Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification

Effective October 1, 2003

Table of Contents

Preface ............................................................................................................................. iii

1. Field Classification and Description of Soil Laboratory Classification ........... 1-1 1.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1-1 1.2. Field Classification ..................................................................................................................1-1

2. Field Procedures .................................................................................................. 2-1 2.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................2-1 2.2. Applying Group Names/Group Symbols .................................................................................2-2

3. Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils ............................................................. 3-1 3.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................3-1 3.2. Consistency ..............................................................................................................................3-2 3.3. Dry Strength.............................................................................................................................3-2 3.4. Dilatancy ..................................................................................................................................3-3 3.5. Toughness ................................................................................................................................3-3 3.6. Plasticity...................................................................................................................................3-4 3.7. Fine-Grained Soil Name ..........................................................................................................3-4

4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils......................................................... 4-1 4.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................4-1 4.2. Particle Characteristics of Coarse Fraction ..............................................................................4-2 4.3. Cobbles and Boulders ..............................................................................................................4-4 4.4. DOT&PF Cobble and Boulder Percentage Determination Procedure .....................................4-4

5. Supplementary Soil Descriptive Terms .............................................................. 5-1 5.1. Color ........................................................................................................................................5-1 5.2. Odor .........................................................................................................................................5-1 5.3. Moisture ...................................................................................................................................5-1 5.4. Reaction to Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) ......................................................................................5-1 5.5. Cementation .............................................................................................................................5-2 5.6. Soil Structure ...........................................................................................................................5-2 5.7. Density/Consistency ................................................................................................................5-3

6. Special Soil Conditions........................................................................................ 6-1 6.1. Organic Soil .............................................................................................................................6-1 6.2. Frozen Soil ...............................................................................................................................6-1

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification i Table of Contents Effective October 1, 2003

Preface This Field Guide for Soil Classification is one of a series of guidelines that comprise the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities’ (DOT&PF) Geotechnical Procedures Manual. This publication is intended to guide Department staff and consultants whose task is to obtain geotechnical data for use on Department projects.

Accurate classification and a detailed, complete field description of earth materials are essential to support design and construction of state facilities. The description and classification includes more than naming the soil – it includes consideration and reporting of the physical characteristics and engineering properties of the material, and ancillary information such as drilling action or presence of contaminants. The depth of detail of this process depends, in part, on the level of complexity of the project and the nature of the facility. However, the field geologist should always describe the soil as completely as possible.

Consistent adherence to standard terminology and procedures is important so that the geologists, engineers, designers, construction staff, and contractors throughout the design and construction process all have the same understanding of the earth materials used or affected by our projects. Note that interpretive information about materials should be reported separately from the factual classification and descriptive information. The factual data are reported on logs of test holes/test pits, in summary sheets, and in tables or other summary formats in the text of a geotechnical report. Interpretive commentary about the factual data should be clearly identified as such.

This guide contains numerous references to manuals and test methods. The guide refers to both “authoritative” and “advisory” references. Authoritative references may include American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standards or test methods or the Department’s publications. Advisory references may include text books, FHWA guidance manuals and guides or manuals from other state DOTs. The reference list below is divided into authoritative and advisory references.

In some cases, we have excerpted, summarized, or copied text, charts, and tables into this guide. Unless otherwise noted, the original reference defines the appropriate action. The excerpts, summaries, and modified charts and graphs are presented for illustrative purposes.

Authoritative References • AASHTO (1988), Manual on Subsurface Investigation • AASHTO (1978), Manual on Foundation Investigations • Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (1993), Engineering Geology & Geotechnical

Exploration Procedures Manual • ASTM Standard Practice D 2487-00 (2000), Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering

Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System) Advisory References

• California Department of Transportation (1996), Soil & Rock Logging Classification Manual (Field Guide)

• Federal Highway Administration (2002), Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties, Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 5, FHWA-IF-02-034

• Hunt, Roy E. (1984) Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual • Oregon Department of Transportation (1987), Soil and Rock Classification Manual

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification iii Preface Effective October 1, 2003

1. Field Classification and Description of Soil Laboratory Classification

1.1. Introduction 1.2. Field Classification

1.1. Introduction The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS; ASTM D2487 and D2488) is used to name and describe soils. The ASTM classification method “Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)” (ASTM Method D2487) is a laboratory test-based classification system. Use the Standard D2487 procedure to confirm field soil classifications and clarify borderline or difficult-to-determine classifications. After the field work is completed, the geologist prepares a sample testing protocol tailored to the project for testing selected samples. The laboratory determines the soil classifications under ASTM D2487. The geologist summarizes the sample test results and classifications and integrates the results of the laboratory testing, the soil descriptions in the field logs, drilling notes, geologic mapping observations, and other pertinent information to arrive at a final soil group name, soil group symbol, and any additional description.

1.2. Field Classification Field classification of soil follows the ASTM “Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)” (ASTM Method D2488). The field procedure for classification is based on the size and distribution of soil particles and the properties of the fine-grained portion of the soil. ASTM D 2488 is used principally in the field, or where there is an absence of laboratory data. This procedure uses visual observations of the soil with simple manual tests to estimate the size and distribution of the coarse-grained fraction of the soil and to indicate the plasticity of the fine-grained fraction of the soil. The resulting soil group names (such as “sandy silt with gravel” or “poorly graded gravel with silt”) and group symbols (such as “ML,” “GP-GM”) are entered into the field logs.

The best way to learn how to describe and classify soil is to carefully study the description and classification procedures, and then spend time in the field learning from a more experienced geologist. The inexperienced field geologist should repeatedly and systematically compare field classifications of various soil types to laboratory results until becoming familiar with the visual and manual characteristics that denote the common soil types, and achieve an acceptable level of competence.

The field description and classification of soil is based on the size and distribution of coarse-grained particles and on the behavior of fine-grained particles. Definitions of the various soil constituents follow in Table 1-1.

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 1-1 1. Field Classification … Effective October 1, 2003

Table 1-1 Definition of Soil Constituents

Boulders Particles of rock that are retained on a 12-inch square opening. Cobbles Particles of rock that pass a 12-inch square opening, but are retained on a 3-inch square

opening. Gravel Particles of rock that pass a 3-inch square opening and are retained on a No. 4 sieve.

USCS Class GP or GW. Sand Particles of rock that pass a No. 4 sieve and are retained on a No. 200 sieve. USCS Class

SM or SP. Silt Soil passing a No. 200 sieve that exhibits little or no plasticity and has little or no strength

when air dry. USCS Class ML or MH. Clay Soil passing a No. 200 sieve that exhibits plasticity within a range of water contents and

that has considerable strength when air dry. USCS Class CL or CH. Organic Soil

A soil containing sufficient organic material to influence the soil properties. ASTM Class OL or OH.

Peat A soil composed primarily of vegetable matter in various stages of decomposition that usually has a pronounced organic odor, a dark brown or black color, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous. ASTM Class PT.

1. Field Classification … 1-2 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

2. Field Procedures 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Applying Group Names/Group Symbols

2.1. Introduction Use the field procedures below to describe the soil characteristics in Table 2-1. A geologist who is experienced with identification and familiar with the visual-manual process and laboratory testing procedures can often make accurate field classifications with a minimum of field tests, based on experience. It is not necessary for an experienced field geologist to use each visual-manual test with each soil description. Generalized experience with soil types in the vicinity and specific project experience as the field program progresses may allow rapid identification of similar soil types without thorough field-testing.

Soils that appear similar may be grouped together by testing one sample and applying the results to several similar samples. The visual-manual procedure allows description of a large number of soil samples without running expensive laboratory tests on each. However, it is important for the field geologist to take abundant samples, even if the samples are not tested. The field geologist reexamines the samples after the laboratory test data are available, and other geologists, the geotechnical engineer, or the foundation engineer may also examine them.

Confirmation of the field classifications may require only a few laboratory tests where the soil horizons are relatively uniform and simple. In more difficult situations with numerous soil types and complex soil conditions, much more laboratory testing may be required. Less experienced geologists should request ample laboratory tests until they become experienced enough to make accurate field classifications.

Table 2-1 Descriptive Soil Characteristics

Characteristic Test Method or Reference Soil name/group name ASTM D2488 Group symbol ASTM D2488 Coarse-grained soils: Particle Size/shape/angularity/gradation

ASTM D2488 DOT&PF cobble/boulder procedure (See page 15)

Fine-grained soils: consistency, dry strength, dilatancy, toughness, plasticity

ASTM D2488 - Tables 5, 9, 10, 11 & 12.

Organic soil/peat name FHWA Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 5, Section 7.4, ASTM D2974

Color Use simple color scheme. Use of color charts such as Munsell Color System is optional.

Odor If organic or other condition is noticeable or unusual Moisture condition Table 3: ASTM D2488 Reaction to hydrochloric acid If calcium carbonate soil suspected (Table 4 - ASTM

D2488) Cementation Table 6: ASTM D2488 Structure of intact soil specimen Table 7: ASTM D2488 Density/consistency Based on Standard Penetration Test blow counts Description of frozen soil ASTM D4083, Department Chart: Description and

Classification of Frozen Soils Other characteristics or information Unit weight, sensitivity, hardness of particles, presence of

contaminants, formation names, staining, etc. Drilling characteristics Heaving, sloughing or caving, bouncing, grinding, drilling

speed, etc.

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 2-1 2. Field Procedures Effective October 1, 2003

2.2. Applying Group Names/Group Symbols The first step in describing soil under the visual-manual method is to determine whether the soil is fine-grained, coarse-grained, or organic by visually estimating the percentage of gravel, sand, fines, and organic matter. Soils with more than 50 percent gravel or sand are coarse-grained. Soils with more than 50 percent fines are fine-grained. Soil with a notable presence of organic matter should be identified and described under separate procedures set out below. Laboratory tests for soils containing organic material may yield misleading results, particularly if the organic fraction is not recognized in the initial description.

2. Field Procedures 2-2 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

3. Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Consistency 3.3. Dry Strength 3.4. Dilatancy 3.5. Toughness 3.6. Plasticity 3.7. Fine-Grained Soil Name

3.1. Introduction For fine-grained soils, perform the visual manual field procedures described in ASTM D2488 for consistency, dry strength, dilatancy, toughness, and plasticity, and assess the presence or absence of organics, as outlined below. Use Figure 3-1 (ASTM D2488 - Figure 1a and 1b) to assist in assigning group names and symbols for fine-grained soils.

Figure 3-1

Flow Chart for Identifying Fine-Grained Soil (after ASTM D2488: Figure 1a and 1b)

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 3-1 3. Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils Effective October 1, 2003

3.2. Consistency Use this test for intact samples of fine-grained, cohesive soil. For soil with significant amounts of gravel, this test is inappropriate. Consistency is an indicator of shear strength. Field tests using a Torvane or Pocket Penetrometer may also be done to aid in this description. When run on SPT samples, these tests produce approximations of strength criteria. Where shear strength is important, the field geologist should collect undisturbed samples using thin wall tube sampling methods. The geotechnical engineer can then schedule a testing program.

Table 3-1

Criteria for Describing Consistency (ASTM D 2488 Table 5)

Description Criteria Very soft Thumb will penetrate soil more than 1 inch. Soft Thumb will penetrate soil about 1 inch. Firm Thumb will indent soil about ¼ inch. Hard Thumb will not indent soil. Thumbnail readily indents soil. Very hard Thumbnail will not indent soil.

3.3. Dry Strength Dry strength of fine-grained soil can be related to soil type. It may be necessary to dry a sample of the soil on a heat source, such as an engine exhaust manifold.

Table 3-2 Criteria for Describing Dry Strength

((ASTM D 2488 Table 8)

Description Criteria None The dry specimen crumbles into powder with mere pressure of

handling. Low The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some finger

pressure. Medium The dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with

considerable finger pressure. High The dry specimen cannot be broken with finger pressure.

Specimen will break into pieces between thumb and a hard surface.

Very high The dry specimen cannot be broken between the thumb and a hard surface.

3. Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils 3-2 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

3.4. Dilatancy Dilatancy is a soil’s reaction to shaking and indicates the characteristics of the movement of water in the soil voids. Form a small moist sample in the palm of the hand and strike the hand sharply against the other hand several times. Note the reaction of water appearing on the surface. Then, squeeze the sample and observe the characteristics of the water disappearing from the surface of the sample.

Table 3-3

Criteria for Describing Dilatancy (ASTM D 2488 Table 9)

Description Criteria None There is no visible change in the specimen. Slow Water appears slowly on the surface of the specimen during

shaking and does not disappear or disappears slowly upon squeezing.

Rapid Water appears quickly on the surface of the specimen during shaking and disappears quickly upon squeezing.

3.5. Toughness Toughness is a measure of the soil’s plasticity in its plastic state. After completing the dilatancy test, shape the specimen into an elongated pat or lump and roll out to a thread of about 1/8” diameter. Remold the soil and roll it out to 1/8” repeatedly until the thread crumbles at about 1/8” in diameter. At this point, note the pressure required to roll out the thread, the strength of the thread, and the toughness of the soil as it is kneaded together to form a pat or lump.

Table 3-4 Criteria for Describing Toughness

(ASTM D 2488 Table 10)

Description Criteria Low Only slight pressure is required to roll the thread near the

plastic limit (the moisture content at which a rolled-out thread crumbles at 1/8” diameter). The thread and lump are weak and soft.

Medium Medium pressure is required to roll the thread to knead the plastic limit. The thread and lump have medium stiffness.

High Considerable pressure is required to roll the thread to knead the plastic limit. The thread and the lump have very high stiffness.

Table 3-5 provides a summary of soil types versus characteristics to assist the geologist in describing and identifying fine-grained soil types.

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 3-3 3. Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils Effective October 1, 2003

3.6. Plasticity The plasticity of a soil is an important indicator of characteristics of cohesive soils.

Table 3-5 Criteria for Describing Plasticity

(ASTM D 2488 Table 11)

Description Criteria Nonplastic A 1/8” thread cannot be rolled at any water content. Low The thread can barely be rolled and the lump cannot be formed

when drier than the plastic limit (the moisture content at which a rolled-out thread crumbles at 1/8” diameter).

Medium The thread is easy to roll and not much time is required to reach the plastic limit. The thread cannot be re-rolled after reaching the plastic limit. The lump crumbles when drier than the plastic limit.

High It takes considerable time rolling and kneading to reach the plastic limit. The thread can be re-rolled several times after reaching the plastic limit. The lump can be formed without crumbling when drier than the plastic limit.

3.7. Fine-Grained Soil Name Once you have assessed the characteristics described above, use Table 3-6 below and Chart 3-1 above to determine the soil name. Add descriptors for consistency (Table 3-1 above), color, moisture content, etc., to the root soil name.

Table 3-6 Identification of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils From Manual Tests

(ASTM D 2488: Table 12)

Soil Symbol

Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness Plasticity

ML None to low Slow to rapid Low or thread cannot be formed

Low or non-plastic

CL Medium to high None to slow Medium Medium MH Low to medium None to slow Low to medium Low to medium CH High to very high None High High

3. Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils 3-4 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Particle Characteristics of Coarse Fraction 4.3. Cobbles and Boulders 4.4. DOT&PF Cobble and Boulder Percentage Determination Procedure 4.1. Introduction Field identification of soil that contains less than 50 percent fines (silt and clay) is made on the basis of the estimated percentage of soil constituents. If there is more sand than gravel, the soil is classified as sand. The percentage and characteristics of fines contained in coarse-grained soil also plays a role in the soil name. If there is more than 15 percent passing the No. 200 screen (P200), the soil is sand or gravel “with fines.” Assess the characteristics of the fines to determine whether the soil should include a modifier “clayey” or “silty.” Dual identifications are also included depending on the particular soil characteristics. Use Chart 4-1 below to determine the soil group name and group symbol.

Chart 4-1 Identifying Coarse-Grained Soil

(after ASTM D2488: Figure 2)

If the soil has less than 5 percent fines, the soil is called “clean” sand or gravel. The field geologist makes a field evaluation of grading characteristics, then later confirms the grading assessments based on laboratory test results. If the soil contains a wide range of particle sizes, it is called “well-graded.” Soil that has a narrow range of grain sizes is “poorly-graded.” Soil consisting predominantly of one size particle is “uniformly-graded.” Soil missing some intermediates particle sizes is “gap-graded.” The soil laboratory determines grading characteristics by

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 4-1 4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils Effective October 1, 2003

computing coefficients of uniformity and curvature to determine under ASTM Method D 2487. See Figure 4-1 below. The laboratory results are used to confirm the field geologist’s assessment of grading.

Figure 4-1 (after ODOT Soil and Rock Classification Manual)

UNIFORM

WELL-GRADED

GAP-GRADED

4.2. Particle Characteristics of Coarse Fraction The coarse fraction of the soil (greater than No. 200 sieve size) is described by observing the size, shape, and distribution of the particles. Table 4-1 (ASTM D 2488 Table 1) provides criteria for describing the angularity of particles. Figure 4-2 (Angularity) gives a visual means of identifying the various categories. Table 4-2 (ASTM D 2488 Table 2) and Figure 4-3 (Flat and Elongated Criteria), provide particle shape descriptions and criteria. A Department method for determining the percentage of cobbles and boulders is also described. Finally, the geologist must make observations of the grading characteristics of the soil to determine whether it is well graded or poorly graded.

Table 4-1 Criteria for Describing Angularity of Coarse-Grained Particles

(ASTM D2488: Table 1)

Description Criteria Angular Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with

unpolished surfaces. Subangular Particles are similar to angular description but have rounded

edges and unpolished surfaces.

Subrounded Particles have nearly plane sides but have well-rounded corners and edges.

Rounded Particles have smooth curved sides and edges.

The photo in Figure 4-2 shows a variety of gravel size particles, demonstrating the sometimes subtle distinctions between angularity classifications.

4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils 4-2 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

Figure 4-2 Angularity

(See ASTM D2488: Figure 3)

Table 4-2 Criteria for Describing Particle Shape

(ASTM D2488: Table 2)

Description Criteria Describe the particle shape as follows where length, width, and thickness refer to the greatest, intermediate, and least dimensions of a particle, respectively. Flat Particles with width/thickness > 3 Elongated Particles with length/width > 3

Flat and Elongated Particles meet criteria for both flat and elongated

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 4-3 4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils Effective October 1, 2003

Figure 4-3 Flat and Elongated Criteria

(ASTM D2488: Figure 4)

4.3. Cobbles and Boulders Cobbles and boulders are often present in soils in glacial terrain, and much of our highway system has been subject to glacial activity in the past. The presence of cobbles and boulders is often a source of claims in earthwork projects, so it is incumbent on geotechnical staff to carefully characterize the cobble and boulder content of soil layers. At a minimum, test hole logs must indicate where cobbles and boulders are suspected. In drilled test holes, it is not possible to accurately determine the percentage of cobbles and boulders, but the logs must indicate where drilling action suggests the presence of large rock. In test pits and other surface excavations, the percentage of cobbles and boulders by volume can be visually estimated and so indicated on the logs. Where warranted (as in materials site investigations, for example), the geologist should conduct a field test to more accurately determine the percentage of cobbles and boulders. The procedure is described below.

4.4. DOT&PF Cobble and Boulder Percentage Determination Procedure Determine the percentage of cobbles and boulders in the field by collecting a large volume sample with a backhoe or other equipment and weighing the sample using a large capacity container (a cut-off 55-gallon drum is well suited) fitted with cable or chains for lifting, and a 500-pound capacity spring scale with suitable hooks. The field procedure is as follows:

• Record the tare weight of the container.

• Collect the sample using the backhoe bucket.

• Place the sample in the weighing container, connect the backhoe bucket to the scale, and lift the container with the backhoe bucket. Record the total weight of the sample.

4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils 4-4 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

• Empty the sample onto a tarp or other suitable surface. Separate the cobbles and boulders from the sample using a 3-inch square opening screen and tape measure.

• Count the number of boulders.

• Weigh the cobbles and boulders.

• Record the size of the largest cobble and boulder.

• Make note of any other pertinent information such as shape and composition of the cobbles and boulders, clay coatings, and other characteristics.

• Compute and record the cobble and boulder proportion as a weight percentage of the total. It might also be useful to submit the coarse particles for durability analyses and a sample representing the minus-3-inch aggregate for gradation analysis.

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 4-5 4. Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils Effective October 1, 2003

5. Supplementary Soil Descriptive Terms 5.1. Color 5.2. Odor 5.3. Moisture 5.4. Reaction to Hydrochloric Acid 5.5. Cementation 5.6. Soil Structure 5.7. Density/Consistency

5.1. Color While soil color is not an engineering property, it may be indicative of other useful characteristics and properties. For example, iron staining or mottling may indicate repeated wet and dry cycles and the presence of groundwater. Yellow or red indicate iron oxides and significant weathering processes. Dark colors may indicate the presence of organic material. Color may also be useful in making correlations of strata between test holes. When applying color names, use simple colors and modifiers, such as brown, tan, light orange, and medium gray. Avoid using exotic, unusual, or invented color names or modifiers such as “coral,” “turquoise,” or “beige-ish.” Soil and rock color charts such as the Munsell Color System may be used.

5.2. Odor If the presence of organic material or some other condition, such as chemical contaminants, results in a noticeable odor of organic matter, petroleum products, organic solvents, sewage, or other odors, record a description of the perceived odor.

5.3. Moisture Describe the moisture content in the field using Table 5-1 below as a guide. Return samples to the soil laboratory for testing to confirm estimates. Moisture contents in soils containing organic material can be deceptive and require special care. If no organic content is noted in the field, but the laboratory moisture content is high, consider testing for organic content. Even a small percentage of organic material can affect the soil properties. Permeable (granular) soils from below the water table are not normally tested for moisture content. Moisture samples may be obtained from low permeability (fine-grained) soil from below the water table from undisturbed samples (thin-wall tube samples).

Table 5-1

Criteria for Describing Moisture Condition (ASTM D 2488: Table 3)

Description Criteria Dry Absence of moisture, dusty, dry to the touch Moist Damp, but no visible water Wet Visible free water, usually soil is below the water table

5.4. Reaction to Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) This test is rarely used for soil, but is applicable if calcium carbonate or cemented soil is suspected. (See Table 4, ASTM D 2488.)

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 5-1 5. Supplementary Soil Descriptive Terms Effective October 1, 2003

5.5. Cementation Cementation is the bonding of grains by secondary minerals or degradation products. Cementation may be suspected if exposures of the soil stand at steeper angles than expected, if the soil is iron-stained, or if the soil appears to hold together more than expected for the soil type. Cementation by calcium carbonate may be detected by the soil’s reaction to HCl. (See Table 4, ASTM D 2488). Cementation may play an important role in determining susceptibility to liquefaction under seismic loading.

Table 5-2

Criteria for Describing Cementation at Field Moisture (ASTM D 2488: Table 6)

Description Criteria Weak Crumbles or breaks with handling or little finger pressure Moderate Crumbles or breaks with considerable finger pressure Strong Will not crumble or break with finger pressure

5.6. Soil Structure The field geologist should make every effort to fully describe the structure of the soil deposit, including its mode of occurrence (alluvial, glacial deposits, rock weathered in place). Describe the soil’s structural features in terms of stratification, relict rock structure, lenses, voids, inclination of the layers, presence of varves, and other features. Structure may indicate differing strength for soil that has the same gradation. For example, water-deposited alluvial silt may have a significantly weaker structure than wind-deposited silt (loess) with a similar gradation. The design of a back slope for a cut in these two materials may be significantly different. Similarly, layering of sand deposits at a bridge site may have a significant impact on the liquefaction characteristics and the design of the bridge foundation.

Table 5-3

Criteria for Describing Soil Structure (ASTM D 2488: Table 7)

Description Criteria Varved Thin repeating layers or laminae grading upward from coarse to fine within each

layer. Normally includes a coarser summer layer and a finer winter layer deposited from still water.

Stratified Alternating layers of varying material or color with layers at least ¼” thick Laminated Alternating layers of varying material or color with the layers less than ¼” thick Fissured Breaks along definite planes of fracture with little resistance to fracturing Slickensided Fracture planes appear polished or glossy, sometimes striated Blocky Cohesive soil that can be broken down into small angular lumps that resist further

breakdown Lensed Inclusion of small pockets of different soils, such as small lenses of sand scattered

through a mass of clay Homogeneous Same color and appearance throughout

5. Supplementary Soil Descriptive Terms 5-2 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003

5.7. Density/Consistency Density and consistency descriptors are primarily based on sampler blow counts from the Standard Penetration Test (AASHTO T-206, ASTM D1586). Consistency of fine-grained soils may also be based on visual manual tests described in ASTM D2488. Record blow counts, and hammer and sampler details on the test hole logs along with notations about unusual conditions or events during sampling. Record blow counts for frozen and unfrozen soil. Do not use blow counts in frozen soil to determine density descriptors. Similarly, do not use blow counts to determine density descriptors where the sampling interval crosses a soil horizon.

Add additional detail by using the Pocket Penetrometer or the Torvane to arrive at rough strengths.

Table 5-4

Density Based on Blow Count for Non-Cohesive Soils (Adapted from several sources)

Number of blows per foot Density 0-4 Very loose 5-10 Loose 11-30 Medium dense 31-50 Dense >50 Very dense

Table 5-5 Consistency Based on Blow Count for Cohesive Soils

(Adapted from several sources)

Number of blows per foot Consistency <2 Very soft 2-4 Soft 5-8 Firm 9-15 Stiff 16-30 Very stiff >30 Hard

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 5-3 5. Supplementary Soil Descriptive Terms Effective October 1, 2003

6. Special Soil Conditions 6.1. Organic Soil 6.2. Frozen Soil 6.1. Organic Soil Peat soils are relatively easy to identify. However, soils that are predominately mineral matter but contain organic matter are more difficult to recognize. Where field relationships indicate the possibility of organics in the soil, the geologist should pay close attention to color and odor of the soil. Test dark-colored soils and soil with fine woody particles for organic content (ASTM D 2974) and for moisture content. Some gravel deposits contain small amounts of organic material (<2-3%), which render the gravel difficult or impossible to handle in the presence of water. For suspect fine-grained soils, specify both wet and dry preparation methods for testing for Atterberg Limits and maximum density/optimum moisture. Soils containing organic material may be classified as shown below.

Table 6-1 Classification of Organic Soils

(After FHWA Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 5, April 2002)

Material Percent Organics

(by weight)

Moisture Content

Specific Gravity

Fiber Content

(by volume)

Peat (Pt) >80% >500% <1.7 >50% Peaty Organic Soil (PtO) 60-80% 150 – 800% 1.6 – 1.9 <50% Organic Soil (O) 5-60% 100 – 500% >1.7 Insignificant Organic Silt (MO) Organic Clay (CO)

1-5% <100% >2.4 None

Strength and consolidation testing may be critical for the design of roadways and embankments in peat and organic soil. Where organic soils are expected, the geotechnical engineer will provide an exploration plan for sampling and testing the organic materials. The sampling and testing may include in situ field testing with vane shear apparatus (ASTM D 2573), sampling with thin-walled tube sampler for consolidation and strength, and other testing in the laboratory. Geologists should be prepared to run field strength tests and take undisturbed samples when unexpectedly encountering thick (greater than 4’) organic soil deposits. When organic soils are encountered, increase the frequency of test holes and sampling after consultation with the geotechnical engineer to provide ample data for analysis and design.

6.2. Frozen Soil The principal reference for describing frozen soil is the ASTM D 4083-89 “Standard Practice for Description of Frozen Soils (Visual Manual Procedure).” This procedure, when used in conjunction with the Department’s Figure 6-1: “Description and Classification of Frozen Soils,” provides the geologist guidance in how to identify and describe frozen soils when encountered in the field. The chart is a modified and combined version of three charts that appear in the ASTM procedure. Use of the combined chart or the ASTM procedure is approved for use on Department projects.

Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification 6-1 6. Special Soil Conditions Effective October 1, 2003

Figure 6-1 Description and Classification of Frozen Soils

(After ASTM D4083)

Part I ip tion of S oil D escr

Phase (a) (Independent o f

F rozen S tate)G uide for C onstruction on S oils Subject to Freezing and Thaw ing

D escrip tion (2) D esignation (3)

D escription (4 )

Thaw C haracteristics (8) C riteria (9)

Poorly Bonded or Friable In-P lace T em perature

N o excess ice n

D ensity and Void R atio a ) In Frozen S tate b ) A fter Thaw ing in P lace

U sually Thaw-S tab le

W ell BondedW ater C ontent (Total H 20, including ice) a) A verage b ) D istribu tion

Part II

Excess ice

D escription of Frozen S oil

Ind iv idual ice crystals or inclusions

Ice coatings on partic les

R andom or irregu larly oriented

ice form ationsU sually

Thaw-U nstable

S tra tified or d is tinctly oriented

ice form ations

Part III Ice Ice

Ice w ith so il inclusions

D esignate m ateria l as IC E (d) and use descriptive term s as fo llows, usua lly one item from each group, as applicable:

D escription of Substantia l Ice

S trata

(G reater than 1 inch in

th ickness) Ice w ithout so il inclusions

H ardness S tructure C olor Adm ixtures H ard C lear e .g .: e .g .: Soft C loudy C olor- C onta ins (m ass, Porous less Thin S ilt not ind i- C andled G ray Inc lus- crysta ls) G ranular B lue ions . S tra tified

S am e as Part II above, as applicab le, w ith specia l em phasis on Ice C rystal S tructure .

In perm afrost areas, ice wedges, pockets, ve ins, or other ice bodies m ay be found whose m ode of orig in is d iffe rent from that described above. Such ice m ay be the result of long-tim e surface expansion and contraction phenom ena or m ay be glacia l or other ice which has been buried under a protective earth cover.

E lastic P roperties P lastic P roperties T herm al P roperties

S trength a ) C om pressive b ) T ensile c ) S hear d ) A dfreeze

Ice

Ice C rysta l S tructure (using optiona l instrum ents.) a ) O rienta tion o f Axes b ) C rystal s ize c ) C rysta l shape d ) P attern of A rrangem ent

e

For ice phase, record the fo llow ing as applicab le: Location S ize O rientation S hape Thickness Spacing Pattern of arrangem ent Length H ardness } S tructure } per part III B elow C o lor } Estim ate volum e of v is ib le segregated ice present as percent o f to ta l sam ple vo lum e

D ES C R IPTIO N A N D C LA SSIF IC A TIO N O F FR O ZE N SO ILS

Poorly-bonded s ign ifies that the so il partic les are weak ly he ld together by the ice and that the frozen so il consequently has poor resis tance to chipping or break ing.

Ice C rystal is a very sm all indiv idual ice partic le v is ib le in the face of a so il m ass. C rysta ls m ay be present a lone or in a com bination w ith other ice form ations.

P orous Ice conta ins num erous vo ids, usua lly in terconnected and usually resu lting from m elting at a ir bubbles or a long crysta l in terfaces from presence o f sa lt o r o ther m ateria ls in the water, or from the freezing o f sa turated snow. Though porous, the m ass re ta ins its structural unity.

W ell-bonded s ign ifies that the soil partic les are strongly held together by the ice and that the frozen soil possesses re la tive ly high res istance to ch ipp ing or break ing.

Thaw-U nstable frozen soils show on thaw ing, s ign ificant loss of strength below norm al, long-tim e thawed va lues and/or s ign ificant se ttlem ent, as a direct result of the m elting o f the excess ice in the so il.

F riab le denotes a condition in which m ateria l is easily broken up under light to m oderate pressure.

N O TES: (a) W hen rock is encountered, standard rock c lassification term inology should be used. (b) Frozen soils in the N group m ay on c lose exam ination indicate presence o f ice w ith in the vo ids of the m ateria l by crystalline reflections or by a sheen on fractured or trim m ed surfaces. H owever, the im pression to the una ided eye is that none o f the frozen water occupies space in excess o f the orig ina l vo ids in the soil. The opposite is true of frozen soils in the V group.

Thaw-S table frozen so ils do not, on thaw ing, show loss o f strength below norm al, long-tim e thawed values nor produce detrim enta l se ttlem ent.

C lear ice is transparent and contains only a m oderate num ber o f a ir bubbles. (e)

S egregated ice is v is ib le by

eye. (Ice 1 inch or less in

th ickness) (b )

Ice Segregation is the growth o f ice as d istinct lenses, layers, veins and m asses in soils , com m only but not a lways oriented norm al to d irection o f heat loss.

G ranular Ice is com posed of coarse, m ore or less equid im ensiona l, ice crysta ls weak ly bonded together. Ice Lenses are lenticu lar ice form ations in soil occurring essentia lly para lle l to each o ther, genera lly norm al to the d irection o f heat loss and com m only in repeated layers.

C loudy Ice is translucent, but essentia lly sound and non-pervious

C andled ice is ice which has rotted or o therw ise form ed in to long colum nar crysta ls, very loosely bonded together.

Ice C oatings on Partic les are discernib le layers of ice found on or be low the larger soil partic les in a frozen so il m ass. They are som etim es associa ted w ith hoarfrost crystals, which have grown into voids produced by the freezing action.

Vr

Vs

V

M ajor G roup

Fie ld Identifica tion (6)

N b

N f Identify by visua l exam ination. To determ ine presence of excess ice , use procedure under note (c) be low and hand m agnifying lens as necessary. For so ils not fu lly saturated, estim ate degree of ice saturation: M edium , Low. N ote presence of crystals , or o f ice coatings around larger partic les.

NS egregated ice is not v is ib le by

eye (b)

Pertinent P roperties of F rozen M ateria ls which m ay be m easured by phys ical tests

to supplem ent fie ld identification. (7)

Sub-G roup

D esignation (5)

M odified from : L inell, K . A . and Kaplar, C . W ., 1966, D escrip tion and C lassification of F rozen S oils , P roc. In ternational C onference on P erm afrost (1963), Lafayette, IN ,

U .S . N ational Academ y of Sciences, Publ. 1287, pp 481-487.

Vc

Vx

D EFIN IT IO N S:

Ice + Soil Type

(d) W here specia l form s o f ice , such as hoarfrost, can be d istingu ished, m ore exp lic it description should be given. (e) O bserver should be care ful to avoid being m isled by surface scra tches or frost coating on the ice .

(c) W hen visual m ethods m ay be inadequate , a s im ple fie ld test to a id evaluation of volum e of excess ice can be m ade by p lacingsom e frozen soil in a sm all jar, a llow ing it to m elt and observing the quantity of supernatant water as a percent o f to ta l volum e.

The potentia l intensity of ice segregation in a so il is dependent to a large degree on its void s izes and m ay be expressed as an em pirica l function of gra in s ize as fo llows:

M ost inorgan ic soils conta in ing 3 percent or m ore o f grains finer than 0.02 m m in d iam eter by weight are frost-susceptib le . G ravels , well-graded sands and s ilty sands, especially those approaching the theoretical m axim um density curve, which contain 1.5 to 3 percent finer than 0 .02 m m by weight w ithout being frost-susceptib le. H owever, their tendency to occur in terbedded w ith other so ils usually m akes it im practica l to cons ider them separate ly.

S oils c lassed as frost-susceptib le under the above crite ria are like ly to develop s ign ificant ice segregation and frost heave if frozen at norm al ra tes w ith free water read ily available . S oils so frozen w ill fa ll in to the thaw-unstable category. H owever, they m ay a lso be c lassed as thaw-stable if frozen w ith insuffic ient water to perm it ice segregation.

S oils c lassed as non-frost-susceptib le (*N FS) under the above crite ria usually occur w ithout s ignificant ice segregation and are not exact and m ay be inadequate for som e structure applications: exceptions m ay also resu lt from m inor soil variations.

6. Special Soil Conditions 6-2 Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification Effective October 1, 2003