always be positive: an inappropriate management...

Always Be Positive: An Appropriate Management Strategy?

Dr. C. W. Von BergenJohn Massey School of Business

Southeastern Oklahoma State UniversityDurant, OK 74701

(580) 745-2430(580) 745-7485 fax

[email protected]

Dr. Kitty Campbell John Massey School of Business


(580) 745-2494(580) 745-7485 fax

[email protected]

Dr. Lawrence S. SilverJohn Massey School of Business


(580) 745-2494(580) 745-7479 fax

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Abstract

Many people, including professionals, believe in the power of being positive. Such a

broad endorsement of this aphorism is challenged in this paper. It is suggested that

certain misbehavior of employees should not be met with positive consequences and that

punishment might be acceptable if it generates behavior of long-term utility to the

individual and the organization. We emphasize the necessity of managers or supervisors

using both positive and aversive control mechanisms to foster behavior in the long-term

interest of the individual and the workgroup and offer a number of suggestions for

managers using aversive control.

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“Always be positive is the worst advice you could ever give or receive.”

--Daniels (2001, p. 44).

Traditional college graduates entering the supervisory ranks for the first time have

been overwhelmingly influenced with the importance of being positive. Positivity is

presented in many guises, all being labeled by some combination of words with

“positive,” such as: “attitude,” “thinking,” “self talk,” “demeanor,” and others. Often

supervisors and staff personnel voice approval of the unquestioned benefits of unbridled

positivity as a management technique claiming it is simply “common sense.” With such

an emphasis on being positive, many of these individuals may feel unfamiliar and

uncomfortable with regard to aversive control, which despite conventional wisdom that

suggests that it should be avoided, remains an important aspect of virtually all managers’

jobs (Butterfield, Trevino, Wade, & Ball, 2005). Indeed, humans may be predisposed to

use aversive control methods because of their evolutionary value. Researchers have

determined that cooperation and altruistic behavior have survival value for humans

(Axelrod, 1986; Henrich, 2006; Henrich & Boyd, 2001; Sober & Wilson, 1998) and that

one mechanism in stabilizing human cooperation at high levels is the punishment of norm

violators, defectors, and individuals inclined to free ride on the efforts of others.

Conversely, cooperation often diminishes when punishment of such individuals

is ruled out or is not an available option (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Fehr & Gächter,

2002; Fowler, 2005; Gürerk, Irlenbusch, & Rockenbach, 2006; Yamagishi, 1986). This

view was supported by Henrich, McElreath, Barr, Ensminger, Barrett, Bolyanatz et al.

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(2006) who found from 15 diverse populations that all peoples demonstrated some

willingness to administer punishment as unequal behavior increased and that punishment

positively covaried with altruistic behavior across populations.

This paper questions the broad endorsement of “always be positive” and the

prominence on positivity and suggests that under some circumstances such advice may be

problematic. Indeed, in some situations it is in the best interest of others to use

punishment. The paper begins with a review of how new managers or soon-to-be

supervisors having modest organizational experience have been strongly influenced by

such a positive emphasis throughout their lives, discusses the utility of these

inexperienced work leaders using both positive and aversive control mechanisms to foster

behavior in the long-term interest of the individual and organization, and concludes with

a number of guidelines designed to make discipline more effective.

Elements influencing the importance of positivity

A number of factors have contributed to the emphasis on positivity including

cultural influences, childrearing and family considerations, religious factors, and

educational effects. Each of these is discussed below.

Cultural influences

There is perhaps no virtue more desirable in Western civilization than being

positive. Philosophers, theologians, teachers, counseling psychologists, sports

psychologists, and popular management gurus have placed a premium on being positive

as a means of achieving satisfaction, happiness, productivity (Judge, Erez, & Bono,

1998), and personal growth and effectiveness (Neck & Manz, 2007). French psychologist

Émile Coué created a sensation in the United States in the 1920s with his book Self-

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mastery through Conscious Autosuggestion and its famous mantra “Every day, in every

way, I am getting better and better.”

Consistent with this cultural emphasis has been the explosive growth of self-help

books, motivational tapes, and inspirational seminars emphasizing positive thinking,

positive energy, positive affirmations, success, growth, happiness, fulfillment, and

actualization (Salerno, 2005). American pop psychology has always been explicitly

positive with the Dale Carnegies, Napoleon Hills, Werner Erhards, Zig Ziglers, and Tony

Robbinses of this world holding high honor. Indeed, we are told that “…if your life does

not get better, it is your fault—your thoughts were not positive enough” (Shermer, 2006).

Religious emphasis on positivity

Some of America’s most well-known clergymen preach as much positive thinking

and happiness as they do Scripture. For example, Reverend Norman Vincent Peale,

gained fame for his sermons on a positive approach to modern living. He applied

Christianity to everyday problems and is the person who is most responsible for bringing

psychology into the professing Church, blending its principles into a message of The

Power of Positive Thinking (Peale, 1952). Reverend Robert H. Schuller, founder of

Crystal Cathedral Ministries, includes a congregation of over 10,000 members and the

internationally televised “Hour of Power.” He has authored a number of books on the

positive aspects of Christianity (e.g., Move Ahead with Possibility Thinking, Schuller,

1967; The Be (Happy) Attitudes: 8 Positive Attitudes That Can Transform Your Life,

Schuller, 1985). Rather than condemning people for the sins he believes they have

committed, Schuller has tried to convince individuals that by positive thinking they can

fulfill their dreams.

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Childrearing and family considerations

As children, many of us heard of these words spoken by the Little Engine That

Could, “I think I can, I think I can, I think I can…(Piper, 1930, p. 33-34). It was implied

that the positive way the little engine talked to itself influenced its ability to get over the

mountain. Recently Twenge (2006) has documented that the belief in the importance of

being positive and happy is ingrained in Generation Me (children born in the 1970s,

1980s, and 1990s). Twenge indicated that this emphasis on happiness became particularly

important in the late 70s when there was a pervasive, society-wide effort to increase

children’s self-esteem. The mission statements of many schools explicitly announce that

they aim to raise students’ self-esteem and that self-esteem can and should be taught.

Students are encouraged to believe that it is acceptable and desirable to be preoccupied

with oneself and praise oneself.

Most of these school programs encourage children to feel positive about

themselves irrespective of a legitimate rationale. In one program, teachers were told to

discourage children from saying things like “I’m a good soccer player” or “I’m a good

singer” because these statements make self-esteem contingent on performance. Instead,

“we want to anchor self-esteem firmly to the child…so that no matter what the

performance might be, the self-esteem remains high” (Payne & Rolhing, 1994, p. 6). In

other words, feeling good about oneself is more important than doing good.

Thus, there has been a movement against “criticizing” children. Some schools and

teachers do not correct children’s mistakes, afraid that this will damage the child’s self-

esteem. Teacher education courses emphasize that creating a positive atmosphere is more

important than correcting mistakes. In 2005, a teacher proposed eliminating the word

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“fail” from education. Rather than hear they have failed; instead of hearing that they have

failed students should hear that they have “deferred success” (BBC News, 2005).

Nevertheless, young people who have high self-esteem built on shaky foundations

might run into trouble when they encounter the harsh realities of the real world. Unlike a

teacher, a boss may not care about preserving employees’ self-esteem. The self-esteem

emphasis leaves children ill-prepared for the inevitable criticism and occasional failure

that is real life. If an employee presents a bad report at the office, the supervisor will not

typically say, “Hey, I like the color of the paper you chose for the report.” Setting

students up like this is doing them a tremendous disservice in the long run.

Higher educational influences

The value of being positive has been taught in business for some time and may

have begun with Carnegie’s How to Win Friends and Influence People in 1937 which is

still offered today as an essential text on interpersonal skills. Management and business

books appear to stress positive emotions and positive managerial behavior and barely

address punishment at all (e.g., Daft, 1994; Griffin, 1993), indirectly suggesting that

discipline is not an essential part of the managerial role. For example, a cursory review of

a current popular organizational behavior textbook, Organizational Behavior and

Management (7th ed.) by Ivancevich, Konopaske, and Matteson (2005) revealed that the

authors dedicated five pages to punishment-related topics and seventy-seven pages to

reward-related subject matter. Furthermore, in many textbooks, the discussion of

punishment has focused primarily on the presumed negative side effects such as anger,

resentment, avoidance, and retaliation (Luthans, 1995; Moorhead & Griffin, 1995;

Northcraft & Neale, 1994; Organ & Hamner, 1982). This has lead many readers to

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conclude that punishment should be avoided, regardless of its effectiveness in controlling

behavior.

Positive aspects of aversive control

The efficacy of aversive control is why we button our coats when the temperature

drops and loosen our ties when it rises. It leads us to come in out of the rain, to blow on

our hot coffee before we drink it, and to keep our fingers out of electrical outlets. The

presence of aversive control in these cases is clearly advantageous. Likewise, the absence

of aversive control can be problematic. A dramatic example of this was provided by

Scripture (1895) who noted that when a frog was placed in a beaker of water which was

then heated at a rate of 0.002ºC per second that it “never moved and at the end of two and

one half hours was found dead. He had evidently been boiled without noticing it” (p.

120). Clearly, the absence of aversive control was not in the frog’s long-term best

interest.

Skinner (1971) likewise acknowledged that the absence of aversive consequences

may have long term deleterious effects for an individual and that positive reinforcement

may have negative consequences that occur after a delay: “A problem arises…when the

behavior generated by positive reinforcement has deferred aversive consequences. The

problem to be solved by those concerned with freedom is to create immediate aversive

consequences” (p. 33). Indeed, Skinner (1983) laid down draconian rules prohibiting

himself from engaging in certain reinforcing activities: “Exhausting avocations are a

danger. No more chess. No more bridge problems. No more detective stories” (p. 79).

Other examples of positive experiences being dangerous specifically because they do not

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generate avoidance, escape, or their emotional counterparts, even when the contingencies

are ultimately detrimental might include gambling and drug use.

Social learning theorists posit that learning occurs not only from the consequences

of one’s own actions, but also from information obtained vicariously from observing

others (Bandura, 1986; Kreitner & Luthans, 1984). Accordingly, punishment is being

studied as a social phenomenon that influences the cognitions, emotions, and actions of

the administrator of punishment, as well as those of recipients and observers. Trevino

(1992) contended that when considering the implications of punishment, members of the

broader social group (e.g., coworkers or observers) and their interpretations of the event

must be taken into account.

Because observers have a vested interest in the outcome of punishment, they

attend and react to the meaning of the event for them (Niehoff, Paul, & Bunch, 1998;

Trevino & Ball, 1992). As such, observers may react to others’ discipline differently than

the recipient (Trevino & Ball, 1992). Thus, there are important implications for

managers. Perhaps managers should be weighing which reactions (those of the

disciplinee or others) have the most potential impact upon the organization. Trevino

(1992) argues that observers’ reactions are potentially more meaningful than those of

recipients because they represent a greater number of people, and generally those not

being disciplined are the more committed and productive employees.

This positive aspect of punishment enables managers to promote vicarious

learning by delivering a message to other employees that certain types of misconduct will

not be tolerated. Punishment thus provides cues to other members of the work group on

what is unacceptable behavior and should be avoided (Trevino, 1992). These cues help to

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establish and perpetuate formal and informal expectations, rules, and behavioral

boundaries (Arvey & Jones, 1985).

Niehoff et al. (1998) noted that when supervisors impose severe punishment on a

violator who is seen as clearly deserving of punishment, observers perceive agreement

between their definition of a violation and the supervisor’s definition. Third parties (e.g.,

other employees) find such agreement reassuring and sense that justice has been served.

Where such agreement does not exist, as in cases where a manager fails to punish a

slacker or punishes a strong contributor, observers will sense injustice with subsequent

decreases in satisfaction and performance.

Therefore, aversive control is necessary tool for managers to align behavior with

the organization’s purpose. Behavior that obstructs or deters organizational objectives

needs to be punished. Thus, actions deserving of negative sanctions should be defined in

terms of organizational goals and clearly communicated to employees prior to any

unwanted behavior.

Increasing punishment effectiveness

Given that aversive control is appropriate under certain circumstances, how can it

be administered more effectively? This section provides a number of guidelines to

enhance punishment’s usefulness.

Punishment is tied directly and as obviously as possible to the particular

undesirable behavior. This guideline refers to the issue of contingency. Previous research

has shown that contingency is associated with punishment effectiveness (Arvey & Jones,

1985). Past research has also associated punishment contingency with perceptions of the

leader. Podsakoff, Todor, Grover, and Huber (1984) found that contingent punishment

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did not adversely influence satisfaction with the supervisor. Only when non-contingent

punishment was used did satisfaction with the supervisor suffer. Therefore, managers can

be expected to recognize the importance of contingency and to evaluate a punishment

event as more fair to the extent that the punishment was contingent on a specific

infraction.

Importance of constructive criticism. Research has also supported the notion that

constructive criticism is beneficial and leads to the establishment of higher goals and an

improved leader-subordinate relationship (Baron, 1988). Such criticism generally means

that managers provide alternate incompatible behaviors to the problematic actions of the

disciplinee.

This can be more effectively achieved when supervisors help employees progress

by establishing a behavioral contingency often in the form, stated or implied, that “when

you do A, you get or can do B.” However, when explained in these terms, contingency

raises the specter of bribery in some people’s minds. Certainly there is no bribery because

there is nothing illegal, unethical, or immoral about stating a desired behavior and its

consequence. What is incorrect is wanting to be positive and giving the salesperson a

commission when the paperwork has not been done because this will create problems

getting paperwork done in the future.

Providing a rationale for the punishment. Research has also demonstrated that

punishment is more effective when a clear rationale is given that explains why

punishment is necessary (Arvey & Ivancevich, 1980; Parke, 1972). An employee who is

punished for no discernible reason may believe the punishment to be non-contingent.

That is, he or she will believe the punishment was random or a personal reaction by the

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supervisor rather than for unwanted behavior. The employee will likely have a negative

emotional reaction and the punishment may have an undesired affect on work behavior

(Podsakoff et al., 1984). The effect on work behavior initiated by this perceived non-

contingent punishment is grounded in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and equity

theory (Adams, 1963).

In terms of exchange theory, Blau (1964) contends that people reciprocate

rewards or gifts they receive from others. Thus, a reward from a manager is reciprocated

with increased effort and/or organizational commitment. In the same sense, punishment

that is perceived to be unjust may cause retaliation and result in decreased effort and

reduced organizational commitment.

People also desire equity in the workplace (Adams 1963). Punishment believed to

be non-contingent is seen as unfair and inequitable. Employees in this situation will take

actions to restore what they perceive as equity. For example, one method of restoring

equity is social-loafing in a team or group environment (George 1995).

Thus, punishment administered without unambiguous rationale will be perceived

to be non-contingent. Employees will retaliate in order to reciprocate for the injustice or

to restore equity. Managers need to have clear guidelines as to what behavior is

unacceptable and communicate these guidelines to employees. Additionally, managers

should explain to employees which specific guideline has been violated when

administering punishment.

Immediacy of punishment. Timeliness is also important for punishment because it

increases the perceived connection between the punishment and the misconduct (Arvey

& Ivancevich, 1980; Arvey & Jones, 1985). Punishment tends to work immediately and

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so if a behavior needs to stop without delay, as in matters of ethical and safety violations,

then punishment can be used as an effective strategy (Daniels & Daniels, 2005). Indeed,

one reason that unethical behavior occurs is because management does not punish

employees for behaving unethically (Zey-Ferrell & Ferrell, 1982). Failure to punish for

engaging in unethical behavior sends a message that unethical conduct is acceptable

(Jansen & Von Glinow, 1985). Nonetheless, immediacy may need to take a back seat if

the manager is not sure how to administer discipline correctly or if his or her emotional

state would likely lead to mistakes in the disciplinary interaction. Atwater, Waldman,

Carey, and Cartier (2001) found that both managers and recipients recognized that

managers often make mistakes in the discipline process. Mistakes, as reported by

recipients, occurred because managers were “out of control” (p. 267) or because they did

not know how to administer discipline properly. Additionally, managers in the Butterfield

et al. (1996) study expressed many concerns with punishment procedures. Combined,

these results suggest that some managers are likely to need training in how to properly

administer discipline and how to control their emotions when employee behaviors cause

them to get angry or lose control. In this last case, delaying the conversation may lead to

a more effective discussion.

Privacy of punishment. Researchers also suggest that punishment should be

carried out in private whenever possible (Arvey & Ivancevich, 1980; Arvey & Jones,

1985). Evidence has suggested that punishment tends to create less defensiveness and to

be more instructive to the subordinate when carried out in private (Sims, 1980). In

addition, private punishment may be considered more benevolent since employees are not

humiliated in front of co-workers (Butterfield et al., 2005). Nevertheless, supervisors

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must be concerned with group performance and so punishment may provide an

opportunity for the work leader to deter others from engaging in future instances of the

offense (Carlsmith, Darley, & Robinson, 2002). Accordingly, it is important that a

supervisor give some consideration to publicly punishing wrong doers so that other

potential offenders learn by example and discover the consequences of violating the rule.

The justification for punishment lies in its ability to minimize the likelihood of future

transgressions. Late 18th century philosopher, Jeremy Bentham (1962) argued that

“general prevention ought to be the chief end of punishment, as it is its real justification”

(p. 396). Less eloquently, but perhaps more realistically, are the words of one manager

who indicated that when discipline was imposed, other workers learned that “they can’t

get away with anything like that in the future” (Butterfield et al., 1996, p. 1493).

Interestingly, Atwater et al. (2001) found that punishment recipients were more likely to

report positive outcomes resulting from discipline than were managers. For example,

problem behavior may be corrected, the recipient and others may become more cautions

and aware, and larger problems can be solved as a result of a discipline event. In addition,

in some cases, discipline can work to the advantage of either the disciplinee or the

organization by removing the disciplinee from the organization. Often a new job for the

recipient is a better situation, and a welcome relief for the manager.

Consistency and fairness of punishment. Researchers have also found that

consistency of punishment is important, that is, individuals are not only concerned with

the outcomes they receive but also with the fairness by which that outcome is allocated

(Thibaut & Walker, 1975). Employees want to be treated like everybody else. They

expect the decision maker to react to each case in the same way and to apply the rules

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consistently (Leventhal, 1976; Tyler & Bies, 1990). When this happens, punishment can

result in desired behavior changes without negative side effects as Ball, Trevino, and

Sims (1994) discovered in their field study. They found that punishment that is viewed as

appropriate in amount and as consistent with what others have received resulted in

improved subordinate performance. Similarly, other field research has supported the idea

that employees dislike capricious, inconsistent punishment and become angry and

distrustful of those instituting it (Arvey, Davis, & Nelson, 1984). Bennett (1998) likewise

indicated the importance of consistency. Participants in her study who were

disadvantaged by inconsistently allocated punishments behaved aggressively toward their

subordinates by giving them poorer performance evaluations. This implies that

individuals who feel unfairly treated may often react by taking their anger and frustration

out on a weaker target. Hence, it appears that unjust procedures can have far-reaching

effects. It seems that victims of unfair punishment allocations decide to “even the score”

between themselves and the beneficiary of the inconsistency. One implication of this

finding is that managers, by punishing subordinates inconsistently, risk inciting

competition and aggressive behavior between subordinates. This is certainly not a

management style conducive to positive work-group morale and cooperation among team

members.

Related to the issue of consistency is fairness. Observers need to perceive that the

punishment given to the recipient was fair. If observers perceive the punishment as fair,

rarely do they have negative attitudes concerning the event. Employees tend to assess

fairness from two perspectives: distributive and procedural justice (Greenberg, 1987). In

terms of distributive justice, people judge the punishment imposed (e.g., temporary

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suspension, fine, etc.) and decide if it is fair in terms of consistent application and level of

offense. Procedural justice refers to the fairness of the process used in determining the

punishment rendered (Cropanzano & Rupp, 2003).

Employees tend to judge a distributive outcome as fair when it is favorable to

them (Conlon, 1993; Wade-Benzoni, Tenbrunsel, & Bazerman, 1996). However, if

employees are likely to accept unfavorable outcomes as fair if they perceive the

procedure to be fair (Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, & Rupp, 2001). That is, the process of

determining if punishment is necessary may be more important to the employee than the

punishment itself.

However, even when the punishment occurrence is perceived as unfair, some

positive outcomes can occur (Atwater et al., 2001). Nevertheless, as Greenberg (1990, P.

116) noted, “a manager who does what he or she believes to be fair—whatever that may

be—may learn that others are not necessarily likewise convinced.” Certainly, “others”

include subordinates. Greenberg (1983) also found that people sometimes do things to

convince themselves of the fairness of their own actions. Fairness then, like beauty, may

be in the eye of the beholder, and may differ between those delivering the action and

those receiving it. More importantly, managers should be aware that many subordinates

perceive discipline to be unfair and should factor this in their thinking (Atwater et al.,

2001). Likewise, observers in the Atwater investigation felt that at times discipline was

administered to demonstrate the manager's authority or power rather than to mitigate

some unwanted behavior and thus managers should be prepared to deal with this issue.

While, in most cases, the manager will believe his or her actions are fair, he or she

may consider spending some time thinking about the discussion of fairness with the

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person receiving the discipline. Managers should also be aware that punishment for

violating formal rules resulted in greater acceptance by recipients than punishment for

violating informal rules (Atwater et al., 2001). This is important because Schnake (1987)

found that when the punished worker claimed the punishment was unfair, production

among observers of the event did not increase, and satisfaction with supervision

decreased. Much of the basic research on punishment has been incorporated in the hot

stove rule.

Hot stove rule

An effective way to incorporate the guidelines that are described above is to adopt

the hot stove rule. This rule provides an analogy based on a person touching a hot stove:

an advanced warning, immediacy, consistency, and impartiality (Hill, 1984). The result

is impersonal because whoever touches a hot stove is burned. The burn was caused by the

act of touching the stove, not because of who the person is. Discipline should be directed

against the act, not against the person and each violator should be treated in the same

way. The comparison between the “hot stove rule” and disciplinary action is obvious.

Conclusion

The power of positivity is pervasive in American society but there are others who

would caution otherwise. Woolfolk (2005), for example, declared:

I would submit negative thinking is not only valuable, but indispensable, and suggest that we give much too little

attention to acknowledging, confronting, accepting, and perhaps

even embracing suffering and loss. I want to suggest also that

there may be worse things in life than experiencing negative

affect. Among those worse things are ignorance, banality,

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credulity, self-deception, narcissism, insensitivity, philistinism, and isolation… (p. 20).

Similarly, in the professional organizational research literature Fineman (2006)

has expressed concern about what he perceives as the overemphasis on positivity and

psychologist and well-known author, Joyce Brothers (2005), recently discussed

constructive aspects of a decidedly un-positive emotion, shame, and suggested that some

forms of shame (what she calls “good shame”) can be virtuous. For example, she

indicated that shame may be proper when calling to task an individual for inappropriate

behavior. Furthermore, Brothers (2005) indicated that good shame often leads to self-

discovery and growth by providing new insights, encouraging new improvements,

expanding ones value system, and making individuals more sensitive to others.

Thus, the admonition to always be happy, advice cavalierly dispensed to

inexperienced organizational leaders by well-intentioned but uninformed others is not

particularly effective and can in some situations lead to deleterious results for the

individual manager and his or her organization. The seeming overemphasis on avoiding

punishment and other aversive organizational control techniques should be tempered and

understood that at times they are necessary. Scholarly and anecdotal evidence indicate

that discipline and punishment are significant components of organizational life. This

paper contributes to the erosion of the conventional wisdom regarding the use of

punishment to manage behavior.

Many researchers and teachers have warned against the use of punishment

because of the feared undesirable side effects (Luthans, 1995; Moorhead & Griffin, 1995;

Northcraft & Neale, 1994; Organ & Hamner, 1982; Skinner, 1953). Reward is frequently

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proposed as a substitute motivator because it is more effective, longer lasting, and results

in fewer negative side effects. In many situations, however, it could be argued that

reward is not more effective or more long-lasting than punishment and that, often, reward

is an inappropriate response for appropriate behavior. For example, in the context of

ethical decision making, rewarding individuals who act according to ethical standards

may be viewed as infeasible and foolish. It says, “We don’t really expect you to be

ethical and if you do, we’ll be so surprised that we’ll give you a reward” (Bennett, 1998,

p. 260). Imagine how expensive this practice would be to employers and governments

because they expect everyone to act ethically. Punishment, conversely, signals to

employees and citizens that unethical behavior is wrong and will not be tolerated.

Regarding ethical conduct, some research has even demonstrated that direct punishment

for unethical actions led to more ethical behavior than did rewards for ethical behavior

(Trevino, Youngblood, Sutton, & Woodman, 1985).

On the other hand, the recommendations on the productive use of aversive control

should not be interpreted as implying that managers should become sadistic, blissfully

punishing every undesired behavior. It does suggest, however, that punishment can be an

effective tool for suppressing employee misbehavior when used appropriately. As Arvey

and Jones (1985) indicated, “A good manager is not necessarily one who seldom or never

disciplines employees, but is rather one who administers discipline in a constructive or

‘fair’ manner” (p. 383).

We believe as most human behavior professionals that managers should

overwhelmingly use positive reinforcement; we believe in the power of positive self-talk,

positive expectations, and positive mental practice. In many cases we can deal more

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constructively with problem behaviors by studying them, removing the rewards that

support them, and rewarding related behaviors that are desirable. The goal should be to

take constructive action to correct these behaviors and not to demoralize and

psychologically paralyze others by dwelling on them. Nevertheless, we believe that non-

positive or aversive strategies may be useful at times. There are occasions when if we

care for a person we must do something to stop behavior that is detrimental to that

person. Not doing something to stop inappropriate behavior is a way of saying, “I don’t

care about your long-term happiness.” Dr. Laura Schlessinger of talk radio fame indicates

that a parent who supports a child when the child is wrong is not a very good parent and

we would agree. Similarly, a manager who supports a supervisor when he or she is wrong

is a poor manager and a union steward who supports a union member when he or she is

wrong is no better.

There are occasions when letting employees experience the negative

consequences of their behavior is the best thing a supervisor can do to support their long

term adjustment. However, if managers find themselves using aversive consequences

more and more, then they are probably in a counterproductive situation. By the same

token, it is an incorrect generalization to suggest that under all circumstances work

leaders should be positive in dealing with their employees. Seldom is it noted that there

are qualifiers in applying such broad counsel.

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