno-

vation but also reasonably priced, handcrafted

items. Through Tiffany’s use of large-scale produc-

tion methods, many of the company’s products

were affordable to most people in the late 1800s.

His workshops consolidated many craftspeople

who all worked to give shape to the ideas of a

group of directing artists. L.C. Tiffany was the son

and heir of Charles Louis Tiffany, who was quite

wealthy and famous for his fine jewelry and silver

creations. L.C. Tiffany’s personal fortune allowed

him to sacrifice company profits in the interests of

artistic achievement and affordable products.

L.C. Tiffany was a successful painter and then

turned to interior design. In 1879 he began experi-

menting with art glass and later patented a glass-

lustering technique, which gave glass a luminous

quality. Favrile glass is the trademark for the

Tiffany glass that resulted from these experiments

and, with the possible exception of Tiffany lamps,

is the ware for which he is best known.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Would you like a vase like

this in your home? Do you think the style fits

into modern homes today?

VISUAL ELEMENTS How would you describe the

shape of the vase? (Many students should find it

flowerlike in shape.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Do you think the vase

creates a mood? (Students should be aware of an

elegance and grace that can be described as sophisti-

cated.) How does the artist achieve mood in the

vase? (through the use of straight lines, the delicate

stem, the roundness of the base, the undulating or

wavy line of the top portion, and the rich colors)

Answers to Activity p. 421. Students’ answers will vary. It is likely that

some will be reminded of a flower, nature, or

possibly a goblet.

2. Students should note an opalescent quality at

the top of the vase where the colors are laven-

der, pinkish, and white.

3. Most students will note that the vase is decora-

tive rather than functional.

POLITICS• 1896 Russia and China sign the Manchuria

Convention.

• 1898 The United States declares war against

Spain over Cuba.

• 1898 The Boxers, an anti-Western organization,

assemble in China.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1896 The Niagara Falls hydroelectric plant

opens.

• 1898 Pierre and Marie Curie discover radium

and polonium.

• 1898 Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin builds his

airship.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1896 The first modern Olympics are held in

Athens.

• 1896 The Klondike gold rush is on.

• 1897 Henri Rousseau paints Sleeping Gypsy.


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TRANSPARENCY

21Favrile Glass Vase by Tiffany Glass

and Decorating Co. (1892–1902)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Of what does this vase remind you?

2. Do you see an opalescent quality in the vase? Explain.

3. For what purpose do you imagine the vase was made?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Research and find visual examples of Tiffany stained-glass windows or lamps. Make an oral presen-

tation to the class using the information and images you find.

5. Write a biography of Louis Comfort Tiffany, including information about his father, Charles Louis

Tiffany; his time as a painter; and his company.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Imagine you are a Shaker and have just been given this vase as a gift

from Mr. Tiffany. Write a letter to him expressing your thoughts, as a Shaker, on the design, crafts-

manship, and utility of the vase.

In the last quarter of the 1800s, there was a

great demand for “artistic glass” to be used as

decoration. Louis Comfort Tiffany was the most

influential innovator of glassware in those years.

Tiffany developed Favrile glass, which has a

satiny surface that is referred to as “opalescent”

because it reflects rich, rainbowlike colors.

Tiffany adopted the name “favrile” from the Old

English word “fabrile,” meaning something that

pertains to a craft or craftsman. It has been esti-

mated that by 1898, Tiffany had created 5,000

colors and varieties of Favrile glass. He also used

Favrile glass in his stained-glass windows and

Tiffany lamps, for which he is famous. Tiffany

glass pieces of this period are characterized by

curves and delicate lines, which are often

abstract creations of flowers and vines in the Art

Nouveau style.

About the Vase

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TRANSPARENCY

22Guaranty Building (1895–1896)

Louis Henri Sullivan (1856–1924)



Students will examine the evolution of the

skyscraper.

Introductory ActivityWhat building was the first skyscraper? There is

no easy answer to that question. The opinions of

architects, historians, and theorists differ. A sky-

scraper is, of course, a tall building. Additional cri-

teria that had to be met to be considered a

skyscraper are that it had to have a steel frame,

elevators, and an expression of height. A ten-story

building that is often referred to as the first sky-

scraper is the Home Insurance Building in Chicago.

It was designed by architect William LeBaron

Jenney, was built in 1885, and has since been

demolished. The Home Insurance Building was

partially supported on a frame of iron and steel

and had elevators, but it lacked the aesthetic qual-

ity of the expression of height that Louis Sullivan

skillfully mastered in the following years.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Is the appearance of this

building appealing to you?

SUBJECT MATTER Why do you think the Guaranty

Building was built? (It was built as an office building

with shops below.) Does it seem consistent with

buildings that house offices and shops today?

(Answers will vary, but students will probably be

aware of similar buildings.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Do you see distinct sections

when you look at this building? What are they?

(Most students will note that the bottom two stories form

a base, the next ten stories form another unit, and the

area above the window arches, which includes the round

windows and projecting top, is another distinct area.)

COMPOSITION What forms a transition from the

arches at the top windows and the flaring ridge of

the top of the building? (the round windows) Is the

building balanced and symmetrical? (Yes. Note the

solid base and exact symmetry of all elements.) What

words would you use to describe the feeling that

the balance and symmetry of this building evoke?

(The balance and symmetry provide a unity and whole-

ness to the building that is a distinctive feature of

Sullivan’s designs.)

Answers to Activity, p. 441. It may not be readily apparent to students, but

there are 13 stories in this building: two stories

comprise the base; the next ten stories are easy

to count because of the windows; and the top

row of round windows is also a story.

2. There are arched windows (on the second

story) over the entry doors, and each column of

ten windows ends in an arch.

3. There are three shapes of windows: round, rec-

tangular, and arched.

POLITICS• 1899 War is fought in South Africa between the

British and the Boers.

• 1901 In Great Britain, Queen Victoria dies and

is succeeded by Edward VII.

• 1901 The Socialist Revolutionary Party is

formed in Russia.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1901 Guglielmo Marconi sends the first

transatlantic telegram.

• 1903 The first powered and controlled flight of

a heavier-than-air craft (airplane) takes

place in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1899 Winslow Homer paints The Gulf Stream.

• 1903 George Bernard Shaw writes Man and

Superman.

• 1904 The opera Madame Butterfly, by Puccini, is

first performed in Italy.


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TRANSPARENCY

22Guaranty Building (1895–1896)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. How many stories do you think are in this building?

2. Where do you see arch shapes?

3. How many different shapes of windows do you see?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. CRITICAL THINKING Find a photograph and more information about the Home Insurance

Building, which was designed by William LeBaron Jenney and that is often referred to as the first

skyscraper. Write a paper comparing its “expression of height” to that of the Guaranty Building.

5. Research and prepare an oral presentation to the class about the design, also by Louis Sullivan, of

the Carson Pirie Scott Department Store in Chicago.

6. Write a story from the point of view of an 1896 office worker on his or her first day of work in the

Guaranty Building. Write the story to include the worker’s feelings about the building.

Louis Sullivan is considered this country’s first

modern architect and the “father of

America’s skyscrapers.” At the start of the design

of the Guaranty Building (later called the

Prudential Building) in Buffalo, New York, he

was a partner in the architectural firm Adler and

Sullivan. However, he parted with the firm in

1895 and finished the building design on his

own. Dwarfed by today’s skyscrapers, it is still

considered a masterpiece and one of the most

significant structures of the 1800s.

Sullivan proclaimed that the skyscraper “must

be tall, every inch of it tall,” meaning that it

should not only be tall physically but architec-

turally. This building reflects that philosophy in

its vertical emphasis. Notice that the spandrels,

or the panels above and below the tower win-

dows, are set back into the building. This further

emphasizes the upward rush of the pilasters,

which are the columns between each vertical row

of windows. Each vertical row of windows is

topped with an arch, and a string of round win-

dows provides a graceful top to the vertical rows.

On the street level, the structural columns are

revealed through the large glass windows and

seem to lift the entire building into the air.


TRANSPARENCY

23The Stampede (1908)

Frederic Remington (1861–1909)



Students will identify a stereotypical image of the

“Wild West.”

Introductory ActivityWrite the words “Wild West” on the board and

ask students to give their visual impressions of

what these words typify. Most likely, they will men-

tion cowhands, Native Americans, cattle drives,

cavalry, scouts and trappers, prairies, and deserts,

among other things. Frederic Remington painted

these popular images of the Old West throughout

his career. His subjects and detail were true to life,

as he had wandered throughout the Southwest after

failing in an attempt to become a sheep rancher.

Ironically, by the time he returned to his New York

studio and painted such works as The Stampede,

the West as he had seen it was gone. Display

Transparency 23 on the overhead projector and

ask the following questions.


work? What words would you use to describe the

painting? (Answers will vary.)

SUBJECT MATTER What do you think started the

stampede? (Students should be able to point to the

lightning strike on the right of the picture.) What

dangers do you think are present for the cow-

hand and the animals in this situation? (the dan-

ger of horses and men colliding with the stampeding

herd of animals; the wet, slippery ground, which could

cause the horses to lose their footing; the possibility of

getting struck by lightning)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What details add tension to

the painting? (the cowboy’s crouching position and

staring eyes; the galloping horse; the swirl of men and

animals; the unnatural dark green sky)

Answers to Activity, p. 461. He portrays movement by showing the cattle

running frantically, pursued by the figure of the

cowboy; the cowboy leaning into the wind and

rain as his horse runs at full stride, wide-eyed

and with all four feet off the ground; and the

swirling action of the storm.

2. He uses a dominant green and other dark col-

ors to show the storm. This strengthens the

mood of frightened animals and frantic men in

a cold and wet scene.

3. the horse and cowboy

4. Students should mention the cowhand’s chaps,

scarf, boots, and hat, as well as the saddle, sad-

dle blanket, and reins.

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• 1907 Sun Yat-sen announces the program of his

Chinese Democratic Republic.

• 1907 Rasputin gains influence at the court of

Tsar Nicholas II.

• 1908 The Union of South Africa is established.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1907 Ivan Pavlov studies conditioned reflexes.

• 1908 Wilbur Wright flies 30 miles in 40

minutes.

• 1908 The Ford Motor Company produces the

first Model T.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1907 Immigration to the United States is

restricted by law.

• 1907 The first Cubist exhibition is held in Paris.

• 1908 Lucy M. Montgomery writes Anne of Green

Gables.


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TRANSPARENCY

23The Stampede (1908)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What visual elements has Remington used to portray movement?

2. How has the artist used color to highlight the mood of the painting?

3. What is the focus of this composition?

4. What do you see in the painting that would help you describe a typical cowhand’s clothing and

equipment?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Research the Spanish and Mexican vaqueros and the cowhands of African

American descent to discover the role they played in the “Old West.” Share your findings.

6. Trace the route of the Chisholm Trail or other famous cattle trails during the late 1800s. What cities

exist along these routes today?

Born in New York State, Frederic Remington

fell in love with the West after his first visit

there as a young man. He worked as an illustra-

tor for Harper’s Weekly in New York, but he

eventually returned to and traveled throughout

the Southwest, sketching the people and the

events that he saw. His paintings catch the spirit

and the excitement of a land and a way of life

that was disappearing even in his own time. It

was the frontier—a land of cold nights and blis-

tering hot days, of cowhands, and of Native

Americans desperately trying to preserve their

ways of life.

In The Stampede, Remington gives us a glimpse

of the cowhand’s life. More often than not, the

cowhand was dirty and tired, worked long hours

for low pay, and faced constant danger. One of

the most dangerous jobs was riding herd on a

long cattle drive. Remington has captured the

wild action of a stampede during a turbulent

rainstorm, as well as the cowhand’s frantic

attempts to stop the herd.

About the Painting

TRANSPARENCY

24Cliff Dwellers (1913)

George Bellows (1882–1925)



Students will examine tenement life as portrayed

in the early 1900s.

Introductory ActivityAsk students what problems are associated with

major urban areas today. Probably spearheading

their responses will be crime, overcrowding,

poverty, and unsanitary conditions. These problems

also existed in the late 1800s and early 1900s. As a

result of little control or direction by local govern-

ments, the problems of urban centers often were

ignored or forgotten until they became critical.

The Ashcan School of painters played a role in

bringing the plight of cities to the public eye. Most

of these painters had been newspaper artists, and

that work had opened their eyes to the world.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Does this painting have any

meaning to you? Why or why not?

SUBJECT MATTER What do the people in the paint-

ing seem to be doing? (Among other activities, peo-

ple are sleeping, children are playing, and women are

hanging out the wash.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How does the artist’s use of

color contribute to the emotional impact of this

painting? (Bellows uses warm, heavy, and almost

monochromatic color to infuse the picture with an

atmosphere that imparts a feeling of too many people

crowded together on a hot, steamy day.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What emotions do you feel

upon viewing this piece? How has the artist made

you feel that way?

COMPOSITION Where do you look first when view-

ing this painting? Why? (By the use of white, atten-

tion is drawn to street level where the woman is

bending over the child.)

Answers to Activity, p. 481. Students should note the overcrowding, the

tenement buildings, people out on the streets

and on their fire escapes, the lack of appliances

as indicated by the wash hanging outside, the

absence of playgrounds and green areas for chil-

dren to play in, the lack of air conditioning

seen in people trying to sleep outside, and the

pushcarts and electric trolleys in the streets.

2. It appropriately fits the lifestyle portrayed, like

a cliff dwelling of the Southwest.

3. Bellows’s crowded and energetic composition,

filled with people, evokes life in the tenements

of cities in the early 1900s. The artist also used

the brown and yellow tones that mimic the

monotonous sameness of row upon row of

tenement housing.

4. The central focus is on the young woman scold-

ing the child in the center foreground while a

crowd of people looks on. However, the eye

is quickly led into the mass of people on the

street and up the sides of the building, where

a great deal of activity is also taking place.

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POLITICS• 1913 Suffragist demonstrations occur in London.

• 1913 Mahatma Gandhi, leader of the Indian

Passive Resistance Movement, is arrested.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1913 Friedrich Bergius converts coal dust into

oil.

• 1914 Dr. Alexis Carrel performs the first suc-

cessful heart surgery on a dog.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1913 The first Paramount and Charlie Chaplin

movies are shown.

• 1914 The Panama Canal opens.


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TRANSPARENCY

24Cliff Dwellers (1913)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What details of tenement life do you see by looking at this painting?

2. Why do you think Bellows chose Cliff Dwellers as the title for this painting?

3. How does the composition of the painting contribute to its overall theme?

4. Where is the central focus of this painting?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Compare the subject of this painting with what you have learned about the Progressive movement.

Write a short essay about early attempts of reformers to improve the quality of life for those living

in urban slums.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Research the problems of cities today. Then “update” this painting to the

present day, explaining any changes you would make.

Shortly after the 1900s were ushered in, a

group of young, realistic painters turned

against the corruption of the Gilded Age and

rebelled against the idealism of the Classical and

Romantic styles. Their goal was to record the

sprawling city—its nightlife, cafes, streets, alleys,

and tenement buildings. Because they portrayed

ordinary—even seamy—features of contempo-

rary scenes, the group was sarcastically referred

to as the “Ashcan School.”

Although he was a not a member of the

Ashcan School, George Bellows created paintings

similar in style and feeling to it. An outstanding

athlete himself, much of Bellows’s work includes

the frenzied action of boxers in the ring. In Cliff

Dwellers, however, Bellows instead shows the

action and movement of everyday, working-class

life in the big city. His painting was and is a

powerful statement about tenement life in the

early 1900s.

About the Painting

TRANSPARENCY

25I Want You for the U.S. Army (1917)

James Montgomery Flagg (1877–1960)



Students will analyze poster art as a means

of propaganda and as a device for wartime

recruitment.

Introductory ActivityDisplay Transparency 25 on the overhead projec-

tor and ask students to whom they think the poster

is directed. Most students will probably answer

“men.” They may be surprised to learn, however,

that in World War I, women were allowed to join

the armed services for the first time in American

history. Nearly 11,000 women served in the navy,

and about 300 women joined the marines. Women

also served in the Red Cross and in the U.S. Army

Corps of Nurses. On the home front, too, women

played a vital role. Many took over the industrial

jobs that traditionally had been held by men.

Discussion QuestionsSUBJECT MATTER What does the poster tell you

about the subject of recruitment? (It is very impor-

tant; it involves serving your country when it needs you;

“Uncle Sam” is making a personal plea for help in a

time of war.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What feeling does the physi-

cal stance and expression of Uncle Sam convey to

you? (determination, strength, necessity, seriousness,

urgency)

COMPOSITION Do you think the poster was an

effective way to recruit men and women for the

armed services? (This poster was very effective, but it

was not the only device used to recruit men and women

for service. Remind students that this was a time in

our history before radio and television, and there

were limited means available for recruiting purposes.

Newspapers, magazines, motion pictures, and personal

appearances by famous celebrities were also used to aid

the war effort.)

Answers to Activity, p. 501. because he is the symbol of the nation asking

for help and, therefore, is the central subject of

the poster

2. The color scheme was coordinated with the

three colors of the American flag—red, white,

and blue.

3. Uncle Sam symbolizes the United States; the

stars on his hat and the colors used in the

poster symbolize the flag.

4. Answers will vary, but it probably would not

have been as effective. Although a soldier could

have been used on the poster, the figure of

Uncle Sam is far more effective because he is

the symbol of the nation, and, therefore, a

more unifying and powerful image.

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POLITICS• World War I rages on.

• The Communist Bolsheviks seize power in

Russia.

• Four women are arrested for picketing the

White House on behalf of woman suffrage.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• Sigmund Freud writes his Introduction to

Psychoanalysis.

• The Trans-Siberian Railroad is completed.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• Women in Great Britain and the United

States cut their hair in the “bobbed” style.

• Chicago becomes the world’s jazz center.

• George M. Cohan writes the war song

“Over There.”

EVENTS OF 1917

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TRANSPARENCY

25I Want You for the U.S. Army (1917)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Why is the figure of Uncle Sam placed where it is in the composition?

2. How has the artist used color to support the theme of the poster?

3. What symbols has Flagg used to get his message across?

4. Would this poster have been as effective if the artist had used a soldier instead of Uncle Sam? Why or

why not?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Research the topic of wartime propaganda posters. Include information on when they first were

used in history, and the role they played in the Thirty Years’ War, the American Revolution,

Stalinist Russia, and Nazi Germany. Share your findings with the class.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Design a propaganda poster. It should include a simple message, have

strong visual impact, and make the viewer want to take the action suggested.

7. In a student panel, discuss the topic “propaganda is a useful weapon of war.”

All persuasive works—whether they use

words or symbolic images—are meant to

make the audience accept an opinion or take

action of some kind. Especially during war,

poster artists on both sides of the conflict fre-

quently used symbols in their works to send

simple and direct messages to their viewers. I

Want You for the U.S. Army is the most famous

of all American wartime posters. James

Montgomery Flagg was himself the model for

Uncle Sam, the symbol of the United States.

The poster appeals to viewers’ emotions by por-

traying Uncle Sam—the United States—as tak-

ing a serious, determined attitude. This poster

appeared widely throughout the country during

World War I and again during World War II.

About the Poster

TRANSPARENCY

26Allies Day, May 1917 (1917)

Childe Hassam (1859–1935)



Students will understand how the sinking of the

Lusitania affected United States foreign policy

toward Germany.

Introductory ActivityGive students some background information on

the Lusitania disaster, which prompted the visual

image of Hassam’s painting. The Lusitania was a

British passenger liner attacked by a German U-

boat and sunk off the coast of Ireland on May 7,

1915. The huge vessel sank in only 18 minutes,

with the loss of 1,198 lives, including 128

Americans. War fever in the United States rose to

fever pitch. President Wilson sent several strongly

worded protests to the German government,

demanding that they make reparations. Germany,

however, refused to accept responsibility for the

tragedy because the Lusitania was carrying muni-

tions to Great Britain. The German government

had even taken the unusual step of publishing an

advertisement in New York newspapers on May 1,

which had warned Americans that they sailed on

Allied vessels at their own risk.

When a U-boat sank another British liner, the

Arabic, and two American lives were lost, Wilson

was ready to risk war. The Germans agreed to

abandon submarine warfare against all passenger

ships and to pay an indemnity for the loss of

American lives. A wave of relief swept the nation,

and most Americans were overjoyed that war with

Germany had been avoided.


Why or why not?

SUBJECT MATTER What images in the painting sug-

gest this is a parade? (the crowds on the street, the

flags of the Allies, and the generally festive mood)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How does Hassam show depth in

this piece? (He shows depth by decreasing the size of

the flags as they become more distant and making use of

the viewer’s perspective when painting the buildings.)

COMPOSITION Where do you look first when view-

ing the painting? Why? (The flags are the central

focus of the composition. They are placed in a promi-

nent position in bold repetitive colors.)

Answers to Activity, p. 521. The most prominent are the flags of the United

States, Great Britain, and France.

2. He has made the flags the central focus of the

composition, which highlights a patriotic cele-

bration of Allies Day.

3. With the exception of a few shadows cast by

the tall buildings, the entire picture is illumi-

nated by sunlight. Combined with the artist’s

short, textured strokes of bright colors, this cre-

ates a cheerful mood.

4. The artist achieves depth, height, and relative

size of objects by showing a series of receding

flags and tall buildings contrasted against the

small figures of people and a suggestion of cars

on the street below.

POLITICS• 1917 The U.S. declares war on Germany.

• 1918 An armistice is signed between the Allies

and Germany on November 11.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1918 The Nobel Prize for Physics goes to Max

Planck for introducing the quantum theory.

• 1918 The first Chicago-New York airmail is

delivered in 10 hours, 5 minutes.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1917 Food and fuel controls are set up in the

United States.

• 1918 Daylight savings time is introduced.


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TRANSPARENCY

26Allies Day, May 1917 (1917)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Identify the countries whose flags are shown in the painting.

2. How has Hassam highlighted a feeling of patriotism in the painting?

3. Describe Hassam’s use of light in this piece.

4. How has the artist shown the relative depth, height, and size of the objects in Allies Day, May 1917?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Compare this painting to that of John Trumbull’s The Declaration of

Independence, July 4, 1776, which you saw in Transparency 8. Note the differences in the brush-

strokes, composition, and the use of color.

6. Prepare a chart on American Impressionism. Include the names, dates, and places of birth of each

Impressionist artist, as well as the titles and a short description of several of their paintings.

7. Research Allies Day and give an oral report about it to your class.

In the late 1800s, American painters began to

adopt the style of such French Impressionists

as Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and

Claude Monet. These artists used rich colors and

light to create a fleeting impression of the sub-

ject. The American artist Childe Hassam became

one of the first and most masterful exponents

of the French Impressionist school. He was

especially well known for his colorful flag paint-

ings, which were originally inspired by a scene

Hassam had witnessed in Paris during a Bastille

Day celebration in 1910.

Allies Day, May 1917 is an excellent example of

American Impressionism. In this painting,

Hassam has captured the feelings of patriotism

the nation was experiencing after having joined

the Allied cause of World War I. The image is

that of Fifth Avenue, which New Yorkers began

decorating with Allied flags after the sinking of

the Lusitania in 1915.

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TRANSPARENCY

27Yellow Cactus Flowers (1929)

Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986)



Students will apply O’Keeffe’s way of looking at

nature to their own surroundings.

Introductory ActivityHave students examine—really examine—one

square inch of a product or an item in front of

them. This could be the texture of their desks or

the fabric of their clothing or even the patterns of

their skin. What colors do they see? What patterns?

What lines? What shapes? (If students are inter-

ested, have them attempt to draw or paint what

they see in their minuscule area.)

Georgia O’Keeffe used much the same technique

of viewing the landscape in her works. Especially in

her paintings of flowers, the beauty of each sepa-

rate petal is seen many times over in the greater

beauty of the complete flower. She recorded with

great sensitivity and affection the splendor, wonder,

and mystery that nature offers to all. She reminds

you that this can be enjoyed at any time—all you

have to do is take a moment to look. Display



Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like the abstract style

portrayed in this painting? Why or why not?

(Answers will vary, but students should provide rea-

sons for their responses.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS What colors has O’Keeffe used

in this piece? (yellow, red, green in different hues,

and varying shades of blue and gray)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What mood has the artist

created in this work? (Possible answers include

relaxed or peaceful.)

COMPOSITION How has O’Keeffe forced you to

focus your attention on the subject? (She has left

out surroundings and a background. What you have to

look at is not only something recognizable as a flower,

but also the pure “idea” of a flower.)



2. Answers will vary, but students should note

that a more conventional representation of

flowers would not represent the artist’s concept

of the world as abstract forms and space. If

these flowers were shown in their natural envi-

ronment, as part of a cactus within a desert

landscape, the purity of form that she has cap-

tured would be lost.

3. the way that lines of the petals are highlighted

by repeating them from left to right across the

canvas

4. Approximate symmetry is achieved by filling

the canvas with two flowers that, although they

are of the same kind, are not quite identical.

POLITICS• Herbert Hoover is inaugurated as the thirty-

first president of the United States.

• Hitler appoints Himmler as “Reichsführer S.S.”

• “Black Friday” occurs in New York City; the

Great Depression begins.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• The Bell Laboratories experiment with color

television.

• Kodak introduces 16mm color movie film.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• A rival gang guns down six Chicago gangsters in

the St. Valentine’s Day massacre.

• The term apartheid is used for the first time.

• Ernest Hemingway writes A Farewell to Arms.

• The Museum of Modern Art opens in New

York City with an exhibition of works by

Cézanne, Gauguin, Seurat, and Van Gogh.

EVENTS OF 1929

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27Georgia O’Keeffe (1929)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What is your emotional response upon looking at this painting?

2. Would the effect of the flowers have been different if they were shown in their surrounding envi-

ronment? Why or why not?

3. Rhythm in a painting is created by repetition. What device has O’Keeffe used to give this painting

rhythm?

4. What has O’Keeffe done to achieve symmetry in the painting?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Attempt your own abstract painting. Draw a subject that is not easily recognizable, yet providing

clues as to what the subject is.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Write a poem describing a flower in a manner similar to the way in

which O’Keeffe interprets flowers in her paintings.

Georgia O’Keeffe is one of the most famous

artists of the 1900s, and her abstract-style

paintings of nature are recognized the world

over. After studying art in Chicago, New York,

and Virginia, O’Keeffe taught art at a high school

in Amarillo, Texas. She was immediately fasci-

nated by the dry, windswept beauty of the stark

landscape and painted the clean white bones,

desert shadows, and mountains of her beloved

Southwest.

In the 1920s, O’Keeffe felt that the world was

moving too fast, and she decided to slow things

down by painting something that people were

too busy to notice—a flower. However, she

painted it in such a way that it could not be

ignored. In Yellow Cactus Flowers and in her other

paintings of flowers, O’Keeffe has simplified and

magnified the detail of every petal, allowing

nothing to interfere with the image of graceful

curved surfaces and flowing contours.

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Students will observe a building as a symbol of

popular culture.

Introductory Activity Display Transparency 28 on the overhead projec-

tor and ask students to raise their hands if they can

identify the building. It is likely that many of the

students will recognize the Empire State Building.

This world-famous building is not only a symbol of

New York City and our country, but of tall build-

ings everywhere. Newer, taller buildings have not

been able to achieve this kind of symbolism. The

building’s history is full of oddities and facts that

have entered popular lore, and the building itself

was a media event from the beginning. Lewis Hine

was commissioned to photograph the construction

process, and his famous photographs of workers

high above the city in dangerous situations have

become classics.

Who can think of the Empire State Building with-

out thinking of the movies it has appeared in? As of

2001, it was shown in nearly 100 movies, but it

may be remembered by most people for its appear-

ance in King Kong.

Discussion Questions PERSONAL REACTION Of what does the building

remind you? (Answers will vary. Some students may

be reminded of a rocket or an arrow.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Where do you see decoration on

the building? (There is only a small amount of subtle

decoration, mostly at the upper tower level. The beauty

of this building is in its design, craftsmanship, and

materials, not applied decoration.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What kind of mood do you

think the Empire State Building evokes? (Answers

will vary. For many, the lack of ornamentation and

linear quality creates a powerful, straightforward, no-

nonsense mood.)

Answers to Activity, p. 56 1. Answers will vary. Some students may find the

building dignified, elegant, tall, proud, plain,

strong, impressive.

2. Students should indeed see an “expression of

height” in this building. Not only is it an

impressively tall building, but everything about

it is linear and reaches skyward. Also, the verti-

cal rows of windows pull your eyes upward.

3. Answers will vary, but students should articu-

late what they do or do not like about the

building.

POLITICS • 1930 Britain, the United States, Japan, France,

and Italy sign a naval disarmament treaty.

• 1931 Spain becomes a republic with the over-

throw of King Alfonso XIII.

• 1933 The United States and Soviet Union

establish diplomatic relations.

• 1933 Hitler is appointed Chancellor of

Germany, gaining dictatorial powers.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY • 1930 Frank Whittle patents the jet engine.

• 1932 Amelia Earhart flies solo across the

Atlantic Ocean.

• 1932 Deuterium (heavy hydrogen), an isotope

of hydrogen, is discovered by Harold Urey.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE • 1930 Grant Wood’s painting American Gothic is

exhibited.

• 1930 John Masefield is appointed Poet Laureate

of the United Kingdom.

• 1930 Sinclair Lewis (U.S.) wins the Nobel Prize

for Literature.


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28Empire State Building (1930–1931)

Shreve, Lamb, & Harmon Associates, Architects

TRANSPARENCY

28Empire State Building (1930–1931)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail 1. What words would you use to describe this building?

2. Do you think this building has the “expression of height” that was referred to in Transparency 22,

the Guaranty Building?

3. Does the design of this building appeal to you? What do you like or dislike about it?

Enriching Your Knowledge 4. The Chrysler Building in New York City was completed in 1930. It was the tallest building in the

country until the Empire State Building was completed just one year later. Prepare an oral presenta-

tion to the class about the Chrysler Building’s design and history.

5. Lewis Hine was commissioned to take photographs of the construction of the Empire State

Building. His photographs have become classics and relay an amazing story. Locate copies of his

original photographs from books or the Internet and share them with the class.

6. CRITICAL THINKING There were many debates about the benefits versus the liabilities of filling

our cities with massive skyscrapers. Research the viewpoints of critics, such as Frank Lloyd Wright,

Thomas Alva Edison, and Thomas Hastings, and write a paper either for or against their ideas.

Construction of the Empire State Building

in New York City began on March 17,

1930. The building was officially opened on May

1, 1931, when President Herbert Hoover pressed

a button in Washington, D.C., to turn on the

building’s lights. It took only one year and 45

days to build a structure 1,224 feet tall with 102

floors. The framework rose 4 stories per week!

Constructed of stone and steel, the Empire

State Building has a simple, bold, and massive

form. Notice the series of setbacks, which is

where the design recedes at intervals. The set-

backs were not only a design element, but were

included in the design because of a city-zoning

ordinance. The ordinance aimed to keep the city

streets from turning into sunless canyons from

the overwhelming height of the city’s skyscrap-

ers. It required that architects step their build-

ings back as the buildings went up, which

allowed more sunlight to reach the streets below.


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TRANSPARENCY

29Fallingwater

(Kaufmann House, 1936)

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959)



Students will apply the motto of architect Louis

Sullivan—“form follows function”—to their school

building.

Introductory ActivityWrite the words “form follows function” on the

board and ask students to explain what it means in

relation to architecture. Then ask them to apply

this motto to their school building. Does its form,

or design, enhance the function of learning? Is

there enough light for you to read? Are seats

arranged so that everyone can see the teacher and

the board? Are the classrooms set a reasonable dis-

tance from one another? What about “inter-

rupters”? Are you distracted by other noises? Was

the building placed too close to a busy street? Is

your room too close to the cafeteria or band room?

If your students are interested, you may want

them to research the architect who designed the

building and the historical period in which the

school was constructed. Display Transparency 29

on the overhead projector and ask the following

questions.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like the architectural

style of this house? Why or why not? (Answers

will vary, but students should express why they do or

do not like the style.)

SUBJECT MATTER Does it surprise you to know that

this house was built more than 60 years ago?

Why or why not? (Answers will vary.)

COMPOSITION Does Wright’s design fulfill his

belief that a house should exist in harmony with

nature? (There is an emphasis on horizontal lines that

ties the house closely to its site and establishes continu-

ity between the house and its surroundings. The house

does not seem to overpower its setting, but seems to be

a natural part of it.)



2. Answers will vary, but students may suggest the

problems of muffling the sound of rushing

water, dealing with dampness, finding ways to

anchor the foundation securely over the stream

and falls.

3. cubes, rectangles, and squares

4. Rough, local stone helps form the walls and

chimney.

POLITICS• 1934 Hitler becomes Führer.

• 1934 The purge of the Communist Party in

Russia begins.

• 1935 Chiang Kai-shek is named president of the

Chinese executive.

• 1935 Nuremberg Laws are passed against the

Jews.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1935 The oil pipeline between Iraq, Haifa, and

Tripoli opens.

• 1936 Hoover Dam on the Colorado River is

completed.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1935 George Gershwin composes the opera

Porgy and Bess.

• 1935 The film Mutiny on the Bounty earns Clark

Gable an academy award.

• 1935 The Congress of Industrial Organizations

is set up by John L. Lewis.


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29Fallingwater

(Kaufmann House, 1936)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What are your reactions to this design? Would you like to live in this house?

2. What special problems do you think Wright encountered in designing and building this house?

3. What geometric shapes and forms do you see in the design?

4. What materials has Wright used to help the house fit into its environment?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Research the life of Frank Lloyd Wright, focusing on his contributions to world architecture.

6. Imagine that you have enough money to build a house for yourself. Where would you build it and

what style would you use?

7. CRITICAL THINKING Frank Lloyd Wright designed houses, public buildings, furniture, entire

rooms, stained glass windows, and even dinnerware. Research and write a paper explaining how his

design philosophy was characterized in all of his works.

Along with painting and sculpture, architec-

ture can also be an art form when an aes-

thetically pleasing design is placed in a

harmonious setting. The designs of Frank Lloyd

Wright, one of the most influential architects of

the 1900s, are unique works of art as well as

important architectural statements. Wright

began his career as an apprentice to Louis

Sullivan, the “father of the American sky-

scraper”. Sullivan’s architectural philosophy

was that “form should follow function.” When

Wright began to design his own houses, he was

able to put this design concept into practice.

The Kaufmann House illustrates perfectly the

combination of form, function, and setting.

Wright placed the house on a ravine over a

stream so that the flowing water became part of

the design itself. The shelf-like, or cantilevered,

balconies mimic the rock ledges below. Together,

the house and setting are an organic whole.


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TRANSPARENCY

30Migrant Mother (1936)

Dorothea Lange (1895–1968)



Students will analyze a historical photograph.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to explain the phrase “a picture is

worth a thousand words.” Then have them give

current examples of how this phrase rings true, ask-

ing them such questions as the following: Would

you be more likely to give money if you saw (a) an

advertisement that reads “Help feed the world’s

hungry,” or (b) a photograph showing an emaci-

ated child? Would you be more likely to support

(a) a candidate who lists all of his or her qualifica-

tions in print, or (b) a candidate who is shown vis-

iting schools, playing with his or her children, and

shaking hands with farmers?

Dorothea Lange’s job during the Great

Depression was not merely to record visual images

of the nation’s impoverished. The goal of her pho-

tographs, and of others working for the Farm

Security Administration, was to reveal the plight of

the rural poor to people living in the cities, and to

win urban support for relief programs. Display



Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION How does this photograph

affect you? (Answers will vary.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What emotions do you think

the mother is expressing? (Students may note that

she has a look of resignation, apprehension, concern, or

worry.)

COMPOSITION Do you think Lange is sympathetic

towards her subjects? (Most students will answer

that yes, she appears to have sympathy for the mother

and her children.)

Answers to Activity, p. 601. Students might suggest that the photograph

illustrates the hopelessness and despair faced

by these migrant workers. They should note

the condition of the subjects’ clothing, and the

fact that the mother and her children are dirty.

2. Answers will vary but may include fear, despair,

anxiety, worry, fatigue, and hopelessness.

3. The fact that the faces of the children are

turned away from the camera is very moving.

They may be crying, or tired, or clinging to

their mother for warmth and protection. They

might be afraid of the photographer.


POLITICS• 1936 German troops occupy the Rhineland.

• 1936 The Spanish Civil War begins.

• 1936 Koki Hirota becomes Premier of Japan.

• 1936 Chiang Kai-shek declares war on Japan.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1936 The dirigible Hindenburg makes a transat-

lantic flight.

• 1937 Insulin is first used to control diabetes.

• 1937 The Lincoln tunnel between New York

and New Jersey is completed.

• 1937 The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco

opens.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1936 Margaret Mitchell writes Gone With the

Wind.

• 1936 Charlie Chaplin stars in Modern Times.

• 1937 Picasso paints Guernica.


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30Migrant Mother (1936)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What does the photograph tell you about these individuals and their time?

2. What words come to mind when you look at this picture?

3. How do the positions of the mother and children capture the emotions of the time?

4. What title would you give this photograph?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Research the social and economic impact of the Great Depression on

rural America, or read John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. Organize your information into a

written report.

6. Skim your history textbook to see if you can find other pictures that have an emotional impact

similar to this one. Discuss the reasons they affect the viewer.

President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal

provided many jobs for the 13 million

Americans who were out of work during the

Great Depression. One federal project, funded

by the Farm Security Administration (FSA),

hired a group of photographers to record the

impact of the Depression on farming families,

small towns, and resettlement camps. The most

poignant and vivid pictures were those of share-

croppers driven from their farms.

Possibly the most famous photograph of the

project was the stark, black-and-white photo of

a mother and her children taken by Dorothea

Lange. Viewers were shocked by the reality of

the terrible poverty they saw. Migrant Mother is

both a powerful example of photojournalism

and a symbol of the grim realities of life in

America during the Great Depression. The 32-

year-old mother in the photograph had just sold

her car tires to buy food for her seven children.

So effective was this image, that the death of the

mother decades later was marked by national

recognition. Even today, the picture retains its

message of hopelessness and desperation.

About the Photograph

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TRANSPARENCY

31John Brown Going to

His Hanging (1942)

Horace Pippin (1888–1946)



Students will analyze a folk art painting.

Introductory ActivityDisplay Transparency 31 on the overhead projec-

tor without showing the name of the painting. Ask

students to write a short story about what they

think is going on in the painting. Students should

notice that the man on the wagon is bound with

rope, the occasion seems solemn, the time frame is

early American history, the season is late fall or

winter, and the African American woman facing the

viewer does not look happy. Tell the students the

name of the painting and that it is an example of

folk art by Horace Pippin.

Paintings in the folk art style typically have a

number of characteristics in common. The works

are usually symmetrical and formal, almost classi-

cally arranged, which results in a feeling of tran-

quility and stillness. There are no shadows, the

light is flat, and the perspective lacks depth.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Would you like to have this

painting hanging in your home? Explain.

SUBJECT MATTER Pippin’s work is known for the

details he includes. What details in this painting

show the season of the year? (the mufflers, hats,

coats, bare trees, and smoke from the chimneys)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Describe the use of color in this

painting. (Black and shades of gray are prevalent and

pose a stark contrast with the use of white on the build-

ing, mufflers, and horses. Pippin’s grandmother,

besides being the only member of the crowd facing the

viewer, is the only one dressed in a bright color. The

blue of her dress matches the blue of the sky.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Does this painting appear

tranquil to you? (Yes, the subject matter is volatile,

but the painting evokes tranquility. Even John Brown

sits quietly, awaiting his fate.) Where is the most

emotion shown in the painting? (the woman facing

the viewer and, to a lesser degree, the men nearest her;

She seems angry and turns her back on the scene to

show her disgust. Her role in the painting has been

described by some as being the “narrator.”)

COMPOSITION Does this painting adhere to the

characteristic of stillness in traditional folk art

style? (There is no movement in the painting. It could

be compared to a photograph frozen in time.)

Answers to Activity, p. 621. Students should notice that the crowd, with the

exception of the woman and a few men in the

lower right corner, is facing away from the

viewer. The woman is the only person totally

facing the viewer. Students may also notice the

dark clothing and that each person wears a hat.

2. Answers will vary, but the stillness of this

painting provides a solemn, somber feel. The

use of dark colors also contributes to the seri-

ous nature of the event being depicted.

3. John Brown is sitting on the wagon and is

bound with rope.

POLITICAL• The naval battle of Midway takes place.

• Many Japanese Americans are moved to reloca-

tion centers, some for the duration of the war.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• Enrico Fermi achieves the first controlled nuclear

chain reaction.

• Glenn T. Seaborg and Edwin McMillan first

synthesize plutonium.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• The Coconut Grove nightclub fire in Boston

kills 492.

• Ellen Glasgow wins the Pulitzer Prize for her

book In This Our Life.

EVENTS OF 1942

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31John Brown Going to

His Hanging (1942)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What do you notice about the crowd?

2. Do you think the painting conveys the seriousness of the situation? Why or why not?

3. How do you know which figure is John Brown?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Research and write a biography about Horace Pippin, emphasizing his commitment to his own

vision and methods of creating art even after being discovered by the “art world.”

5. CRITICAL THINKING Choose a current event and either draw, paint, or write a description of

how you think Horace Pippin would depict the event.

6. Do further research on the folk art style. Then find examples of some of Pippin’s home-themed

paintings, such as Christmas Morning Breakfast, Interior, or The Domino Players. Share the examples

with the class and point out the details in the paintings that can be classified in the folk art style.

This painting by Horace Pippin is an example

of American folk art. Folk art is made by

people who have little or no schooling in art.

They create their art based on their own experi-

ences and vision and do not follow the conven-

tions of formal art. Horace Pippin’s paintings are

fine examples of the excellence that can be found

in folk art.

Although a bullet shattered his shoulder and

arm in World War I, Pippin faithfully painted

scenes depicting the feelings and experiences of

African American life. The theme of “home” is

evident in his paintings, and many of his works

are scenes filled with dignity and tranquility.

This painting is about John Brown, the white

abolitionist who was executed in 1859. Pippin’s

grandmother, shown facing the viewer in the

lower right corner, was present at the hanging.

She had often told Pippin about Brown’s raid on

Harper’s Ferry as well as his trial and execution.

About the Painting

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TRANSPARENCY

32The Red Stairway (1944)

Ben Shahn (1898–1969)



Students will evaluate the use of art as social

commentary.

Introductory ActivityWrite the heading “Current Social (or Political)

Issues” on the board. Have students suggest spe-

cific topics of concern and write these on the board

under the heading. Then ask students for possible

suggestions as to how they would portray these

issues if they themselves were artists. For example,

how would they “visualize” the plight of the home-

less? Through sculpture? Through painting? If stu-

dents are interested, have them choose one of the

issues listed on the board and develop a work of art

that portrays their personal image of the issue.

Explain to students that artists have a long his-

tory of involvement in politics and serious social

and human issues. Art itself often has been used as

a vehicle for political and social commentary.


Why or why not? (Answers will vary, but students

should give reasons for their opinions.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Do you think Shahn is suc-

cessful in portraying the themes of cruelty and

isolation? How has he done this? (Students should

sense cruelty and isolation. Shahn has achieved this by

showing one figure with crutches and an amputated

leg, while another figure clears away the rubble in the

midst of terrible devastation. The figures are isolated

from each other, and there is an absence of any other

signs of life. Nothing is growing.)

COMPOSITION How does Shahn keep your eye

from moving off the canvas? (The eye is drawn to

the old man, then up and down the diagonal lines of

the stairway to the figure “rebuilding” the destruction,

then along the horizontal line formed by the rocks, and

back to the old man.)

Answers to Activity, p. 641. One figure is climbing the red stairway, while

the other is carrying away some of the rubble.

Encourage students to speculate on the deeper

meaning of the painting by having them

explore the symbolism of the stairway, what

might have been there before it was destroyed,

and whether the man clearing away the rubble

is a positive sign for the future.

2. Shahn leads the viewer into the painting by set-

ting a bright red stairway in the center of the

icy blue composition.

3. The icy blue tones of the painting and the

lonely, isolated human figures, combined with

the devastation of the landscape, tend to create

a depressing mood of emptiness, abandonment,

and cruelty.

4. They add to the sense of isolation and provide

an interesting focal point of geometric order in

a scene that stands for ruin and hopelessness.

POLITICS• 1944 Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected to a

fourth term as president of the U.S.

• 1945 War ends in Europe on May 8.

• 1945 Japan surrenders on August 14—World

War II ends.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1943 Penicillin is successfully used in the treat-

ment of chronic diseases.

• 1945 The first atomic bomb is detonated near

Alamogordo, New Mexico.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1944 Tennessee Williams writes The Glass

Menagerie.

• 1944 George Orwell writes Animal Farm.

• 1945 War dead estimated at 35 million, plus

10 million in Nazi concentration camps.


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TRANSPARENCY

32The Red Stairway (1944)

Ben Shahn (1898–1969)

Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What do you think the figures in the painting are doing?

2. What device has Shahn used to lead the viewer’s eye into the painting?

3. How has the artist used color to express mood?

4. How are diagonal lines, perspective, and geometric shapes used to heighten the dramatic effect of this

painting?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Write a paragraph describing your feelings about this painting.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Research the year 1944, and prepare a time line of the major world

events of that year. Choose two or three events that seem to fit the subject of this painting. Share

your selections with the class to see if they agree.

Ben Shahn was one of a group of painters

known as social realists. Through their

paintings, these artist-reformers drew attention

to injustice, corruption, and human suffering

caused by the Great Depression. They used a

variety of techniques to make their point, draw-

ing from Expressionist, Cubist, and Surrealist

traditions as well as Realism. Shahn’s early

works touched many social issues, ranging from

the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti—two Italian

immigrants accused of robbery and murder—to

the elderly and the homeless.

By the end of the 1930s, Shahn began to move

away from the art of direct social criticism.

Instead, he painted humankind in the context of

their emotions. The Red Stairway, painted while

World War II was still raging, makes a statement

about war and people’s cruelty to one another. In

it, a disabled man climbs a surrealistic stairway

that goes up only to descend again into destruc-

tion. Numbed by the war, he illogically continues

to do what he always has done. Some critics

believe the figure in the lower right represents

the perpetual struggle to rebuild civilization.

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TRANSPARENCY

33Finny FIsh (1948)

Alexander Calder (1898–1976)



Students will understand that art takes many

forms, some of them unexpected.

Introductory ActivityWrite the following words on the board: mobile,

circus, fun, and sense of humor. Tell the students

that these words are clues about the artist who cre-

ated the work shown on Transparency 33. If any of

the students have encountered Calder’s art, possi-

bly in their English or art classes, they will immedi-

ately understand the clues. Ask those students to

explain the relevance of the clues to the rest of the

class. If none of the students are familiar with his

work, explain that Alexander Calder invented the

mobile. It may surprise them that something as

familiar as a mobile did not exist before 1930.

Calder loved the circus. He made an entire

miniature circus from wire, bits of fabric, wood,

and many other materials. His work clearly reflects

and is noted for his sense of humor and capacity

for having fun.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Take a good look at the trans-

parency. Now close your eyes and imagine the

mobile hanging from the ceiling. The actual piece

is 26 inches by 60 inches. Picture a breeze slowly

moving the parts around. Do you see poetry? In

other words, do you see something special that

touches your feelings? (Answers will vary. Encourage

discussion. However, it may be difficult for students to

articulate why they are touched by the art, and a simple

answer without explanation is fine.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How many colors did Calder use

in this mobile? (He used many colors of glass,

painted red wire, and painted yellow steel rods.)

Where do you look first? (Most students will be

drawn first to the fish’s eyes. From there, one is drawn

to the yellow “body” and red tail.) Do you sense

movement even when looking at this motionless

example? (Answers will vary, but most students

should sense movement because of the open mouth of

the fish and the colorful glass.)

COMPOSITION Is the art both unified and bal-

anced? (Yes. The cluster of colorful glass unified

within the body of the fish balances the vivid red tail.)

Answers to Activity, p. 661. A fish is a good subject for a mobile because of

the lyrical and undulating way that fish move

through the water.

2. Answers will vary. If it is difficult for the stu-

dents to get started, prompt them with these

examples: Rhythm, Fins and Waves, or Gills in

Motion.

3. Yes, because the definition of abstract art—

works of art that stress the importance of the

elements and principles of design rather than

subject matter—applies to this mobile.

POLITICS• The Korean War begins when North Korean

Communist forces invade South Korea.

• Communist Chinese forces invade Tibet.

• British atomic physicist Klaus Fuchs is convicted

of spying for the Soviet Union.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• The first Xerox machine is produced.

• Richard Lawler performs the first successful

kidney transplant at Loyola University.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• The New York Yankees defeat the Philadelphia

Phillies to win baseball’s World Series.

• Saturday morning children’s programming

begins on TV.

• Charles Schulz introduces the Peanuts comic strip.

• Ray Bradbury’s book The Martian Chronicles is

published.

EVENTS OF 1950

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33Finny FIsh (1948)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Why is a fish a good subject for a mobile?

2. What would you name this piece of sculpture?

3. Would you classify this piece of art as abstract? Why or why not?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Find examples of other forms of art made by Calder: wire sculptures, Circus Calder, wood sculpture,

paintings, jewelry, stabiles. Share examples and information about each form with the class.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Research additional information about Calder’s work and personal his-

tory. Write a paper describing Calder’s art in the context of his outlook on life, his relationships

with his many artist friends, and the time period during which he was creating his art.

Alexander Calder, the son and grandson of

traditional sculptors, invented the mobile.

It was Calder’s friend and fellow artist, Marcel

Duchamp, who used the word “mobile” to

describe the sculptures. Calder’s first mobiles

appeared in the 1930s and caused quite a sensa-

tion. He made three types of mobiles: ones with

a stand, ones that were attached to walls, and

ones that were free-floating and hung from a

ceiling. Motors generated movement on some

of the mobiles. Calder is quoted as saying,

“To most people who look at a mobile, it is no

more than a series of flat objects that move.

To a few, though, it may be poetry.”

Many of Calder’s mobiles are based on natu-

ral forms—animals, birds, fish, or plants—and

the motions were carefully planned to imitate

the movement of his subjects. Calder’s sculp-

tures, which are totally unique, fleeting, and

changing, make movement and color the central

elements. Finny Fish demonstrates a lyrical, rich

work. It is a free-floating, symmetrical mobile

that hangs from a ceiling and is set in motion

by a current of air. The work is much larger

than it appears here. Its actual dimensions are

26" x 60".

About the Sculpture

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TRANSPARENCY

34Map (1961)

Jasper Johns (1930– )



Students will analyze the “message” of early Pop

Art.

Introductory ActivityAsk students to define the words “Pop Art.” Some

students may know that the name “Pop” was given

to this movement because its artists used popular

objects as subject matter in their works. Works of

Pop Art that emerged in Great Britain in the 1950s

often were collages made of pictures clipped from

popular magazines. While collages were not new,

the message behind Pop Art collages was.

British and American Pop artists, such as Andy

Warhol, combined pictures of familiar household

objects, such as television sets, vacuum cleaners, and

canned goods, to suggest that people were letting

the mass media shape their lives. These artists

wanted people to see how meaningless their lives

were becoming, and to change. If students are inter-

ested, have them design a collage in the Pop Art

style, displaying “trivial trappings” of modern life in

an unusual way.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you feel comfortable or

uncomfortable when viewing this painting? Why?

(Answers will vary, but students might suggest that,

since it is an unusual depiction of the United States,

they may feel uncomfortable.)

SUBJECT MATTER What do you see in this painting?

(Students will see enough of the outline of states and

their names to recognize a map of the United States.

They will also probably recognize Mexico, Baja

California, and Canada. Students may notice the basic

color scheme, which serves to unify the painting.)

COMPOSITION Do you think the artist was inter-

ested in painting a map, or was he interested in

communicating a message? (Johns was interested in

looking at common objects in a different way. In this

painting, he took a commonplace image and broke it

down into its constituent parts. Then he invited the

viewer to reassemble them into a unified whole through

an aesthetic process that combines illusion and fact.)


reasons to support their opinions.

2. The artist uses only the primary colors of red,

yellow, and blue. Although students may see

other colors, these are the result of overlapping

the primary colors. It is his limited use of color

that unifies the work into a meaningful whole.

3. Students should see state boundaries, as well as

Mexican states and Canadian provinces. They

will also see the Great Lakes and a suggestion

of surrounding bodies of water.

POLITICS• 1958 Fidel Castro fights against the Batista gov-

ernment in Cuba.

• 1959 Hawaii becomes the 50th state.

• 1960 The Belgian Congo (present-day

Democratic Republic of the Congo) in

Africa is granted its independence.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1958 The United States establishes NASA.

• 1959 The Soviet Union launches a rocket with

two monkeys aboard.

• 1959 Louis S.B. Leakey finds the skull of

“Nutcracker Man” (ca. 600,000 B.C.) in

Tanganyika (present-day Tanzania).

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1958 Boris Pasternak writes Dr. Zhivago.

• 1958 The “Beat” movement spreads from

California to Europe.

• 1959 Richard Rodgers composes The Sound of

Music.


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34Map (1961)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Do you like this painting? Why or why not?

2. How has Johns used color to give the painting unity?

3. Would you have recognized the map if Johns had not included names? What other visual elements

give you clues as to the subject?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. CRITICAL THINKING Write a paragraph describing the symbolism that you, personally, see in

this painting. Elaborate on what the colors, brush strokes, and varying intensities of light convey

about the United States.

5. Research Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art, comparing the two styles of painting.

6. Visual unity in a work of art allows the viewer to see a complex combination of individual parts as

a complete whole. List examples of unified objects in the world around you. That is, name an

object and list as many of its individual parts as possible.

Pop Art emerged as a dominant painting

style in the United States during the 1950s

and 1960s. This style combined Abstract

Expressionism—loose brushwork and varying

intensities of light—with commonplace subject

matter. Many Pop artists painted household

objects to show people how meaningless their

lives were becoming. Although Pop Art origi-

nated in London, the objects portrayed usually

were taken from American media, which had

flooded Great Britain after World War II.

One of the pioneers and masters of American

Pop Art was Jasper Johns. Searching for new

ways to show the world around him, he chose as

his subjects such ordinary objects as circles, flags,

numbers, targets, and maps. Characteristic of

Pop Art, his results were part real and part illu-

sion. In Map, Johns’s rendition of the United

States can be isolated into its different parts. At

the same time, however, its harmony of colors

and hints of boundaries unify the piece into a

familiar whole.

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TRANSPARENCY

35Royal Tide II (1961–1963)

Louise Nevelson (1900–1988)



Students will evaluate the artistic merit of

assemblage-style sculpture.

Introductory ActivityDisplay Transparency 34 (Jasper Johns’s Map) on

the overhead projector, reminding students that

Pop Art, although it may have used Abstract

Expressionist elements of style, had as its subject

matter recognizable objects. True Abstract

Expressionists rejected the idea of realistic subject

matter. Instead, they placed emphasis on the physi-

cal action it took to paint or sculpt their works.

Rather than use carefully planned brush strokes,

artists dribbled, spilled, spattered, and splashed

paints onto their canvases. Sculptors, too, broke

away from their dependence on subject matter to

invent new forms.

Students often are perplexed when viewing art

that does not tell an obvious story. In Royal Tide II,

many parts of Nevelson’s sculpture are easily recog-

nized as odd pieces of furniture or scraps from

Victorian houses. However, their original functions

are now ignored. What they are or, more accu-

rately, what they were is no longer important. It is

the ingenuity with which they have been precisely

fitted together to form a novel sculptural style that

is important. Display Transparency 35 on the over-

head projector and ask the following questions.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like this style of art?

Why or why not? (Answers will vary. The viewer,

however, certainly has to think about what this is and

how the artist has organized shapes and forms.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Is this work two- or three-

dimensional? (It is three-dimensional. Students

should be invited to speculate whether it is freestanding

or a relief designed to sit against the wall.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How would you describe the

difference between Royal Tide II and Jasper

Johns’s Map? (Students should be able to see that

Map is easier to “understand,” while Nevelson’s work

does not seem to represent anything that is immediately

understandable to the viewer.)

COMPOSITION Is there a central focus to this piece?

(No, the artist invites the viewer to visually roam the

work, looking at familiar objects in an unusual way.)

Answers to Activity, p. 701. Some items are rifle stocks, boxes, bedposts,

chair legs, table legs, and scraps of wood.


reasons for their feelings.

3. Rectangles and circles are the prominent geo-

metric forms in the work.


POLITICS• 1960 John F. Kennedy is elected president of the

United States.

• 1961 The United Nations General Assembly

condemns apartheid.

• 1961 The Berlin Wall is constructed.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1960 The United States nuclear submarine

Triton completes the first underwater cir-

cumnavigation of the world.

• 1961 Soviet Yuri Gagarin orbits Earth. Alan

Shepard makes the first United States

space flight.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1960 Harper Lee writes To Kill a Mockingbird.

• 1961 The film West Side Story premieres.

• 1961 World population: 660 million in China;

435 million in India; 209 million in the

U.S.S.R.; 179 million in the United

States; 66 million in Brazil


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35Royal Tide II (1961–1963)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. One of the effects of an “assemblage” is that it invites the viewer to see what objects the artist has used

to form the entire piece. List the objects in Royal Tide II that you can identify.

2. What are your feelings about this work?

3. What geometric forms seem to be the most prominent in the work?

4. What do you think the artist is trying to say by calling the work calling Royal Tide II?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Research other examples of sculpture that do not tell an obvious story. Describe the sculptures and

explain their symbolism to you.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Compare Royal Tide II to medieval religious sculptures, which also were

designed to fit neatly within their assigned niches. Note the similarities and differences between

the use of “walls,” repetition, and form.

Louise Nevelson was one of the most impor-

tant sculptors of twentieth-century America.

Early in her career, she was primarily a painter.

However, some carpenter’s scraps from a remod-

eling project and the chance find of a discarded

wooden box proved to be the inspiration for a

series of nonobjective sculptures that soon filled

several rooms. Hers is a sculptural style of

assemblage, a kind of three-dimensional collage.

The massive wooden “walls” of black, white,

and gold that she began to construct in the 1950s

firmly established her international reputation.

In Royal Tide II, Nevelson carefully assembled

wood objects and scraps in boxes. These were

then stacked together to make a very large com-

position (7′10″ x 10′6″ x 8″). The result is a rich

variety of contrasting angles and curves, which

was unified by spray painting the whole struc-

ture one color. What you see is a blend of the

familiar and the unfamiliar.

About the Sculpture

TRANSPARENCY

36Day of the Fair (1963)

Andrew Wyeth (1917– )



Students will compare Andrew Wyeth’s work to

the Photo-Realism style of painting.


and ask students to list all of the details they see.

Explain that Photo-Realism was one of the leading

art styles of the 1970s. It paid exaggerated homage

to the literal qualities that Abstract artists had

objected to earlier. Although he is not regarded as a

Photo-Realist, Andrew Wyeth is noted for paintings

in which careful attention is directed to literal qual-

ities. In his paintings, however, Wyeth goes beyond

showing what people or places look like. Instead,

he tries to capture their essence and thoughts on

canvas.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION Do you like this style of

painting? Why or why not? (Answers will vary, but


VISUAL ELEMENTS What textures has the artist cre-

ated in this piece? (wood, plaster, skin, material,

hair)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT Do you think Wyeth was suc-

cessful in creating a mood or expressing an idea?

How? (Yes. Students should suggest such evidence as

the look of the girl’s face, her pose, the bareness of the

room.)

COMPOSITION Would you describe this painting as

lifelike? Why or why not? (Yes. Wyeth includes

enough detail to make the painting lifelike.)

Answers to Activity, p. 721. He has isolated the figure of the young woman

in a room with bare walls. Although the scene

includes a window, we only see a small corner

of it, and the view through the window consists

of just a glimpse of a few leaves on a tree. The

brownish-gray tonalities also serve to enhance

the sense of loneliness.

2. the young woman

3. browns and grays

4. Answers will vary, but students should be

prompted to link their interpretation to the

title of the painting.

POLITICS• 1963 Civil rights demonstrations occur in

Birmingham, Alabama, culminating in the

arrest of Martin Luther King, Jr.

• 1964 Kenya becomes an independent republic.

• 1965 Americans demonstrate over the United

States bombing of North Vietnam.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1963 Dr. Michael De Bakey first installs an arti-

ficial heart to circulate blood during a

patient’s surgery.

• 1964 Ranger VIII takes close-up photographs of

the moon’s surface.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1963 Andy Warhol, Jasper Johns, and other

artists exhibit their works in New York’s

Guggenheim Museum show of Pop Art.

• 1965 Ralph Nader writes Unsafe at Any Speed.

• 1965 The Beatles dominate rock and roll music.


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36Day of the Fair (1963)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What has the artist done to emphasize a feeling of loneliness in the painting?

2. What is the central focus of the painting?

3. What are the dominant colors used in this work?

4. How do you interpret Day of the Fair?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. CRITICAL THINKING Imagine that you are sitting alone at a school function, such as the young

girl in this painting is doing. Write one or two paragraphs describing your thoughts.

6. Give this painting another title, and then explain why you chose the title you did.

One of the most intriguing of American

artists is Andrew Wyeth. Painting in a

style similar to Photo-Realism, his work is far

from the Abstract art that has dominated mod-

ern painting in the United States since 1945. He

learned to paint from his father, N.C. Wyeth, a

famous illustrator of children’s books. It was his

father who taught him to study his subjects care-

fully and sketch them repeatedly until he cap-

tured their character on canvas. Wyeth chose

as his subjects the people and landscapes of

Maine and Chadd’s Ford, Pennsylvania, his

home for many years.

Many of Wyeth’s works hint at a world of

human solitude and loneliness linked to nature.

In Day of the Fair, Wyeth portrayed Cathy Hunt, a

girl who lived in Chadd’s Ford. Wyeth described

her as a mischievous child who would challenge

her grandfather’s authority and ask him questions

just to irritate him. When she posed for this paint-

ing, wearing a dress she bought for her school’s

May Fair, she had grown into a young, pretty girl.

About the Painting

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TRANSPARENCY

37Forward (1967)

Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000)



Students will relate an example of African

American art to the historical time frame during

which it was painted.

Introductory ActivityBefore displaying Transparency 37, have students

read about the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the

Voting Rights Act of 1965 in their textbooks.

Students should understand that although this leg-

islation ended de jure (legal) segregation, de facto

(actual) segregation continued throughout the

country. Wide gaps in economic, social, and educa-

tional opportunities between African Americans

and white Americans remained. In 1967, the year

Lawrence painted Forward, racial tensions had

sparked riots in many of America’s cities. Feeling

alienated from the mainstream of American life

and left out of President Johnson’s Great Society,

African Americans rose in anger and frustration.

Tragically, the increased tensions only served to

strengthen the resolve of many white Americans to

resist the call for African American equality.

Display Transparency 37 on the overhead projector




should provide reasons for their responses.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS How are lines in the painting

used? (The diagonal line of the painting, formed by

the repetitive figures, serves to highlight the rhythm of

the whole composition.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT How do you feel when view-

ing this painting? (Answers may include fearful,

determined, hopeful.)

COMPOSITION Where in the painting do your eyes

look first? Why? (Eyes are drawn to the figure of

Harriet Tubman, who is shown in bright red and

white. Her strong bodily gestures help to unite the

entire composition.)

Answers to Activity, p. 741. Students should identify the central figure of

Harriet Tubman leading a group of enslaved

Africans to freedom. The figure on the far left is

looking back over his shoulder in fear of cap-

ture by pursuers. Harriet Tubman pushes

another enslaved person, who appears afraid,

forward to the freedom that lies ahead.

2. The artist uses flat, abstract figures organized

into a tightly compressed space. The colors are

flat and few. This allows the artist to simplify

the composition in order to focus on the

straightforward, yet powerful, theme of repres-

sion and freedom.

3. She is the woman in red and white. She is lead-

ing and pushing the enslaved people on their

journey.

POLITICS• The Israeli-Syrian war worsens.

• A “black power” conference is held in Newark,

New Jersey.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• Stanford University biochemists produce a

synthetic version of DNA.

• The People’s Republic of China explodes its first

hydrogen bomb.

• Dr. Christiaan Barnard performs the world’s first

human heart transplant operation.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• The film Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner? is released.

• Barbara Streisand performs in Central Park

before 135,000 listeners.

• Mickey Mantle hits his 500th career home run.

EVENTS OF 1967

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37Forward (1967)


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What do you think is happening in this painting?

2. How does Lawrence use form and color to convey the message of the painting?

3. Which figure in the piece is Harriet Tubman? How can you tell?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Research the Harlem Renaissance, focusing on the artists and writers who played a major role in

the movement, including examples of their works.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Using the title Forward, write a poem or short story that conveys your

personal message of human rights, prejudice, and the condition of minorities.

6. Research the life of Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. Include the major routes and

stations she used, and the dangers experienced by the enslaved people she led to freedom.

Stimulated by the Harlem Renaissance in

New York City, African American art and

literature emerged to national prominence in the

1920s and 1930s. Art in particular became a

device for expressing the African American iden-

tity and heritage. The desire to portray urban

life and to look back upon their role in

American history mingled into a style of paint-

ing that was both serious and representative of

African American culture.

Jacob Lawrence became one of the most well-

known African American artists through such

works as The Migration of the Negro and Harlem

Series. As one of many artists who were part of

the WPA Artists Relief Program during the

Great Depression, Lawrence painted pictures

that told the stories of important people and

events in African American history. In Forward,

he uses as his subject the life of Harriet Tubman,

who helped enslaved people escape from the

pre-Civil War South through the Underground

Railroad. Lawrence uses abstract figures and

strong colors to illustrate the universal theme of

freedom from repression.

About the Painting

TRANSPARENCY

38Vietnam Veterans Memorial (1982)

Maya Lin (1959– )



Students will evaluate a monument designed in

the Minimalist style.

Introductory ActivityTell the students that when the Vietnam Veterans

Memorial in Washington, D.C., was dedicated, its

design caused it to be one of the most bitterly dis-

puted public monuments in American history. It is

now one of the most visited memorials. Maya Lin’s

design won a nationwide competition judged by a

panel of architects and artists. Those entering the

competition were given four criteria: the design

must be reflective and contemplative, it must be

harmonious with the site, it must be inscribed with

the names of the dead and missing, and it must

make no political statement about war.

Lin’s interpretation of these criteria and her sensi-

tivity to the site and the subject of the monument

led her to use a Minimalist style of design, which

caused the dispute. Point out to the students that

Minimalist artists stress the idea of reducing a work

of art to the minimum number of colors, shapes,

lines, and textures in order for the viewer, rather

than the artist, to become involved in the work.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION If you have visited the memo-

rial, what was your reaction to it? If you have not

visited the memorial, what do you think would

be foremost in your mind when viewing it?

(Answers will vary. Some students may comment on

the unrelenting flow of names on the wall.) What do

you think the veterans whose names are carved

in the wall would think of the design? (Students

may think the veterans who lost their lives would

approve of the design because it is dignified, or they

would not approve because it is too simple.)

SUBJECT MATTER With no previous knowledge of

what this monument represents, do you think a

viewer would be able to figure it out? (Students

should note that a viewer probably would find the list

of names, the color, and the solemn feeling evoked from

the simplicity of the granite slabs as evidence that the

structure memorializes lives that have been lost.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Is the color, shape, line, and tex-

ture of this monument consistent with the defini-

tion of Minimalism? (Yes. There is one color, a

simple shape, straight lines, and the surface is polished

with no texture other than the carved names. It does

not attempt to realistically represent war or soldiers.)

Answers to Activity, p. 761. Answers will vary, but students should give rea-

sons for their answers.

2. The use of one color, the simple shape and line,

the polished granite, and the flow of names as

the only ornamentation contribute to the feel-

ings that visitors experience. As described in

the activity, the landscape also contributes to

the overall reaction to the memorial.

3. Answers will vary, but students should explain

their responses. The color was hotly disputed at

the time. Many opponents of the design

thought it represented a black scar and wanted

it changed to white.

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POLITICS• 1981 American hostages are released by Iranian

followers of the Ayatollah Khomeini.

• 1982 Israel invades Lebanon in an attack on the

PLO.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1978 The first “test tube baby” is born in

England.

• 1979 Rubik’s Cube is invented by Hungarian

Erno Rubik.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1982 Gabriel García Márquez from Colombia is

awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.

• 1982 Cats opens on Broadway.


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38Vietnam Veterans Memorial (1982)

Maya Lin (1959– )

Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. In your opinion, is the Minimalist style appropriate for this memorial? Why or why not?

2. Many visitors use the words serene, haunting, and powerful to describe the memorial. What elements of

the design contribute to those descriptions?

3. Do you think the choice of black granite was appropriate for this memorial? If not, what color would

you have chosen to use?

Enriching Your Knowledge4. Research the artistic style of Minimalism in painting. Describe how and why it originated and list

several of its major artists.

5. CRITICAL THINKING Using the Minimalist style, draw an object, reducing it to its most basic

geometric forms and colors. Show your drawing to others and ask them to title the drawing.

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in

Washington, D.C., is a monument designed

in the Minimalist style. Minimalism is an art

movement of the 1900s, in which artists show

the “atmosphere” of their subject matter, but do

not portray the realism of its form. The simple,

yet powerful design of this memorial is a V-

shaped wall of polished black granite, with the

names of those killed and missing in action

carved on it in chronological order. The land-

scape also contributes to the design. The path

along the wall descends down a gentle slope to

the center of the V-shape and then back up to

ground level. When descending into the memo-

rial, visitors feel as if they have moved into a pri-

vate, secluded space of contemplation. When

ascending out of the memorial, they are again in

the busy world.

This memorial lacks realistic statues and depic-

tions of war and soldiers. Many people felt the

lack of realistic art was not appropriate for a vet-

erans’ memorial. As a compromise, the Three

Servicemen Statue was placed nearby in 1984,

and the Vietnam Women’s Memorial was

installed in 1993. Lin’s original design was not

changed by the additions.

About the Memorial

TRANSPARENCY

39Still Life with Red Car 1986

Frank Romero (1940– )



Students will identify the predecessors of Latino

artists.

Introductory ActivityBefore displaying Transparency 39, give students

some background information on Mexican art in

the 1900s. The early 1900s were marked by much

unrest as poor, landless peasants struggled to be

free of corrupt landlords. In 1911 this struggle

reached a bloody climax with the fall of dictator

Porfirio Díaz and the start of the Mexican

Revolution, which ended in 1921.

The years following the conflict saw the emer-

gence and rise of Mexican mural painting. As sub-

ject matter, Mexican muralists chose the political

and social problems of the Mexican people. Two of

the most famous of these Mexican muralists were

Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco. Rivera

recorded in art the gallant struggle of the Mexican

peasant. Orozco expressed his anger for all forms of

tyranny. By painting murals, these artists took their

work directly to the people. They did not want

their paintings placed in museums, galleries, or pri-

vate homes where only a few people would see and

respond to them. Instead, their works were

intended to be public property and not the prop-

erty of the wealthy and powerful. Display





should provide reasons for their responses.)

VISUAL ELEMENTS Describe the texture the artist

achieves through his bold brush strokes. (By using

the short brush strokes of Expressionism, the artist

achieves a rough texture that gives a rich, emotional,

and vivid appeal to his work.)

COMPOSITION Does this look like a realistic por-

trayal of the objects in the painting? (Students

should observe that, although the objects are easily rec-

ognized, the perspective is distorted in the Expressionist

style.)

Answers to Activity, p. 781. The dominant color is red.

2. The central focus is the tabletop with its

objects, but particularly the red car. Its color

and prominent position in the center fore-

ground of the composition draw your attention

to it.

3. The addition of a red Chevrolet is the artist’s

symbol of Latino experience.



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POLITICS• 1985 Gorbachev takes power in the Soviet

Union.

• 1986 Ferdinand Marcos is ousted from the

Philippines.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• 1986 The space shuttle Challenger explodes,

killing all seven aboard.

• 1986 A nuclear disaster strikes the Chernobyl

plant in the Soviet Union.

• 1986 Superconductors are invented in

Switzerland.

• 1987 The Alzheimers disease gene is discovered.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• 1986 Rock stars perform the Live Aid concert to

raise money for famine victims.

• 1986 Wole Soyinka of Nigeria wins the Nobel

Prize for Literature.

• 1988 Total United States AIDS cases reach

61,000.


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TRANSPARENCY

39Still Life with Red Car 1986


Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. What is the dominant color in the painting?

2. What is the central focus of the painting? How does the artist bring your attention to that focus?

3. Why do you think the artist placed a car in this still life?

4. How do you feel about this painting?

Enriching Your Knowledge5. Research the work of muralists José Clemente Orozco and Diego Rivera to see how they influenced

Romero’s works.

6. CRITICAL THINKING Frank Romero uses cars, horses, and hearts as personal symbols of his life

and culture. Think about your own background and make a list of images or symbols of your life

and culture that you might use in a painting.

Internationally acclaimed artist Frank Romero

was born and raised in East Los Angeles, a

community historically populated by many dif-

ferent ethnic groups such as Mexican Americans,

Russians, European Jews, and families of

Japanese ancestry. Recognizing his interest in art,

his mother encouraged him to develop his artis-

tic talent at a young age. Early in his career,

Romero came under the influence of figurative

painters Edward Hopper and Ben Shahn, and

the great Mexican muralists José Clemente

Orozco and Diego Rivera. In 1974 Romero and

three other Hispanic artists formed Los Four, a

group that painted and exhibited what became

known as Chicano art (now called Latino art).

When the Chicano movement ended in the

late 1970s, Romero went his own way. In Still

Life with Red Car 1986, Romero used

Expressionism to paint a traditional still life,

but he added the unusual subject of a red

Chevrolet. The artist’s fondness for bright colors

and striking textures continues to identify his

distinct style. His dominant inspiration, how-

ever, continues to be Mexican folk art with its

simple, effective style of communicating directly

to the viewer.

About the Painting

TRANSPARENCY

40Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

and Museum (1995)

I.M. Pei (1917– )



Students will examine the architecture of a modern

public building.

Introductory ActivityAsk students for words to describe what they con-

sider to be modern architecture. Explain to them

that as an architectural style, “modern” is not a

specific style but is more of an attitude toward

design. Modern or twentieth-century architecture

generally refers to a structure that is contemporary

or up-to-date in style, technique, or technology. We

learned in Transparency 22, the Guaranty Building,

that Louis Sullivan is considered this country’s first

modern architect. In Transparency 29, Fallingwater,

Sullivan’s work influenced Frank Lloyd Wright,

another important modern architect. Two German-

born architects who moved to the United States,

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius,

have also had a huge impact on modern architec-

ture in America and around the world.


and tell students that the designer, I.M. Pei—

thought to be one of our greatest architects living

today—studied under Walter Gropius at the

Harvard Graduate School of Design. Gropius cre-

ated innovative designs with a strong emphasis on

materials and methods using modern technology.

Pei is considered one of his disciples due to Pei’s

use of abstract forms and materials such as stone,

concrete, glass, and steel.

Discussion QuestionsPERSONAL REACTION For what other type of public

building do you think this design is appropriate?

(Some students may think of a museum for modern art

or a university building.) Do you think buildings

should be considered pieces of art?

SUBJECT MATTER Does the building look “mod-

ern” to you? Why or why not? (Most students will

agree the building looks modern. Some people even

refer to it as ultramodern. The use of different shapes

connected to one another in unexpected ways adds to

the contemporary feel of the building. The building

materials also contribute to its modern look.)

EXPRESSIVE CONTENT What type of building design

is more meaningful to you personally—a building

similar to this one or one similar to Independence

Hall shown in Transparency 5? (Answers will vary,

but students should explain their responses.)

Answers to Activity, p. 801. Answers will vary, but students should explain

why they like or dislike the design.

2. Most people believe the design is indeed appro-

priate to rock ‘n’ roll music—a bit rebellious,

dynamic, exuberant, and over the top.

3. Some people see a guitar in the area that juts

out over the lake. Pei never intended a repre-

sentation of any particular object.

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POLITICS• Fighting escalates in Bosnia and Croatia. A cease-

fire is agreed on, and a peace treaty is signed by

the end of the year.

• Israel agrees to transfer the West Bank to the

Palestinians.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY• The Russian space station Mir greets the first

Americans when the U.S. shuttle docks with it.

• F. Sherwood Rowland, Mario Molina (both from

the United States), and Paul Crutzen (from the

Netherlands) win the Nobel Prize for Chemistry

for their work explaining the chemical processes

that deplete the earth’s ozone shield.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE• Thunder Gulch wins the Kentucky Derby.

• The movie Babe opens.

• Carol Shields’s book The Stone Diaries wins the

Pulitzer Prize for fiction.

EVENTS OF 1995

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TRANSPARENCY

40Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

and Museum (1995)

I.M. Pei (1917– )

Name Date Class


Observing for Detail1. Do you like this building? Why or why not?

2. Do you think the style is appropriate for its use?

3. Does the shape of the building from this angle remind you of an object? What is it?

Further Your Knowledge4. CRITICAL THINKING Write a descriptive paragraph showing how you think the shapes of this

building should be changed if the museum was dedicated to a different type of music. Choose from

classical, blues, or country music for your paragraph.

5. Make a chart showing influential architects of the 1900s. List the architects’ names, the buildings

they designed, a brief description of their philosophy, and trademarks of their works.

6. Find visual examples of Pei’s other designs. Show them to the class and lead a discussion about the

similarities and differences in the designs. Also discuss how the designs reflect the purpose of each

building.

I.M. Pei is considered one of the greatest

architects of modern times. His works

include many famous buildings around the

world, such as the John F. Kennedy Library in

Massachusetts; the National Gallery of Art in

Washington, D.C.; an addition to the Louvre

Museum in Paris, France; and the Bank of China

in Hong Kong. His designs reflect his concern to

maintain a sense of fun and ease of use for each

building’s intended purpose.

Geometric forms, one of Pei’s trademarks, are

prominent in the design of the Rock and Roll

Hall of Fame and Museum, located in Cleveland,

Ohio. The simple, interlocking shapes make the

building look like a piece of sculpture. The

building looks dramatically different from

every side, forming a new piece of art from

each direction. A theater juts out over Lake Erie

on one side, and it is balanced by a circular

performance area on the other side. The glass

and steel shape visible in the back is another

Pei trademark. He often uses glass and steel to

form geometric shapes, such as trapezoids and

pyramids.



THE LANGUAGE OF ARTAbstract Art Artworks that stress the importance

of the elements and principles of design rather than

the subject matter. Abstract artists select and then

exaggerate or simplify the forms suggested by the

world around them. Famous abstract artists include

Picasso, O’Keeffe, and Nevelson.

Abstract Expressionism American style of art that

first developed in New York in the 1940s. Artists

applied their paint freely to their huge canvases in

an effort to show feelings and emotions. The style

is characterized by a strong dependence on chance,

and there is no effort to represent subject matter.

Famous Abstract Expressionists include Pollack, de

Kooning, and Frankenthaler.

Adobe Spanish word for sun-baked clay.

Age of Reason Also called the European

Enlightenment, the Age of Reason was a political,

social, and philosophical movement that reached its

height in the mid-1700s. Its emphasis on order and

reason also was reflected in literature, music, and the

arts. In painting and architecture, this meant a sim-

ple and elegant style called Neoclassicism that owed

much of its ideas to Classical Greece and Rome.

Appliqué Decoration or design, usually made of

fabric, that is cut out and fastened to another piece

of fabric by needle and thread or other means.

Apse Semicircular area at the end of the church

opposite the main entry. It is here that the altar is

placed.

Art Nouveau Art movement and style of decora-

tion and architecture practiced throughout Europe

and the United States in the late nineteenth and

early twentieth centuries. A distinguishing charac-

teristic of Art Nouveau is its undulating, or wavy,

asymmetrical lines that often take the form of

flower stalks and buds, vines, and other natural

objects. Art Nouveau is a French term meaning the

“New Art.”

Ashcan School Group of early twentieth-century

American artists who painted pictures of city life.

Critics who did not appreciate their choice of sub-

ject matter—alleys, tenements, and slum

dwellers—called this group The Ashcan School, a

label that is now better known than the group’s

original name, “The Eight.” Famous Ashcan

painters include John Sloan, while George Bellows

painted in a similar style.

Assemblage Painting and sculpture using

ordinary discarded objects organized into a three-

dimensional artwork. It was a widely popular style

in the United States at the end of the 1950s.

Asymmetrical Way of balancing the parts of a

design so that one side differs from the other with-

out destroying the overall harmony. Also known as

informal balance.

Belfry Part of a tower or steeple that holds a bell

or bells.

Caricature Picture in which the character’s fea-

tures are exaggerated for the purpose of satire or

humor.

Chinking Material used to fill cracks, openings, or

fissures in exterior walls.

Classical Revival American style of architecture

that originated in the late 1700s and continued into

the 1800s. Drawing its inspiration from Classical

Greek and Roman models, it was used for such struc-

tures as the United States Capitol and the University

of Virginia. Its foremost champion was Thomas

Jefferson, who designed his home Monticello in this

style. Classical Revival is also known as

Monumentalism or the Monumental style.

Classical Style Art and architecture of ancient

Greece during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.

and Rome. Used to describe perfection of form,

with an emphasis on harmony and unity and

restraint of emotion. Usually, it is applied to works

that are representational but idealistic. Classical

forms influenced Neoclassicism and Classical

Revival in the 1700s.

Colonnade Line of columns, each one an equal

distance apart. The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, is

an excellent example of the use of colonnades.

Composition The combination or organization of

the various elements of a painting or any work of

art.

Court Painter Artists who devoted their efforts to

executing portraits of a royal European family.

Famous court painters include Velazquez, Reubens,

Holbein, and Trumbull.

Cubism Twentieth-century art movement devel-

oped by Picasso and Braque in which the subject

matter is broken up, analyzed, and reassembled in

an abstract form.

Cupola Domed accent on a roof with either a

round or polygonal base.

Depth Term that helps to define the degree of

recession or perspective in a painting. The way in

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which an artist gives the viewer a sense of three-

dimensional space to a flat surface.

Design The organization, plan, or composition of a

work of art. An effective design is one in which the

elements have been combined to achieve an overall

sense of unity.

Distort To deform or stretch an object or figure out

of its normal shape to exaggerate its proportions.

Dome Large roof or ceiling in the form of a hemi-

sphere. This architectural device was developed by

the Romans and further refined during the Italian

Renaissance. Among the largest domed structures

in the world are St. Peters Basilica in Rome and the

United States Capitol.

Effigy Mound An earthen mound representing an

image such as the shape of an animal.

English Colonial Style Style of architecture in the

American colonies prior to the American

Revolution. It was strongly influenced by the work

of Sir Christopher Wren’s eighteenth-century

designs in England. High-pitched roofs, a formal

symmetry of elements, and the frequent use of brick

for construction are characteristic of this style. It is

also referred to as the “Georgian” style because of

its connection to the reign of George III in England.

Expressionism Twentieth-century art movement

in which artists tried to communicate their strong

emotional feelings through artworks. A simplified

outline of form and the use of strong colors charac-

terize this movement. Famous Expressionists

include Van Gogh and Munch.

Façade Front of a building.

Figurative Paintings Paintings of the human fig-

ure in representational ways instead of abstract.

Folk Art Art made by people who have little or no

formal schooling in art. Folk art is usually tied to

the artist’s personal experiences and vision rather

than the conventions of formal art. Paintings, sculp-

tures, ceramics, metalwork, costumes, tools, and

other everyday objects may be considered folk art.

Form Element of art that is three-dimensional

(height, width, and depth) and encloses volume.

Cubes, spheres, pyramids, and cylinders are exam-

ples of various forms.

Genre Painting Art that portrays subjects and

scenes from everyday life.

Georgian Style In the United States, a style of

architecture that originated during a period of

increasing architectural richness, beginning with the

reign of George I (1714–1727) and continuing to

the Revolution. Details derived from the Classical

style of architecture and the use of symmetry are

both characteristic of this style.

Harlem Renaissance Name for the cultural devel-

opments that took place in Harlem during the

1920s. African American artists, writers, and musi-

cians drew their inspiration and themes from the

ghetto life of New York City.

Harmony Principle of art that refers to a way of

combining elements to accent their similarities

and bind the picture parts into a whole. It is often

achieved through the use of repetition and

simplicity.

History Painting Painting that draws its subject

matter from history or mythology. The word history

usually meant Classical history. By the 1700s, how-

ever, British painters began to use scenes from con-

temporary history. History paintings are usually

very large in size and are executed in a grand style.

Impressionism Style of painting that started in

France during the 1860s. Impressionist artists tried

to paint candid glimpses of their subjects and

emphasized the momentary effects of sunlight.

Generally applying their paint in small short

strokes of pure color, their pictures capture an

“impression” or essence of their subject.

Inlaid Process by which craftsmen set small pieces

of one material into another in order to show a

design. It was especially popular in the making of

furniture.

Jacobean Style The term Jacobean is used to desig-

nate the period in England when James I was king

(1603–1625). The Jacobean style of furniture was

prevalent in the early 1600s in England and was

reflected in the design of colonial furniture in the

mid-1600s. Even though its origin is English, it

came to be known as Pilgrim furniture. It is charac-

terized by heavy turnings used for legs and spin-

dles, or turnings split in half and applied to a

surface for decoration. Pieces of this design are

solid, square, and substantial.

Line Element of art that refers to the continuous

mark made on some surface. Lines are one-dimen-

sional and can be described in terms of length,

width, and direction, and are used by the artist to

delineate form and lead the viewer’s eye through

space.

Luminism A quality of light, found in certain mid-

nineteenth-century American landscape paintings,

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that causes objects to be seen with great clarity.

This type of light is rendered in exacting detail. The

special lighting of a sunrise or sunset is often one of

the main themes in such pictures.

Minimalism Twentieth-century art movement and

style stressing the idea of reducing a work of art to

the minimum number of colors, values, shapes,

lines, and textures. No attempt is made to repre-

sent or symbolize any other object or event.

Mobile Delicately balanced construction or sculp-

ture made of objects that are arranged on wire arms

and suspended so as to move freely. It is propelled

either mechanically or by currents of air. Alexander

Calder introduced the art form in the 1930s.

Molding Decorative strip that adds variety and

interest to a surface by creating areas of light and

shadow.

Monument Building, sculpture, or other structure

built to memorialize and honor a person or event.

Mood Emotional impact of a work of art.

Mortar Building material that hardens and is used

between bricks or stones to hold them together.

Movement Principle of art that pertains to the cre-

ation of action in a painting or causes the viewer’s

eye to sweep over the work in a certain manner.

Mural Large design or picture, generally created

on the wall of a public building.

Naturalist Person who advocates or practices

Realism in art, emphasizing the scientific aspects of

natural life.

Nave Major, central part of a church where the

congregation gathers. It leads from the main

entrance to the altar and is usually flanked by side

aisles.

Neoclassicism Nineteenth-century French art

style that originated as a reaction to the excesses of

Baroque. It sought to revive the ideals of ancient

Greek and Roman art. Neoclassic artists used

Classical forms and cool colors to paint themes

from Classical history or contemporary scenes

with Classical references. Famous Neoclassic

artists include Jacques-Louis David and Benjamin

West.

Pastel Pigments mixed with gum and pressed into

a stick form for use as crayons. Works of art done

with such pigments are referred to as pastels.

Perspective Method for representing three-

dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface.

Photojournalism Presentation of news stories in

the form of pictures or photographs rather than

written copy.

Photo-Realism Style of painting in which exag-

gerated attention is paid to the literal qualities of

a subject, making the work look almost like a

photograph.

Pictorial Symbols Images that stand for ideas.

Pilaster Column that establishes wall divisions but

plays no structural role in a building.

Plate Prepared surface from which printing is done.

Plein-air French term meaning “open air,” per-

taining to a picture painted out of doors rather than

in a studio. It is most closely associated with the

Impressionists who believed that the artist could

only capture the true reality of color and light by

painting on the scene.

Pop Art Artistic style that had its origins in Great

Britain in the 1950s and made its way to the United

States during the 1960s. Pop artists focused their

attention upon familiar images of the popular cul-

ture such as billboards, comic strips, magazine ads,

and supermarket products. Famous Pop artists

include Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy

Lichtenstein.

Poster Large, colorful sheet of paper with a picture

that conveys a message. Used for many purposes,

including propaganda and advertising.

Quilling Using the quills of porcupines to pro-

duce and decorate articles of clothing. Developed

by Native American nations.

Realism Mid-nineteenth century art style in which

artists discarded the formality of Neoclassicism and

the theatrical drama of Romanticism to paint famil-

iar scenes and events as they actually looked.

Influenced by the introduction of photography,

Realist artists sought to reproduce what they saw in

a detailed and accurate way. Famous Realist artists

include Courbet and Audubon.

Rhythm Principle of art referring to a way of com-

bining art elements to produce the look and feel of

movement. It is often achieved through the careful

placement of repeated elements, which invites the

viewer’s eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly

from one to the next.

Romanticism Style of art that flourished in the

early nineteenth century. Beginning as a revolt

against the cold formal style of Neoclassicism, it

instead emphasized the emotions rather than

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reason. Romantic artists painted dramatic action

and exotic settings. Famous Romantic artists

include Delacroiz, Friedrich, and Turner.

Rotunda Latin word for the circular space inside a

circular building.

Setbacks In skyscrapers, a receding of the design

at intervals to allow more sun to reach the street.

Also, a space or an area of a plot that cannot be

built on due to zoning laws that were devised to

prevent the creation of dark canyons in the streets

by skyscrapers.

Shape Element of art that is an enclosed space

defined and determined by other art elements such

as line, color, value, and texture. Shapes are two-

dimensional, having width and length.

Sketch Quick drawing that captures the appear-

ance or action of a place or situation. Sketches are

often done in preparation for larger, more detailed

works of art.

Space Element of art that refers to the empty area

between, around, above, below, or within objects in

a composition.

Spandrel In high-rise construction, the spandrel is

the panel between the windowsill above and win-

dow head below.

Spanish Baroque Style of painting and architec-

ture found in Spain that was a variation of the

European Baroque style. Characterized by elaborate

ornamentation and religious purpose.

Spanish Missions Series of churches and their sur-

rounding buildings and walls built by the Spanish

in the 1500s, 1600s, and 1700s.

Spire Tapered section of a steeple.

Stabile Sculpture or construction usually made of

metal plates screwed together. It is similar in

appearance to a mobile, but is designed to remain

stationary.

Still Life Painting of inanimate objects.

Stucco Special plaster used to decorate and orna-

ment the interior or exterior walls of a structure.

Style Distinctive form of expression or design typi-

cal of a certain period or of the work of a particular

artist or architect.

Surrealism Twentieth-century art style in which

dreams, fantasy, and the subconscious served as the

inspiration for artists. Often, the images found in

Surrealist works are confusing and startling.

Famous surrealists include Dali and Miró.

Symbolism Use of visual images or symbols that

represent an idea.

Symmetrical Way of balancing the parts of a

design so that one side duplicates, or mirrors, the

other. Also known as formal balance.

Textile Art Works produced using fabric or fibers

such as yarn. Materials might include fibers of

wool, cotton, linen, silk, or synthetics, among oth-

ers. Rug-making, quilting, sewing, needlework such

as embroidery, and knitting are some examples of

textile arts.

Texture Surface quality or “feel” of an object; its

smoothness, roughness, softness. The manner in

which the object’s surface appears to the eye.

Transept Aisle between the apse and nave. It cuts

across the nave and side aisles to form a cross-

shaped floor plan.

Turner Craftsman who worked mainly with a

lathe to produce turnings. The tools used by early

craftsmen were able to accomplish anything that

modern tools do, only not as quickly. For example,

the lathe was powered by the turner’s own leg.

Turnings A part, such as a spindle, leg, rung, or

baluster (a columnar post that supports a railing)

that is rounded or shaped on a lathe.

Unity Quality of wholeness or oneness that is

achieved in the composition.

WPA Artists Relief Program Depression-era pro-

gram designed to provide work for artists and pho-

tographers. During its administration, the program

employed more than 5,000 artists who produced

murals and paintings for many public buildings

throughout the United States.

Watercolor Any paint that uses water as a

medium. Paintings done with this medium are

known as watercolors.

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Chronology of Selected Periods, Styles, and ArtistsPrehistory22,000 B.C. Woman’s Ivory Head from Grotte du Pape

15,000 B.C. Cave paintings at Lascaux and Altamira

Ancient Egypt5000 B.C. Prehistoric hunters and their families settle in Nile River Valley

2686 B.C. Old Kingdom: Architecture (Mastabas, Step Pyramids, Pyramids); Sculpture (Sphinx,

Portrait of Khafre); Relief Sculpture and Painting (Portrait of Hesire)

2160 B.C. Old Kingdom ends

2050 B.C. Middle Kingdom: Sculpture (Portrait)

1800 B.C. Middle Kingdom ends

1570 B.C. New Kingdom: Architecture (Temple of Karnak); Sculpture (Portrait of Ikhnaton,

Portrait of Nefertiti); Relief Sculpture and Painting (Tomb of Nakht paintings)

Ancient Greece1100 B.C. Dorian invasion of Greece, followed by growth of small city-states

900 B.C. Geometric Period: Vase Decoration (Geometric Jug, Vase from Dipylon Cemetery)

700 B.C. Archaic Period: Vase Decoration (Exekias’s Ajax and Achilles Playing Draughts);

Sculpture (Kouros, Hera of Samos)

480 B.C. Classical Period: Architecture (Parthenon, Shrine to Athena Nike, The Erechtheum,

Monument to Lysicrates); Sculpture (Myron’s Discobolus, Phydias’ Parthenon

Sculptures, Polyclitus’ Doryphorus)

323 B.C. Hellenistic Period (Greek culture spreads after conquests of Alexander the Great):

Sculpture (Dying Gaul, Nike of Samothrace, Seated Boxer)

146 B.C. Greece conquered by Romans

Ancient Rome509 B.C. Romans drive the Etruscans from their city and establish a republic: Architecture—

Temple (Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Pantheon); Public

Buildings and Monuments (Baths of Caracalla; Colosseum; Amphitheater at

Tarragona, Spain; Basilica of Constantine; Arch of Constantine; Arch of Bara,

Tarragona, Spain)/Sculpture (Portrait of a Roman)/Mural Painting (Architectural View,

Pompeii; Maiden Gathering Flowers, Pompeii)

Early Christian and Byzantine PeriodsA.D. 313 Early Christian Period begins when Constantine legalizes Christianity: Painting

(Catacomb of Sts. Pietro and Marcellino)

A.D. 330 Byzantine period begins with dedication of Constantinople: Architecture and Mosaics

(Hagia Sophia, San Vitale)

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Early Medieval PeriodA.D. 476 Fall of the Roman Empire in the West marks start of Early Medieval Period:

Architecture—Churches built like Roman basilicas; growth of monasteries (like San

Juan de la Peña); Illuminated Manuscripts (St. Matthew from the Gospel Book of

Archbishop of Reims); Sculpture (Adam and Eve Reproached by the Lord, St. Michael’s,

Hildesheim, Germany)

Romanesque Period1050 Churches with similar features built throughout western Europe. This new artistic

style comes to be known as Romanesque: Architecture (Castles at Peñafiel and near

León, Spain; City Walls, Avilá, Spain; San Sernin, Toulouse, France; Cathedral of St.

James, Santiago de Compostela, Spain); Relief Sculpture (Leyre Monastery, Spain;

Santa Maria, Sangüesa, Spain; Three Marys at the Tomb, San Miguel, Estella, Spain);

Capital Carving (Santes Crues Monastery, Spain): Miniature Painting in Religious

Manuscripts (Annunciation from a Swabian Gospel); Church Wall Painting (Christ in

Majesty, San Clemente, Tahull, Spain)

1150 Romanesque style gives way to Gothic style

Gothic Period1150 Church construction moves away from Romanesque heaviness and solidity to struc-

tures that are light and graceful: Architecture (Cathedrals of Tarragona, Burgos,

Chartres, and León); Sculpture (Cathedrals of Chartres and Tarragona; Golden Virgin,

Cathedral of Amiens; Gargoyles, Monastery of Santes Creus); Relief Sculpture

(Sarmental Portal, Cathedral of Burgos; Death of the Virgin, Cathedral of Pamplona);

Manuscript Illumination (“Christ Child in the Temple,” Queen Mary’s Psalter;

Limbourg Brothers’ Book of Hours); Painting (Duccio, Giotto)

Renaissance in Italy1400 Italian artists study Classical sculpture and nature to make their own works look more

lifelike: Painting (Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Uccello, Piero della Francesca, Botticelli,

Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sofonisba Anguissola); Sculpture (Ghiberti,

Donatello, Michelangelo); Architecture (Brunelleschi)

1520 Death of Raphael signals an end to the Renaissance and the rise of Mannerism

Renaissance in the North1400 Northern artists uninterested in Classical art. They focus attention on precise detail

and symbolism in their work: Painting (Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Hugo

van der Goes)

Sixteenth Century1500 Venice, Italy: Painting (Giorgione, Titian)

Italy: Painting—Mannerism (Parmigianino, Tintoretto)

Spain: Painting—Mannerism (El Greco)

Northern Europe: Painting (Grünewald, Dürer [also prints], Bosch, Bruegel, Holbein)

Baroque Period1600 Italy: Architecture (Borromini); Sculpture (Bernini); Painting (Caravaggio, Artemisia

Gentileschi)

Flanders: Painting (Rubens)

Holland: Painting (Hals, Rembrandt, Steen, Vermeer, Leyster)

Spain: Painting (Ribera, Velázquez, Murillo)

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Rococo Period1700 France: Architecture (Palace of Versailles); Painting (Watteau, Fragonard, Chardin)

England: Painting (Reynolds, Gainsborough, Hogarth); Architecture (Wren)

Spain: Painting (Goya)

Early and Mid-Nineteenth Century1800 France: Painting—Neoclassicism (David, Vigée-Lebrun, Ingres); Romanticism

(Géricault, Delacroix); Realism (Courbet, Manet, Bonheur); Impressionism (Monet,

Renoir, Degas, Cassatt, Morisot)/Sculpture (Rodin)

England: Painting (Constable, Turner)

Late Nineteenth CenturyAbout 1880 France: Painting (Cézanne, Gauguin)

Holland: Painting (van Gogh)

United States: Painting (Homer, Eakins, Ryder, Bannister, Tanner)

Early Twentieth CenturyAbout 1900 France: Painting—Fauvism (Matisse, Rouault); Nonobjective Art (Kandinsky [born

in Russia]); Cubism (Picasso, Braque)/Sculpture (Maillol)/Architecture (Eiffel)

Germany: Painting—Expressionism (Kirchner, Kollwitz)

Norway: Painting (Munch [influenced the Expressionists])

Spain: Architecture (Gaudi)

Mexico: Mural Painting (Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros)

United States: Painting (Sloan [Ashcan School], Bellows); Architecture (Morgan,

Sullivan)

Mid-Twentieth Century1920 France: Painting—Dada (Duchamp); Architecture—(Le Corbusier [born in

Switzerland])

Spain: Painting—Surrealism (Miró, Dali)

Switzerland: Painting—Fantasy (Klee [often referred to as a German artist])

United States: Painting—Surrealism (Sage); Regionalism and the American Scene

(Benton, Curry, Wood, Hopper); Social Protest (Grosz, Levine); Other Directions

(Davis, O’Keeffe, Neel, Lawrence, Pippin); Abstract Expressionism (de Kooning,

Pollock, Frankenthaler)/Sculpture (Lipchitz [born in Lithuania], Smith, Calder,

Nevelson, Noguchi, Houser)/Architecture (Wright, Pei)

About 1960 United States: Painting—Pop Art (Oldenburg, Warhol); Op Art (Vasarely, Agam,

Albers [influenced Op, Minimal, and Hard-edge artists]); Minimal Art (Reinhart,

Newman, Bladen, Diebenkorn); Hard-edge Painters (Noland, Kelly, Stella); Photo-

Realism (Leslie)

About 1980 England: Sculpture—Abstract (Moore, Hepworth)

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Larry Hamill

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Ric Ergenbright/CORBIS

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Cliff Palace (c. 1100)


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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, gift of Mrs. J. Insley Blair, 1951. (51.12.2) Photograph © 1982 The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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Brewster Chair (1640)

Plymouth Colony

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Courtesy National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution 14/3269

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Quilled Buckskin Robe (c. 1750)

Iroquois

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Kelly Harriger/CORBIS

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Independence Hall (South Façade)


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Courtesy the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia. Gift of Mrs. Sarah Harrison (The Joseph Harrison, Jr., Collection)

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Penn’s Treaty with the Indians(c. 1770)


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Buddy Mays/CORBIS

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Mission San Xavier del Bac


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Yale University Art Gallery, Trumbull Collection

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The Declaration of Independence,July 4, 1776 (1786–1797)


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Mark Burnett

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University of Virginia, Charlottesville(1817–1826)


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Francis G. Mayer/CORBIS

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The Great Blue Heron (1821)


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Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC/Art Resource, NY

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The Buffalo Chase,Mouth of the Yellowstone (1832)


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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Emily C. Chadbourne Bequest, 1972. (1972.187.1-3)Photograph © 1995 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Shaker Retiring Room (1840)


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Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum, Williamsburg, VA

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Baltimore Album Quilt (1850)

Sarah Anne Whittington Lankford,Mary Evans, and possibly others

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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of John Stewart Kennedy, 1897. (97.34) Photograph © 1992 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Washington Crossing theDelaware (1851)


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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. William F. Milton, 1923. (23.77.1) Photograph © 1995 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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A Rainy Day in Camp (c. 1864)


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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the sons of William Paton, 1909. (09.214.1) Photograph © 1998 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Merced River, Yosemite Valley(1866)


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Courtesy Edward E. Ayer Collection, The Newberry Library, Chicago

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Chief Joseph (not dated)


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Brooklyn Museum of Art. 46.43. Gift of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and John D. Rockefeller III

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Smoking Room (1876)


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Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division (LC-USZ62-1970)

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Let Us Prey


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The Baltimore Museum of Art: The Cone Collection, formed by Dr. Claribel Cone and Miss Etta Coneof Baltimore, Maryland BMA 1950.193

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In the Garden (1893)


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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Louis Comfort TiffanyFoundation, 1951. (51.121.17) Photograph © 1991 TheMetropolitan Museum of Art

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Favrile Glass Vase by Tiffany Glass andDecorating Company (1892–1902)


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Paul Maze/Phototech Studio, Buffalo, NY

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Guaranty Building (1895–1896)


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From the Collection of Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma 0127.2329

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The Stampede (1908)


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Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles County Fund. Photograph © 2001 Museum Associates. LACMA 16.4

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Cliff Dwellers (1913)


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file photo

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I Want You for the U.S. Army (1917)


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Gift of Ethelyn McKinney in memory of her brother, Glenn Ford McKinney, Photograph © 2001 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington

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Allies Day, May 1917 (1917)


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The Dallas Museum of Art, The Patsy Lacy Griffith Collection, bequest of Patsy Lace Griffith; © 2003 Georgia O’Keeffe Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York

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Yellow Cactus Flowers (1929)


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Yann Arthus-Bertrand/CORBIS (Inset) Bettmann/CORBIS

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Empire State Building (1930–1931)


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Mark Burnett

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Fallingwater(Kaufmann House, 1936)


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CORBIS

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Migrant Mother (1936)


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Courtesy the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia. John Lambert Fund

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(1942)


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The Saint Louis Art Museum. Museum Purchase/© Estate of Ben Shahn/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY

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The Red Stairway (1944)

Ben Shahn (1898–1969)

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Gift of Mr. And Mrs. Klaus G. Perls, Photograph © 2001 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art,Washington; © 2003 Estate of Alexander Calder/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York

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Finny Fish (1948)


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The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mr. And Mrs. Robert C. Scull. Photograph © 2003 The Museum of Modern Art, New York/© Jasper Johns/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY

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Map (1961)


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Collection of Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; Gift of the artist; © 2003 Estate of Louise Nevelson/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York

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Royal Tide II (1961–1963)


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The Saint Louis Art Museum. Museum Purchase.

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Day of the Fair (1963)


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North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, Purchased with funds from the State of North Carolina

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Forward (1967)


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Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS

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Vietnam Veterans Memorial (1982)

Maya Lin (1959– )

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Douglas M. Parker Studio, Los Angeles

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Still Life with Red Car (1986)


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Pei Cobb Freed & Partners/Photo by Timothy Hursley

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Rock and Roll Hall of Fameand Museum (1995)

I.M. Pei (1917– )

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